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Strengthening of Concrete Structures
Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
This page intentionally left blank
Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil
and Structural Engineering
Strengthening of
Concrete Structures
Using Fiber Reinforced
Polymers (FRP)
Design, Construction and Practical
Applications
Hwai-Chung Wu
and
Christopher D. Eamon
Department of Civil & Environmental
Engineering, Wayne State University,
Michigan, United States of America
Woodhead Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
The Officers’ Mess Business Centre, Royston Road, Duxford, CB22 4QH, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the
Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance
Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information
or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for
whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence
or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in
the material herein.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-08-100636-8 (print)
ISBN: 978-0-08-100641-2 (online)
For information on all Woodhead Publishing

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher: Matthew Deans

Acquisition Editor: Gwen Jones
Editorial Project Manager: Charlotte Rowley
Production Project Manager: Poulouse Joseph
Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson
Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
Contents
Preface vii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.2 FRP strengthening systems 2
1.3 Composite interfacial debonding 3
1.4 FRP design standards and guides 3
1.5 Designing with FRP reinforcement 6
1.6 Numerical modeling 9
1.7 Installation of EB FRP systems 10
2 Fiber-reinforced polymer composites 11

2.1 FRP constituents 11
2.2 Composite interfacial adhesion and debonding 13
2.3 FRP durability 15
3 Composite mechanics 19
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Laminate 20
3.3 Textile fabric 24
3.4 Durability and failure modes 27
3.5 Finite Element Analysis (FEA) 30
4 Design provisions 35
4.1 Introduction 35
4.2 Flexural FRP strengthening of RC/PC bridge members 35
4.3 Shear FRP strengthening of RC/PC bridge members 84
4.4 FRP-confinement strengthening of RC/PC bridge members 115
4.5 Witness panels 138
5 Provisions for installation, quality control, and maintenance 143

5.1 Introduction 143
5.2 Installation of FRP strengthening systems 143
5.3 Inspection, evaluation, and acceptance 167
5.4 Maintenance and repair 184
vi Contents
6 Laboratory testing 191

6.1 Durability testing overview 191
6.2 Bond durability 191
6.3 FRP durability 204
7 Field testing 213

7.2 Field pull-off testing 213
7.3 Load distribution testing 214
7.4 Proof load testing 223
8 Recommendations 225
8.1 Analysis and design recommendations 225
8.2 Installation, quality control, and maintenance recommendations 231
9 Design examples 251

Appendix A: Nomenclature 285

Appendix B: Inspection checklist 301
References 307
Index 323
Preface
This book presents guidelines for the strengthening of concrete structures using
fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites. This text briefly covers the basic con-
cepts of FRP materials and composite mechanics while focusing on practical design
and construction issues, including inspection and quality control. Special attention
is given to the different approaches and recommendations found in a selection of
international FRP design standards. Rather than a theoretical text, this book
attempts to address concerns of the practitioner, and the authors hope that it will be
found valuable in that regard.
If judged by the proliferation of journal articles in recent years, there is consider-
able interest in the engineering application of FRP. One of the fastest growing
applications is the use of FRP composite sheets for strengthening deficient concrete
structures, and in particular, bridges. Some of the main driving forces are the ease
of installation and rapid repairs that can be made using FRP sheets in comparison
to conventional rehabilitation techniques using concrete or steel jackets.
Consequently, total project costs can be very competitive, despite the high initial
material cost of FRP. At present, several FRP strengthening design guides from the
United States, Europe, and other locations are available. These guidelines are often
inconsistent and, individually, do not adequately cover all important design, con-
struction, and inspection issues to a desirable level of detail. Consequently, this
book first provides a review and comparison of the provisions found in a selection
of these existing guidelines, and then suggests design, installation, inspection, qual-
ity control, and maintenance activities for best practice. By doing so, this text aims
to fill a significant gap in the available strengthening guides and might serve as a
resource for engineers, architects, academics, and students interested in FRP materi-
als and their structural applications.
The authors wish to acknowledge the work of Sasan Siavashi, Abdel Aziz
Makkay, and Abdulkareem Kuaryouti, who spent many hours collecting informa-
tion from existing guidelines as well as prepared numerous figures and tables. We
are also grateful to Gwen Jones of Woodhead/Elsevier. Her support and encourage-
ment has made this book possible. Finally, we wish to thank our wives, Shiow-Hwa
Gau (HCW) and Marie Chris Eamon (CDE). The completion of this text would not
be possible without their love, patience, and understanding.
Hwai-Chung Wu and Christopher D. Eamon

Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States
Introduction
1
1.1 Overview
Various causes contribute to the deterioration of the civil infrastructure. Although
bridges are generally expected to have a service life of 50100 years, many are
showing signs of distress much earlier. Extreme temperatures in the summer
and winter, including many cycles of freeze thaw, and the use of deicing salts,
are significant factors that contribute to the progressive damage of bridge structural
members (Staton and Knauff, 2007). Other factors include heavy traffic loading,
lack of adequate maintenance, and collision damage.
In the United States, State Departments of Transportation (DOT) conduct regular
inspections of transportation structures such as bridges. Bridge inspection and
reporting by DOTs are part of the larger, federally mandated National Bridge
Inspection Standards (NBIS) administered by the Department of Transportation
(USDOT) Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) (USDOT-FHWA, 2004).
According to FHWA data, in 2009, 5% of bridges on the National Highway System
were structurally deficient, 17% were functionally obsolete, and about 35% had
superstructures rated less than in “good” condition. Unsurprisingly, older bridges
are more likely to have problems. Considering all bridges, for example, the propor-
tion of structurally deficient and functionally obsolete bridges exceeds 40% for
structures 5175 years old, and from 54 to 65% of the structures older than 75 years
are deficient or obsolete (FHWA, 2010).
Depending on the nature and severity of the deficiency, different corrective actions
may be required. Traditional methods of strengthening and rehabilitating steel bridges
include the replacement of damaged structural members, repair of corroded beam
ends, addition of stiffeners, and application of protective coatings (Wipf et al., 2003).
For concrete bridges, traditional rehabilitation measures may include sealing hairline
cracks using epoxy injection, spot-patching damaged areas, waterproofing, jacketing
structural members to restore or increase their load carrying capacity, and cathodic
protection against reinforcement corrosion. However, traditional methods have inher-
ent limitations. For example, spot-patching methods can mend corrosion-induced
spalls, but typically do not retard chloride-induced corrosion; corrosion rates have
been observed to be higher at the perimeter of a patch and are independent of the
type of patch material used (Tabatabai et al., 2005). Moreover, these traditional
repairs are often expensive and disruptive to traffic, particularly for bridges. As such,
an alternative that is growing in popularity is to utilize fiber-reinforced polymer
(FRP) composite materials.
Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP).

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100636-8.00001-6
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP)
FRP has been used for strengthening applications in various industries.

However, common applications for bridge components involve externally bonded
(EB) composite fabrics or jackets on beams, columns, and bridge decks, where
significant improvements in compressive, shear, and flexural performance has been
obtained (Nanni et al., 1992; Karbhari et al., 1993; Saadatmanesh et al., 1994;
Chajes et al., 1995; Labossiere et al., 1995; Seible et al., 1997; Nanni, 2000; Mo
et al., 2004; Nanni, 2004; Ludovico et al., 2005; Walker and Karbhari, 2006;
Mertz and Gillespie, 1996; Miller et al., 2001; Tavakkolizadeh and Saadatmanesh,
2003; Rizkalla et al., 2008; Elarbi, 2011).
Advantages of FRP include a high strength-to-weight ratio, light weight,
excellent corrosion resistance, and ease of installation. Because of their light
weight, FRP composites are cheaper to transport, require no formwork and less or
no scaffolding to install, and minimally add to a structure’s dead load. Due to the
strength of FRP composites, often only thin layers are needed to rehabilitate
beams and columns, minimally altering original dimensions. In some cases, this
may become important to maintain vehicular clearance and other tolerances
within acceptable limits. Corrosion resistance is a principal advantage, as steel
reinforcement corrosion has long been recognized as a significant and costly
maintenance problem.
In general, for the external application of FRP sheets, a layer of dry fiber sheet
(usually unidirectional tape) is placed on top of a coat of polymer resin that hardens
to bond the fiber sheet to the concrete structure. However, wet lay-up, precured,
and nearsurface mounted construction techniques have been used in practice.
When needed, multiple layers of fiber sheets can be sequentially added by repeating
the application procedure. The resulting properties and potential failure modes
of the FRP composite member are a function of the properties of the original
member, the FRP, and their interfaces. The interface between the FRP sheet and the
structural member, usually concrete, is particularly important, since composite
action requires a solid bond. Final failure is often caused by the debonding
of the FRP sheet from the concrete substrate (Meier, 1995; Buyukozturk and
Hearing, 1998). The degradation of a constituent in FRP over time affects various
composite properties, and may even change the order of governing failure modes
(Wu and Yan, 2013). This is a particularly important concern, as a FRP-bonded
structure could fail abruptly due to a change in dominant failure mode.
1.2 FRP strengthening systems

Early fiber composite applications have mainly been limited to aerospace,
chemical and shipbuilding due to cost and research limitations (Emmons, 1998).
However, modern composites can be found in various forms from underground
storage tanks to boat hulls and jet fighters. Carbon FRP (CFRP) strip bonding for
structural repair and strengthening applications was first introduced in
Switzerland by Meier in 1984 (Barton, 1997). Later, the California Department of
Transportation, Caltrans, pioneered the use of FRP in the United States during the
Introduction 3
early 1990s by seismically upgrading bridge columns in California with Glass

FRP (GFRP) fabrics (Sika Corp., 2012).
FRP is available in a variety of forms of interest to structural engineers such as
bars, grids, sheets, and prestress tendons. Some of these components, such as those
in bar and tendon form, are primarily used in place of steel reinforcement when
new concrete members are cast. For existing concrete components, modern rehabili-
tation methods include the use of FRP composite sheets in the form of beam wrap-
ping to strengthen flexural or shear capacity, column wrapping to enhance
compressive and seismic performance, bonded FRP flange plates to increase bend-
ing capacity, and epoxying FRP rods in grooves cut into the substrate to increase
member strength (Khan, 2010). One of the most flexible strengthening options is
the use of EB FRP systems. Commercially available FRP systems are offered by
suppliers such as Sika, Fyfe, and QuakeWrap. Systems are offered in either unidi-
rectional or bidirectional fiber orientation. These systems are made of carbon fibers,
glass fibers, or, for some bidirectional systems, carbon fibers in one direction and
glass fibers in the other. Depending on the application, epoxy adhesives are an inte-
gral part of the system and can be formulated to provide a range of application
characteristics and mechanical properties when cured. Epoxy formulation provides
the bond between the reinforcing plies (laminate) and the concrete base, the bond
between different plies, and a protective coat to shield the laminate from the ele-
ments during service life. Tables 1.1 and 1.2 present the physical and mechanical
properties of a typical selection of unidirectional and bidirectional FRP strengthen-
ing systems offered by Sika and Fyfe.
1.3 Composite interfacial debonding

A critical concern of EB FRP reinforced structures is delamination, or debond-
ing. Although detailed weather-induced bond deterioration is not fully under-
stood, the results of debonding and its related failure phenomenon are well
known. The quality of interfacial bonding has a strong influence on structural
performance, as this significantly affects the composite action required for many
applications, and ultimate failure of the strengthened component is often caused
by debonding of the FRP sheet from the concrete substrate (Meier, 1995;
Buyukozturk and Hearing, 1998).
1.4 FRP design standards and guides

Various documents have been developed in the last two decades describing FRP
strengthening systems and provide guidelines for design assumptions and calcula-
tions. The most widely known guide in the United States is ACI 440.2R, Guide for
the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP Systems for Strengthening
Concrete Structures (2008). A number of reports issued by the National
Table 1.1 Properties of FRP systems from Sika and Fyfe
Physical and mechanical properties of unidirectional FRP strengthening systems by Sika and Fyfe
Sika unidirectional (0 ) Fyfe unidirectional (0 )
Unit Sikawrap Hex 103C Sikawrap Hex 117C Sikawrap Hex 230C Tyfo SCH-41 Tyfo SCH-41-0.5X Tyfo SCH-41-2X Tyfo SCH-41H
Fiber properties
Tensile strength psi 550,000 55,000 500,000 550,000 550,000 550,000 675,000
MPa 3793 3793 3450 3790 3790 3790 4650
Tensile modulus psi 33,000,000 34,000,000 33,400,000 33,400,000 33,400,000 33,400,000 42,000,000
GPa 228,000 234,000 230,000 230,000 230,000 230,000 289,000
Ult. elongation % 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.70 1.70 1.70 1.70
Density lbs/in.3 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.063 0.063 0.063 0.065
g/cc 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.74 1.74 1.74 1.8
Laminate physical properties
Fiber type Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon

Color Black Black Black Black Black Black Black
Weight OZ/Y2 18 9 6.7 19 9.5 40 24
g/m2 618 309 230 644 322 1424 814
Ply thickness in. 0.04 0.02 0.015 0.04 0.024 0.08 0.04
mm 1.016 0.51 0.381 1.0 0.6 2.0 1.0
Cured laminate mechanical properties
Test Design Design Test Design Test Design Test Design Test Design Test Design
Tensile psi 123,000 104,000 105,000 129,800 104,000 143,000 121,000 137,000 116,000 143,000 121,000 200,000 170,000
strength MPa 849 717 724 894 715 986 834 944.6 799.8 986 834 1380 1.170
Tensile psi 10,239,800 9,446,600 8,200,000 9,492,300 8,855,000 13,900,000 11,900,000 14,500,000 12,3000,000 13,900,000 11,9000,000 15,500,000 13,100,000
modulus MPa 70,552 65,087 56,500 65,402 61,012 95,800 82,000 99,900 84,800 95,800 82,000 106,800 90,300
Tensile % 1.12 0.98 1.0 1.33 1.09 1.00 0.85 0.95 0.80 1.00 0.85 1.30 1.10
elongation
Tensile lbs 4928 4160 2100 1947 1560 5720 4840 3288 2784 11,440 9680 8000 6800
strength kN 21.9 18.5 9.3 8.7 6.9 25.4 21.5 14.6 12.4 50.9 43.1 35.6 30.2
per inch
width
Introduction 5
Table 1.2 Bidirectional laminate selection offered by Sika

Sika bidirectional (0 /90 )
Sikawrap Hex 113C Sikawrap Hex 115C
Fiber properties
Tensile strength psi 500,000 550,000
MPa 3450 3793
Tensile modulus psi 33,400,000 33,000,000
GPa 230,000 234,500
Ult. elongation % 1.50 4.00
Density lbs/in.3 0.065 0.065
g/cc 1.8 1.8
Laminate physical properties

Fiber type Carbon Carbon
Color Black Black
Weight OZ/Y2 5.7 18.7
g/m2 196 638
Ply thickness in 0.01 0.04
mm 0.25 1.00
Cured laminate mechanical properties (with Sikadur Hex 300 epoxy)
Design Test Design

Tensile strength psi 66,000 83,980 70,870
MPa 456 579 489
Tensile modulus psi 6,000,000 7,017,555 6,149,730
MPa 41,400 48,351 42,468
Tensile elongation % 1.20 1.14 0.98
Tensile strength per inch width lbs 660 3359 2835
kN 2.90 14.9 12.6
Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) are design/construction guides

for FRP systems and include:
G
NCHRP Report 678, Design of FRP Systems for Strengthening Concrete Girders in Shear
(Belarbi et al., 2011).
G
NCHRP Report 655, Recommended Guide Specification for the Design of Externally
Bonded FRP Systems for Repair Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Elements (Zureick
et al., 2010).
G
NCHRP Report 564, Field Inspection of In-Service Bridge Decks (Telang et al., 2006),
which contains a manual for the in-service inspection of FRP bridge decks.
G
NCHRP Report 514, Bonded Repair and Retrofit of Concrete Structures Using FRP
Composites (Mirmiran et al., 2004), which describes recommended construction specifica-
tions and a control process for FRP strengthening including material preparation,
application, a QA/QC plan, as well as training, qualification, inspection, and maintenance

recommendations.
Other US and international guides include:
G
AASHTO (2013), Guide Specifications for Design of Bonded FRP Systems for Repair and
Strengthening of Concrete Bridge Elements.
G
AC125 (2012), Acceptance Criteria for Concrete and Reinforced and Unreinforced
Masonry Strengthening Using Externally Bonded Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP)
Composite Systems. AC125 is issued by ICC Evaluation Service to establish minimum
requirements for the issuance of evaluation reports on FRP composite systems under the
2012, 2009, and 2006 International Building Code (IBC) and the 1997 Uniform Building
Code (UBC).
G
ACI 440.3R (2004), Guide Test Methods for Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) for
Reinforcing or Strengthening Concrete Structures.
G
ACI 440R (2007), Report on Fiber-Reinforced Polymer (FRP) Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures.
G
ACI SP-215 (2003), Field Applications of FRP Reinforcement: Case Studies.
G
ISIS (2008), Design Manual No. 4, FRP Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete
Structures, issued by the Canadian Network of Centers of Excellence on Intelligent
Sensing for Innovative Structures.
G
CEB-FEB (2001), Bulletin No. 14, Externally Bonded FRP Reinforcement for RC
Structures, contains design guidelines for the use of FRP reinforcement in accordance
with the design format of the CEB-FIP Model Code and Eurocode2.
G
CNR-DT 200 (2004), Guide for the Design and Construction of Externally Bonded FRP
Systems.
G
Japanese Society of Civil Engineers (1997), Recommendations for Design and
Construction of Concrete Structures Using Continuous Fiber Reinforcing Materials.
G
Japan Concrete Institute (1997), State of the Art Report on Retrofitting with CFRM,
Guidelines for Design, Construction and Testing.
G
TCS (2000), Design Guidance for Strengthening Concrete Structures Using Fiber
Composite Materials, Technical Report 55, United Kingdom.
1.5 Designing with FRP reinforcement

In the civil infrastructure, FRP is typically used to strengthen reinforced concrete
bridge elements. A reinforced concrete element strengthened with FRP is a member
consisting of three materials: concrete, steel, and FRP, where the FRP supplements
the existing steel reinforcement. The application of FRP requires engineers to
address the interaction of these three materials, with each material having different
material properties and statistical variation. This latter issue is critical to address
for a design guide that falls within a modern, probabilistically calibrated load and
resistance factor design format. To account for uncertainties in material properties,
design formulations addressing each material’s contribution to the overall strength
(Rn) of the element can be based on individual reduction factors applied separately
to each of the materials constituting the composite (concrete, steel, and FRP);
a combined reduction factor applied to the entire composite; or a combination of
the two where both individual and combined reduction factors are applied to the
Introduction 7
system (Sika, 2012). For example, ACI 440.2R-08 recommends the use of ACI-318
(steel) reinforced concrete resistance (φ) factors applied to the overall element
strength, in combination with an additional FRP reduction factor ψ, which takes
into account the effects of FRP material property variation.
1.5.1 Flexural strengthening

To account for the complex behavior and various possible failure mechanisms of
FRP-bonded structures, extensive experimental investigations were carried out by
numerous researchers (Seible et al., 1997; Mo et al., 2004; Nanni, 2004; Ludovico
et al., 2005; Walker and Karbhari, 2006, among many others). For FRP bonded
flexural beams, several failure modes were generally observed:
1. Crushing of the concrete in the compression zone before rupture of the FRP sheet or
yielding of the reinforcing steel (brittle failure).
2. Yielding of the tension steel before concrete crushing or rupture of FRP sheet (ductile
failure).
3. Yielding of the compression steel reinforcement of a doubly reinforced section (relatively
ductile failure).
4. Rupture of the FRP sheet before steel yield and the compressive strain in the concrete is
below its ultimate strain (the most brittle failure).
5. Anchorage failure (delamination) in the bond zone of the FRP sheet (often a ductile
failure).
6. Peeling or shear/tension failure of the concrete substrate near the FRP sheet’s cut off zone
(brittle failure).
These six failure modes were classified into two types by Thomsen (2004).
Type one includes modes exhibiting composite action up to failure, either due to
concrete crushing, FRP rupture, or lack of shear resistance. Type two consists of
failures by loss of composite action due to debonding of the FRP sheet, or by end
peeling, where the concrete cover near the support regions peels off. To avoid
detachment failure at the FRP/concrete interface, existing guidelines often attempt
to curtail the allowable interface strain. For example, ACI 440.2R (2008) introduces
a bond reduction factor (km) to limit the strain permitted in the FRP system.
According to ACI 440.2R, km is taken as a value not greater than 0.9, which reduces
the usable strength of the FRP below its ultimate rupture strain. Even so, FRP
rupture or delamination might occur if the FRP or bond strength later deteriorates.
However, provided that the bond remains sufficiently strong to avoid failure, four
failure modes are assumed possible, two corresponding to failure of the concrete in
compression and two corresponding to failure of the FRP sheet (Choi et al., 2008):
concrete crushing after steel yields, concrete crushing before steel yields, steel
yield followed by FRP rupture, and debonding of the FRP at the FRP/concrete
interface.
For illustration, in the ACI approach, which is similar to other provisions,
the nominal moment capacity of a tension-reinforced section Mn can be obtained
from Eq. (1.1), where the first term is the moment capacity generated from the
tension steel force and the second term is the moment capacity generated from
the FRP sheet. Design capacity φMn is then determined by reducing the nominal
moment capacity by the appropriate resistance factor φ:

β c β c
Mn 5 As fs d 2 1 1 ψAf ffe h 2 1 (1.1)
2 2
Parameter ψ represents a factor used to reduce the contribution of the FRP sheet,
while other parameters in Eq. (1.1) are similar to those used in typical reinforced
concrete flexural capacity analysis (representing areas of steel and FRP tension
material, As and Af, respectively; their stresses at section capacity, fs and ffe; and
their lever arms to the compression zone of the concrete, d-β 1c/2 and h-β 1c/2).
Here it is assumed that the external sheet is bonded to the tension side of a beam of
height h. In a recent study (Elarbi and Wu, 2012), Eq. (1.1) was found to typically
underestimate experimental results by 2060%. However, a greater concern is the
possibility of over-estimating capacity by not properly accounting for loss of FRP
or bond strength over time. It was observed that more reliable strength reduction
coefficients need to be developed to represent the long-term use of FRP exposed
to the environmental and service parameters specific to a local region. To better
develop design standards and construction guides, PennDOT commissioned a
research program by selecting candidate bridges for nondestructive testing before
and after the application of EB FRP for beam strengthening. Results from finite
element analysis and test data were used to develop draft PennDOT design
standards and construction specifications, and to apply lessons learned to the design
and constructability of nearly 1000 concrete T-beam bridges in Pennsylvania
(Davalos et al., 2012).
1.5.2 Shear strengthening

The additional shear strength that can be provided by the FRP is based on several
factors, including the geometry of the beam or column, the wrapping technique,
and the quality of the existing surface of the concrete. There are three typical types
of FRP wrapping schemes, depending on the number of sides wrapped (4, 3, or 2).
The four-sided wrapping scheme is most efficient. However, this is often impossi-
ble for bridge members, such as in the case of a T-beam integral with a deck slab
above. In such situations, shear strength can also be improved by wrapping three
sides (U-wrap) or bonding to two sides of the member, though the latter is the least
effective (ACI, 2007).
FRP sheets have been shown to significantly increase the shear strength of exist-
ing concrete beams and columns when used to wrap members (Chajes et al., 1995;
Labossiere et al., 1995; Seible et al., 1997; Mo et al., 2004). The nominal shear
strength of an FRP strengthened concrete member Vn can be determined by adding
the contribution of the FRP reinforcing (Vf) to the contribution of the steel shear
reinforcement (Vs) and the concrete (Vc), as per Eq. (1.2), which presents the ACI
Introduction 9
approach. The total design strength is then found by reducing Vn by the appropriate
shear resistance factor φ.
Vn 5 ðVc 1 Vs 1 ψVf Þ (1.2)
The contribution of the FRP sheet to shear strength is based on fiber orientation
and the assumed shear crack pattern. The shear strength provided by the FRP rein-
forcement can be determined by calculating the force resulting from the tensile
stress in the FRP across an assumed crack, in a similar fashion to the process used
for design with steel stirrups. As given by ACI 440 (2007), the shear strength
contribution from FRP is
Af f fe ðsin α 1 cos αÞdf

Vf 5 (1.3)
sf
where Af is the cross-sectional area of the FRP sheet, ffe is the tensile stress in the
FRP reinforcement, df is the effective beam height, α is the orientation angle of
the FRP, and Sf is the spacing between adjacent FRP strips. To avoid delamination
failure, mechanical anchorage can be used. However, the effective strain in FRP is
limited (for example, to 0.004 per ACI 440), and the total shear reinforcement
allowed is often limited as well. For example, FRP shear reinforcement in ACI
is limited pto ffiffiffithe
ffi same criteria for steel alone per ACI-318 (2011), given as
Vs 1 Vf # 8 fc0 bw d.
1.6 Numerical modeling

Numerous researchers have developed numerical models of FRP strengthened
concrete elements (Ouyang and Wan, 2006; Ibrahim and Mahmood, 2009; Obaidat
et al., 2010, etc.). For example, Pesic and Pilakoutas (2003) conducted a finite
element analysis to address concrete cover delamination and plate end failure of
concrete beams with bonded flexural FRP reinforcement, while Elarbi (2011) devel-
oped refined models using finite element analysis to predict the deformation and
failure of concrete beams strengthened with carbon FRP sheets applied to the
bottom surface. Some of these models can become very involved, and can provide
valuable predictions for FRP strengthened member behavior beyond that found in
simplified code procedures. For illustration, Elarbi (2011) developed refined models
in recent research using the finite element analysis code ABAQUS, to predict the
deformation and failure of concrete beams strengthened with carbon FRP sheets
applied to the bottom surface. This approach explicitly modeled the concrete and
FRP materials with independent elements and nonlinear time-dependent material
properties to account for deterioration. The two types of expected failure modes
have been correctly predicted by the model: FRP rupture and FRP delamination.
Two groups of beams were examined: one group with perfectly bonded FRP
reinforcement and another group of aged beams with deteriorated FRP reinforce-
ment bond. For the healthy FRP bonded beams in the study, the dominant failure
mode was FRP rupture, where the concrete first began to crack on the midpoint of
the tension side and propagated approximately one-third of the section height
upwards, followed by rupture of the FRP sheet. For the aged (bond deteriorated)
FRP bonded beams, the dominant failure mode was delamination. FRP delamina-
tion began at the midpoint of the beam and then spread toward the beam ends.
These two failure modes predicted from the model well-matched the observed
experimental failure sequences.
1.7 Installation of EB FRP systems

While installation is usually straightforward, it is well recognized that even minor
deviation from the prescribed procedures may dramatically affect final system
performance, impact adhesion quality, and cause premature delamination at the
concrete/FRP reinforcement interface. If the concrete is not properly prepared prior
to wrapping, the FRP composite may not adhere adequately to the concrete surface.
Surface preparation includes removal of all contaminants such as organic growth,
old bituminous products, surface coats, oil and dirt, by high pressure water cleaning
and/or sand blasting (TRCF, 1998). Moreover, dry, open-pore concrete allows the
epoxy primer to be drawn into the substrate to create a substantial mechanical
anchoring bond. A simple test can be done by sprinkling water on the substrate and
checking for beading; the water should be absorbed immediately if the desired
open-pore structure exists.
Manufacturers of EB FRP products emphasize the importance of proper installa-
tion. Some offer extensive training modules for contractors, while others allow
installation only through certified applicators. NCHRP 514 (2004) recommends that
a DOT prequalify suppliers for a particular FRP system, after reviewing product
data sheets, testing data, and existence of a comprehensive hands-on training
program that can be taken by the FRP installer. It further recommends that the
contractor is left responsible for the quality control of all materials and procedures
in the project, and should submit a quality control and quality assurance (QC/QA)
plan for approval. This plan should include specific procedures for: personnel
safety, tracking and inspecting FRP components prior to installation, inspecting
the prepared concrete surfaces to receive FRP, inspection of the work in progress
to ensure conformity with specifications, evaluation of FRP QA samples, and
inspection of all completed work. A proper installation plan includes adequate
specification of: safety procedures, equipment and materials preparation and
procurement, surface preparation, precutting fabric, how the correct fabric to resin
ratio is maintained, epoxy mixing and saturation of FRP sheets, application of the
sheets to the structural member, and application of specified coatings (Mirmiran
et al., 2004). The above discussion represents a brief introduction to some of the
topics that will be addressed in this book.
Fiber-reinforced polymer
composites 2
Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) has been used for numerous strengthening applica-
tions in various industries. However, common applications for bridge components
involve externally bonded composite fabrics or jackets on beams, columns, and
bridge decks. A significant number of general guidelines exist for the design and
construction of FRP systems. However, the combination of complex environmental
and mechanical loading for bridges complicates the durability assessment of FRP
composites (Wu et al., 2006a; Hollaway and Head, 2001; Helbling et al., 2006).
2.1 FRP constituents

2.1.1 Fibers
FRP composites consist of two main constituents: a load bearing constituent, mainly
fibers, and a polymeric matrix that serves as a binder and protector of the fibers. The
matrix facilitates load transfer among fibers and ensures that embedded fibers main-
tain their orientation and directional stability (Ansley et al., 2009). As multiphase
materials, composites are generally anisotropic in nature exhibiting differing mechani-
cal properties in three orthogonal directions. Properties of FRP composites have some
variation depending on the manufacturing and fabrication processes employed
(Elarbi, 2011). Three types of reinforcing fibers are commonly used: glass, aramid,
and carbon. Recently, basalt fibers have become commercially available. Basalt fibers
are produced from volcanic basalt rocks and have excellent thermal and chemical
resistance. Although applications are still in infancy, basalt fibers have shown great
potential to replace carbon fibers due to their much lower cost. Regardless of the type
of fiber used, each is available with different grades and varying properties. In gen-
eral, carbon fibers have the highest modulus of elasticity while glass fibers have the
lowest. All fiber types exhibit linear elastic behavior when tested.
The mechanical and physical properties of a representation of commercially
available fibers are given in Table 2.1. Values in the table are adapted from Mallick
(2007). Note that the negative thermal expansion coefficient of aramid and carbon
fibers indicates that shrinkage occurs when these materials are heated.
Glass fiber became commercially available in 1939 with the start-up of an
Owens Corning production facility. Glass FRP (GFRP) composites have relatively
low stiffness, high elongation, and moderate strength and weight. Glass is by far the
most widely used fiber, because of the combination of low cost and reasonable per-
formance. Glass fibers are classified into three types: E-glass, S-glass, and alkali
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100636-8.00002-8
Table 2.1 Typical reinforcing fiber material properties

Fiber Fiber Density Tensile Tensile Failure Thermal Poisson’s
type identification (lbs/ft.3) modulus strength strain expansion ratio
(ksi) (ksi) (%) coefficient
( 3 1026/ F)
Basalt 168 13,050 435 3.2 8.0

Glass E-Glass 159 10,500 500 4.80 8.99 0.20
S-Glass 155 12,600 625 5.00 5.22 0.22
Aramid Kevlar 49 91 19,000 525 2.80 23.60 0.35
Technora 88 10,100 435 4.60 210.79 0.35
Carbon T-300 110 33,500 530 1.40 21.08 0.20
P-100 134 10,000 350 0.32 22.61 0.20
AS-4 112 36,000 590 1.65 21.08 0.20
IM-7 111 43,500 770 1.81 21.35 0.20
resistant AR-glass fibers. GFRP has a potential creep rupture problem when con-
stantly loaded more than about 20% of their ultimate strength. However, when used
in a passive fashion, such as wrapping a deficient structural component to enhance
live load carrying capability, creep rupture is much less likely to occur. Carbon
fibers have been commercially available since 1959. They are durable and perform
very well under fatigue loading as well as in hot and moist environments. Aramid
fibers were also produced in the late 1950s, appearing first under the trade name
Nomex by DuPont. Aramid fibers are mainly used for aerospace and military appli-
cations, such as in ballistic rated body armor and as an asbestos substitute. Unlike,
carbon, aramid fibers are sensitive to high heat and moisture.
Theoretically, carbon fibers could obtain a tensile strength of 15,000 ksi and a
modulus of elasticity of 145,000 ksi. Such values assume that the crystal structure
could be optimally oriented and packed. However, if polymer chains are folded in
the crystalline state, a typical occurrence, neither the theoretical strength nor modu-
lus can be fully developed. Carbon fiber composites are ideally suited for applica-
tions where strength, lower weight, and outstanding fatigue characteristics are
critical requirements. As such, carbon FRP (CFRP) sheets and strips have been
used to strengthen concrete structures such as beams, columns, slabs, piles, and
decks (Elarbi, 2011).
2.1.2 Matrix
The most commonly used matrix for structural composites is thermosetting poly-
mer. Polyester, vinyl ester, and epoxy are the most common polymeric matrix mate-
rials used with high-performance reinforcing fibers. They are all thermosetting
polymers with good process ability and chemical resistance. Epoxies are more
expensive than polyesters and vinyl-esters, but have in general better mechanical
properties and outstanding durability. Thermoset polymers, including epoxy, are
Fiber-reinforced polymer composites 13
Table 2.2 Mechanical properties of commonly used FRP epoxies

Epoxy type Sikadur 300 (psi) Tyfo S epoxy (psi)
Tensile strength 8000 10,500
Tensile modulus 250,000 461,000
Tensile elongation 3% 5%
Flexural strength 11,500 17,900
Flexural modulus 500,000 452,000
cured by chemical reactions, and the process of curing is irreversible. Table 2.2
contains the mechanical properties of two commercially available epoxies widely
used in FRP composites.
2.1.3 Interface
One of the important functions of the matrix is to transfer stresses. Interface bond-
ing between fiber and matrix is critical to the success of advanced composites.
When the matrix is degraded due to environmental exposure or mechanical loads,
often the fiber/matrix interface is weakened. The degradation of GFRP in hot water
is found to be caused by the absorption of water by matrix resin and the dissolution
of the fiber/matrix interface (Hamada et al., 1996; Nguyen et al., 1998). The disso-
lution of the interface results in debonding between fibers and matrix.
2.2 Composite interfacial adhesion and debonding

The quality of the adhesive bond at the interfaces between plies and between con-
crete and the strengthening FRP layers is critical to the utilization of the composite
constituents. Adhesive bond at the interface is achieved primarily by attaching
the surfaces within a layer of molecular dimensions, that is, on the order of
0.10.5 nm.
The term “adhesion” is associated with intermolecular forces acting across an
interface and involves a consideration of surface energies and interfacial tensions.
As a liquid, adhesives flow over and into the irregularities of a solid surface, coming
into contact with it and as a result, interacting with its molecular forces. The adhe-
sive then solidifies to form the “joint.” The basic requirements for good adhesion
are thus intimate contact between the adhesive and the substrates, and an absence of
weak layers or contamination at the interface. Adhesive bonding therefore involves
a liquid “wetting” a solid surface, which implies the formation of a thin film spread-
ing uniformly without breaking into droplets. Fundamentally, the surface tension of
the adhesive should be lower than the surface energy of the solids involved, in this
case, the treated surface of FRP and the exposed constituents of concrete. Because
of the similarity in epoxy adhesive and composite matrix composition, values of sur-
face tension and surface energy are similar. Both compositions contain polar
molecular groups which are mutually attractive and chemically compatible. Thus
good adhesion can be achieved, provided that contamination is removed by adequate
surface preparation. The quality of the adhesive bond at the interface has the poten-
tial to impact the failure mode of an FRP composite structure. The interface between
the FRP sheet and the concrete is particularly important, since composite action
requires a well-developed bond. Final failure is often caused by the debonding of
the FRP sheet from the concrete substrate (Meier, 1995; Buyukozturk and Hearing,
1998; Mikami et al., 2015). The degradation of a constituent in FRP over time
affects various composite properties, and may even change the order of governing
failure modes which may be matrix, fiber, or interface-dominated (Wu and Yan,
2013). This is a particularly important concern, as a FRP-bonded structure could fail
abruptly due to a change in dominant failure mode.
Debonding can be considered as the propagation of an interfacial crack with
residual shear stress acting along the interface (Taljsten, 1996; Leung and Tung,
2006). In the case of FRP bonded to flat concrete members, debonding may occur
at the end of the FRP sheet or initiate at an interior location where a stress concen-
tration is present. Once debonding initiates, however, it may initially remain
stable depending on how adjacent cracks interact, potentially allowing for further
increases in load (Niu and Wu, 1990; Chen et al., 2007).
To model debonding, an interfacial shear-slip relation is generally needed. Most
interfacial relation models are based on two similar assumptions. First, the initiation
of interfacial debonding begins when the interfacial stress has reached the pre-
scribed interfacial strength (τ s). Second, in the debonded zone, the residual shear
stress (τ) softens linearly with the interfacial sliding (s), such as given by (Leung
and Tung, 2006): τ 5 τ 0 2 ks, where τ 0 and k are the interfacial material parameters
defining the initial residual shear stress and the shear softening rate after debonding.
Based on this equation, the distribution of tensile stress (σp) along the debonded
portion of FRP is calculated from
d 2 σP
1 α2 σ P 5 0 (2.1)
dx2
Finally, in the elastic zone where debonding has not yet occurred, σp is given by
d 2 σP
2 β 2 σP 5 0 (2.2)
dx2
where α and β are parameters describing the structural configuration and material
properties.
Solving the above equations with appropriate boundary conditions provides the
tensile stresses along the FRP sheet as well as interfacial shear stresses. Such an
analytic approach can simulate the debonding process in great detail, permitting
comparisons with experiments. However, such analytical solutions are available for
simple cases only.
Another popular approach to model debonding is to use finite element analysis.

By using suitable interface elements, very good results have been obtained (Wu
et al., 2004; Mu et al., 2006; Elarbi and Wu, 2012). This approach allows simula-
tions of rather complex loading and geometrical configurations, but does not pro-
vide a detailed description of the delamination process. Therefore both approaches
may need to be considered to properly characterize delamination behavior.
It is also important to be able to monitor bond quality over time. Hence, several
evaluation techniques have been developed. For example, Hong and Harichandran
(2005) detected the debonding of CFRP from concrete beams using electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy sensing technology. Alternatively, Wu and Warnemuende
(2002) proposed an innovative active modulation approach, Nonlinear Active Wave
Modulation Spectroscopy (NAWMS), to detect weak bond between the FRP sheet
and concrete substrate. In this procedure, a probe acoustic wave is passed through
the system. Simultaneously, a second, modulating wave is applied to the system.
Using 3-in. thick concrete slabs, they prepared several FRP-bonded samples with
artificial flaws (1-in. square) designed into the interface. The sender was on one
side of the flaw and the receiver on the other. While, maintaining the separation of
the pair of transducers, a complete scan was carried out. The resulting frequency
modulations were analyzed and well correlated to the presence of the flaws.
2.3 FRP durability

Under everyday service conditions, FRP-bonded bridges are subjected not only to
heavy traffic loads but also to a wide range of temperature and moisture changes.
Freeze and freeze/thaw exposures lead to material level degradation through matrix
cracking and fiber-matrix debonding, increased brittleness, and substantial changes
in damage mechanisms from those commonly observed under ambient conditions
(Lord and Dutta, 1988; Dutta and Hui, 1996; Dutta, 1998; Karbhari and Pope,
1994; Karbhari et al., 2000). Chu et al. (2004) used accelerated weathering test data
to predict long-term properties of pultruded E-glass/vinyl ester composites, and the
predictions correlated well with their experimental results. Karbhari (2002) and
Karbhari et al. (2002) adopted a semi-empirical approach to predict the long-term
modulus and strength of unidirectional carbon/vinyl ester composites subject to
freezethaw cycling. Their study indicated that typical analytical predictions are
somewhat conservative for strength, and freeze/thaw cycling does not have an
appreciable effect on modulus. It was also shown that freezethaw cycling between
4.4 C and 217.8 C alone caused very insignificant changes in flexural strength,
storage modulus, and loss factor for the E-glass/vinyl ester specimens conditioned
in distilled water and saltwater (Wu et al., 2006b). Furthermore, Wu et al. (2006a)
concluded that (1) small reductions in modulus were observed after 250
freezethaw cycles in water when the specimens were loaded to 25% of their ulti-
mate strain while undergoing freeze/thaw cycles; (2) no deterioration was observed
for the specimens prestrained and freezethaw cycled in dry air conditions, and;
(3) constant freezing at 217.8 C resulted in a minor increase in flexural strength

and storage modulus over time.
The degradation of a constituent in FRP over time affects various composite
properties, and, as noted above, may change the order of governing failure modes
which may be matrix, fiber, or interface-dominated. This is an important concern,
as an FRP-bonded structure could fail abruptly due to a change in dominant failure
mode. In most cases, however, the FRP-concrete bond line is the critical component
to the effectiveness of most FRP structural strengthening applications, as this is the
location where the transfer of stresses from the concrete to the FRP occurs. An
exception to this is a structural element that uses FRP for confinement, such as a
wrapped column. Regardless, field experience has shown that the bond between the
FRP composite and concrete cannot always be assured. The bond can degrade over
time, eventually causing the system to become ineffective. Bond quality is influ-
enced by the condition of the existing concrete, surface preparation of the concrete
substrate, quality of the composite system application, quality of the composite, and
the durability of the epoxy primer and resin. A large number of additional para-
meters affect bond strength, including exposure to ultra-violet radiation, chemical
activity, temperature, moisture, and stress level, as well as other factors (Karbhari,
1997; Mikami et al., 2015). As FRP composites for bridges have been in service for
a relatively short period of time, there are few long-term data available to define
environmental effects and the resulting degradation rate.
Most FRP durability information has been gathered from laboratory simulations
of harsh environments (Dutta and Hui, 1996; Toutanji and Balaguru, 1999;
Karbhari et al., 2003). Karbhari (2004) found that low-temperature thermal cycling
appears to have a greater deteriorative effect on FRP than constant immersion at
below-freezing temperatures, due in part to interface-level degradation. Here,
microcracking at lower temperatures results in an increase of water absorption dur-
ing warmer periods, followed by increased resin plasticization and hydrolysis. The
expansion of frozen water collected in cracks results in debonding and transverse
microcrack growth (Rivera and Karbhari, 2002). Various other researchers have
found that such freeze/thaw exposures can lead to significant material degradation
through matrix cracking and fiber-matrix debonding, as well as increased brittle-
ness, resulting in a substantial change in the damage mechanisms commonly
observed under ambient conditions (Dutta, 1989, 1992; Lord and Dutta, 1988;
Haramis, 2003; Karbhari et al., 1994, 2000, 2002). For glass and carbon-wrapped
columns, however, freezethaw cycles alone appear to have insignificant effect
on compressive strength. It was also found that, using accelerated corrosion
experiments, column wrapping significantly reduced reinforcing bar corrosion
(Harichandran and Baiyasi, 2000).
Wu et al. (2006, 2006a) completed a comprehensive study on the combined
effects of low-temperature thermal cycling, cycling frequency, sustained loads, and
presence of salinity on FRP. It was found that sustained loads significantly acceler-
ated degradation in all cases; that the significance of salinity depended on the
cycling frequency; and that a high-humidity environment produced most damage.
Moreover, when FRP materials were conditioned at higher temperatures, water
absorption was increased under sustained loads (Gibson, 1994; Kulkarni and
Gibson, 2003). Elarbi and Wu (2012) recently found that high-temperature and
high-humidity environments have a very detrimental effect on the strength and stiff-
ness of FRP materials, as well as the bonding between FRP and concrete. Although
experimental data on bond deterioration due to natural weathering are unavailable,
under accelerated laboratory environments, a large reduction (more than 80%) in
bond strength between FRP and concrete in a high-temperature environment has
been reported, primarily due to the deterioration of the FRP material (Bank et al.,
1998; Katz et al., 1999; Galati et al., 2006).
At present, there is no standardized durability test procedure for FRP materials
for infrastructure applications. However, an accelerated test procedure to simulate
the effects of natural weathering on FRP has been developed by Wu et al. (2006a,
2006b). This procedure, modified from ASTM C666 (2008), the standard freeze/
thaw durability test for concrete, incorporates the combined effects of temperature,
medium (i.e., immersion environment), and sustained load into a complete test pro-
gram. Using this test procedure, it was found that failure modes of FRP composites
most likely to be affected by environmental conditions are those associated with the
polymer matrix material (Wu et al., 2006b). It was also found that after 250 freeze/
thaw cycles with less than 25% sustained load applied, flexural strength of an FRP-
bonded concrete specimen experienced significant reductions if exposed to moisture
(Wu et al., 2006b).
Using tests similar to the above, degradation rates can be fundamentally calcu-
lated from change in strength or stiffness versus time plots. However, to reduce
experimental time, an accelerated test method uses one or several accelerating
mechanisms to increase the rate of degradation. The rate of degradation under the
accelerated condition is then related to the degradation rate under field service con-
ditions by an acceleration factor, which is defined as the ratio of the degradation
rate in the accelerated environment (i.e., laboratory) to that in the actual service
environment. Acceleration factors for various environments may be determined
using the framework outlined in ASTM E632 (1996). With appropriate acceleration
factors known, short-term, relatively inexpensive laboratory experiments or finite
element simulations can be used to accurately simulate durability performance over
real time (Yan, 2005). Currently, however, appropriate acceleration factors for
FRP-bonded concrete members for specific climatic regions are unknown.
Elarbi (2011) conditioned a series of concrete beams strengthened with CFRP to
simulate the aging effect that weather-exposed components are expected to experi-
ence, and was conducted using various accelerated hygrothermal conditions. For
the control specimens exposed to indoor conditions only, it was found that the ACI-
based predictions of capacity significantly underestimated the failure load, whereas
in contrast, the numerical models were reported to agree well with the experimental
results. Using a different set of specimens, which were exposed to accelerated
weathering cycles, it was found that bond strength deteriorated and led to delamina-
tion, a failure which is not currently considered in ACI 440, but was predicted in
the numerical simulations.
Composite mechanics
3
3.1 Introduction
Fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) (or advanced fiber composites) have been
successfully utilized over a long period of time by the aerospace and aircraft indus-
tries. Composites are currently gaining a rapid momentum in finding their way into
civil engineering structural applications. The earliest reported application with plate
bonding is from South Africa in the end of the 1960s where a concrete beam in an
office building was strengthened with steel plates. Since then numerous strengthen-
ing applications have been reported, both with steel plates and in the last decade
with various FRP systems. As compared with steel plates, FRP systems have
many advantages. In addition to their resistance to corrosion which allows the pos-
sibility of extended service life or perhaps limited required maintenance, FRP lami-
nates and fabric come in great lengths, which can be cut to suitable sizes in the
field. Also, the light weight of FRP provides considerable cost savings in terms
of labor: a worker can handle the FRP material, whereas a crane would be required
for its steel equivalent.
FRP strengthening can be applied to mitigate several failure modes. For flexural
strengthening of beams, slabs, or girders, FRP plates can be applied to the tensile
face of the concrete. Shear and torsion strengthening can be accomplished
by placing FRP on the sides of beams. Columns are typically strengthened by
wrapping the FRP around the column in the hoop direction, thus increasing the
confinement of the concrete core. This can be accomplished with wet lay-up or
prefabricated cylindrical jackets.
Installation of FRP plates includes two possibilities: precured and cured-in-place
laminates (manual lay-up). For the latter, a surface primer is often applied first
to the concrete surface. After the primer is cured, a layer of putty is applied to level
uneven spots and fill surface cavities. The recommended resin is then mixed and
applied to the concrete surface in a thin uniform layer using a roller. A fiber sheet
(preimpregnated or dry) is cut to the desired length and width and pressed to the
concrete using a “bubble roller.” This act eliminates the entrapped air between the
fibers and resin and ensures the full impregnation of the FRP sheet. Attention
should be paid to the alignment of the fiber orientation when installing the FRP
sheet since a poor orientation of the fibers generally reduces the strength of the
FRP. Precured FRP systems consist of a wide variety of composite shapes manufac-
tured in the system supplier’s facility and shipped to the job site. Typically, an
adhesive is used to bond the precured sheets or plates to the concrete surface or

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100636-8.00003-X
they are inserted into slots cut into the substrate. The system manufacturer must
specify the adhesive used to bond the precured system to the concrete surface.
3.2 Laminate
Thin sheet constructions, known as laminates, are an important class of composite.
They are made by stacking together usually unidirectional layers (also called single
ply or lamina) in predetermined directions and thicknesses to give the desired
stiffness and strength properties. The skins of airplane wings and tails, the hull sides
and decking of ships, and the sides and bottom of water tanks are typical examples.
Even cylindrical components, such as filament wound tanks, can be treated as lami-
nates, provided the radius-to-thickness ratio is sufficiently large (say .50).
Laminates typically consist of between 4 and 40 plies, and each ply is around
0.125 mm thick if it is carbon or glass fiber/epoxy. Typical lay-ups (the arrangement
of fiber orientations) are cross-ply, angle-ply, and quasi-isotropic. When making a
laminate, one must decide on the order in which the plies are placed through the
thickness (known as the stacking sequence). This has an important influence on the
flexural performance of the laminate. There is an established convention for denoting
both the lay-up and stacking sequence of a laminate. For example, a cross-ply lami-
nate, which has ply fiber orientations in the sequence 0, 90, and 0 degrees from the
upper to the lower surface, would be denoted (0/90 degree)s. The suffix “s” means
that the stacking sequence is symmetric about the mid-thickness of the laminate.
Laminates denoted by (0/45/90 degree)s and (45/90/0 degree)s have the same lay-up
but different stacking sequences.
3.2.1 Unidirectional ply

Based on the mechanical properties of fiber and matrix materials, the actual tensile
strength and tensile modulus of the composite materials in the fiber direction can
be calculated according to the following equations (Jones, 1999):
σcom 5 σf vf 1 σm vm (3.1)
Ecom 5 Ef vf 1 Em vm (3.2)
In the transverse direction, the tensile strength and tensile modulus of the
composite materials are given as
σcom 5 σm (3.3)
Ecom 5 1 (3.4)
Vf Vm
1
Ef Em
Exploring the Variety of Random
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advantage. In person, she was a perfect oriental beauty; dark, even
in the eyes of an Italian, with hair nearly black, and eyes of the same
colour, shaded by lashes of unusual length, she possessed
something of an imperial air. Pietro was completely smitten, and for
the present every image but that of Maani seemed to be obliterated
from his mind.
His knowledge of the Turkish language was now of the greatest
service to him; for, possessing but a very few words of Arabic, this
was the only medium by which he could make known the colour of
his thoughts either to his mistress or her mother. His passion,
however, supplied him with eloquence, and by dint of vehement
protestations, in this instance the offspring of genuine affection, he at
length succeeded in his enterprise, and Maani became his wife. But
in the midst of these transactions, when it most imported him to
remain at Bagdad, an event occurred in his own house which not
only exposed him to the risk of being driven with disgrace from the
city, but extremely endangered his life and that of all those who were
connected with him. His secretary and valet having for some time
entertained a grudge against each other, the former, one day seizing
the khanjar, or dagger, of Pietro, stabbed his adversary to the heart,
and the poor fellow dropped down dead in the arms of his master.
The murderer fled. What course to pursue under such circumstances
it was difficult to determine. Should the event come to the knowledge
of the pasha, both master and servants might, perhaps, be thought
equally guilty, and be impaled alive; or, if matters were not pushed to
such extremities, it might at least be pretended that the deceased
was the real owner of whatever property they possessed, in order to
confiscate the whole for the benefit of the state. As neither of these
results was desirable, the safest course appeared to be to prevent, if
possible, the knowledge of the tragedy from transpiring; a task of
some difficulty, as all the domestics of the household were
acquainted with what had passed. The only individual with whom
Pietro could safely consult upon this occasion (for he was unwilling
to disclose so horrible a transaction to Maani’s relations) was a
Maltese renegade, a man of some consideration in the city; and for
him, therefore, he immediately despatched a messenger. This man,
when he had heard what had happened, was of opinion that the
body should be interred in a corner of the house; but Pietro, who had
no desire that so bloody a memorial of the Italian temperament
should remain in his immediate neighbourhood, and moreover
considered it unsafe, thought it would be much better at the bottom
of the Tigris. The Maltese, most fortunately, possessed a house and
garden on the edge of the river, and thither the body, packed up
carefully in a chest, was quickly conveyed, though there was much
difficulty in preventing the blood from oozing out, and betraying to its
bearers the nature of their burden. When it was dark the chest was
put on board a boat, and, dropping down the river, the renegade and
two of his soldiers cautiously lowered it into the water; and thus no
material proof of the murder remained. The assassin, who had taken
refuge at the house of the Maltese, was enabled to return to Italy;
and the event, strange to say, was kept secret, though so many
persons were privy to it.
When this danger was over, and the beautiful Maani irrevocably
his, Pietro began once more to feel the passion of the traveller
revive, and commenced those little excursions through Mesopotamia
which afterward enabled Gibbon to pronounce him the person who
had best observed that province. His first visit, as might be expected,
was to the ruins of Babylon. The party with which he left Bagdad
consisted of Maani, a Venetian, a Dutch painter, Ibrahim a native of
Aleppo, and two Turkish soldiers. For the first time since the
commencement of his travels, Pietro now selected the longest and
least dangerous road, taking care, moreover, to keep as near as
possible to the farms and villages, in order, in case of necessity, to
derive provisions and succour from their inhabitants. Maani, who
appears to have had a dash of Kurdish blood in her, rode astride like
a man, and kept her saddle as firmly as any son of the desert could
have done; and Pietro constantly moved along by her side. When
they had performed a considerable portion of their journey, and,
rejoicing in their good fortune, were already drawing near Babylon,
eight or ten horsemen armed with muskets and bows and arrows
suddenly appeared in the distance, making towards them with all
speed. Pietro imagined that the day for trying his courage was now
come; and he and his companions, having cocked their pieces and
prepared to offer a desperate resistance, pushed on towards the
enemy. However, their chivalric spirit was not doomed to be here put
to the test; for, upon drawing near, the horsemen were found to
belong to Bagdad, and the adventure concluded in civility and mutual
congratulations.
Having carefully examined the ruins of Babylon, the city of Hillah,
and the other celebrated spots in that neighbourhood, the party
returned to Bagdad, from whence he again departed in a few days
for Modain, the site of the ancient Ctesiphon, near which he had the
satisfaction of observing the interior of an Arab encampment.
His curiosity respecting Mesopotamia was now satisfied; and as
every day’s residence among the Ottomans only seemed more and
more to inflame his hatred of that brutal race, he as much as
possible hastened his departure from Bagdad, having now
conceived the design of serving as a volunteer in the armies of
Persia, at that period at war with Turkey, and of thus wreaking his
vengeance upon the Osmanlees for the tyranny they exercised on all
Christians within their power. Notwithstanding that war between the
two countries had long been declared, the Pasha of Bagdad and the
Persian authorities on the frontier continued openly to permit the
passage of caravans; and thus, were he once safe out of Bagdad
with his wife and treasures, there would be no difficulty in entering
Persia. To effect this purpose he entered into an arrangement with a
Persian muleteer, who was directed to obtain from the pasha a
passport for himself and followers, with a charosh to conduct them to
the extremity of the Turkish dominions. This being done, the Persian,
according to agreement, left the city, and encamped at a short
distance from the walls, where, as is the custom, he was visited by
the officers of the custom-house; after which, Pietro caused the
various individuals of his own small party to issue forth by various
streets into the plain, while he himself, dressed as he used to be
when riding out for amusement on the banks of the Tigris, quitted the
town after sunset, and gained the place of encampment in safety.
When the night had now completely descended upon the earth,
and all around was still, the little caravan put itself in motion; and
being mounted, some on good sturdy mules, and others on the
horses of the country, they advanced at a rapid rate, fearing all the
way that the pasha might repent of his civility towards the Persian,
and send an order to bring them back to the city. By break of day
they arrived on the banks of the Diala, a river which discharges itself
into the Tigris; and here, in spite of their impatience, they were
detained till noon, there being but one boat at the ferry. In six days
they reached the southern branches of the mountains of Kurdistan,
and found themselves suddenly in the midst of that wild and hardy
race, which, from the remotest ages, has maintained possession of
these inexpugnable fastnesses, which harassed the ten thousand in
their retreat, and still enact a conspicuous part in all the border wars
between the Persians and Turks. Living for the most part in a
dangerous independence, fiercely spurning the yoke of its powerful
neighbours, though continually embroiled in their interminable
quarrels, speaking a distinct language, and having a peculiar system
of manners, which does not greatly differ from that of the feudal
times, they may justly be regarded as one of the most extraordinary
races of the Asiatic continent. Some of them, spellbound by the
allurements of wealth and ease, have erected cities and towns, and
addicted themselves to agriculture and the gainful arts. Others,
preferring that entire liberty which of all earthly blessings is the
greatest in the estimation of ardent and haughty minds, and
regarding luxury as a species of Circean cup, in its effects debasing
and destructive, covet no wealth but their herds and flocks, around
which they erect no fortifications but their swords. These are
attracted hither and thither over the wilds by the richness of the
pasturage, and dwell in tents.
In Kurdistan, as elsewhere, the winning manners of Della Valle
procured him a hospitable reception. The presence of Maani, too,
whose youth and beauty served as an inviolable wall of protection
among brave men, increased his claims to their hospitality; so that
these savage mountaineers, upon whom the majority of travellers
concur in heaping the most angry maledictions, obtained from the
warm-hearted, grateful Pietro the character of a kind and gentle
people. On the 20th of January, 1617, he quitted Kurdistan, and
entered Persia. The change was striking. A purer atmosphere, a
more productive and better-cultivated soil, and a far more dense
population than in Turkey, caused him, from the suddenness of the
transition, somewhat to exaggerate, perhaps, the advantages of this
country. It is certain that the eyes of the traveller, like the fabled
gems of antiquity, carry about the light by which he views the objects
which come before him; and that the condition of this light is greatly
affected by the state of his animal spirits. Pietro was now in that
tranquil and serene mode of being consequent upon that enjoyment
which conscience approves; and having passed from a place where
dangers, real or imaginary, surrounded him, into a country where he
at least anticipated safety, if not distinction, it was natural that his
fancy should paint the landscape with delusive colours. Besides,
many real advantages existed; tents were no longer necessary, there
being at every halting-place a spacious caravansary, where the
traveller could obtain gratis lodgings for himself and attendants, and
shelter for his beasts and baggage. Fruits, likewise, such as
pomegranates, apples, and grapes, abounded, though the earth was
still deeply covered with snow. If we add to this that the Persians are
a people who pique themselves upon their urbanity, and, whatever
may be the basis of their character, with which the passing traveller
has little to do, really conduct themselves politely towards strangers,
it will not appear very surprising that Della Valle, who had just
escaped from the boorish Ottomans, should have been charmed
with Persia.
Arriving at Ispahan, at that period the capital of the empire, that is,
the habitual place of residence of the shah, his first care, of course,
was to taste a little repose; after which, he resumed his usual custom
of strolling about the city and its environs, observing the manners,
and sketching whatever was curious in costume and scenery. Here
he remained for several months; but growing tired, as usual, of calm
inactivity, the more particularly as the court was absent, he now
prepared to present himself before the shah, then in Mazenderan.
Accordingly, having provided a splendid litter for his wife and her
sister, who, like genuine amazons, determined to accompany him to
the wars should he eventually take up arms in the service of Persia,
and provided every other necessary for the journey, he quitted
Ispahan, and proceeded northward towards the shores of the
Caspian Sea. The journey was performed in the most agreeable
manner imaginable. Whenever they came up to a pleasant grove, a
shady fountain, or any romantic spot where the greensward was
sprinkled with flowers or commanded a beautiful prospect, the whole
party made a halt; and the ladies, descending from their litter, which
was borne by two camels, and Pietro from his barb, they sat down
like luxurious gipsies to their breakfast or dinner, while the
nightingales in the dusky recesses of the groves served them
instead of a musician.
Proceeding slowly, on account of his harem, as he terms it, they
arrived in seven days at Cashan, where the imprudence of Maani
nearly involved him in a very serious affair. Being insulted on her
way to the bezestein by an officer, she gave the signal to her
attendants to chastise the drunkard, and, a battle ensuing, the
unhappy man lost his life. When the news was brought to Pietro he
was considerably alarmed; but on proceeding to the house of the
principal magistrate, he very fortunately found that the affair had
been properly represented to him, and that his people were not
considered to have exceeded their duty. His wife, not reflecting that
her masculine habits and fiery temperament were quite sufficient to
account for the circumstance, now began to torment both herself and
her husband because she had not yet become a mother; and
supposing that in such cases wine was a sovereign remedy, she
endeavoured to prevail upon Pietro, who was a water-drinker, to
have recourse to a more generous beverage, offering to join with
him, if he would comply, in the worship of Bacchus. Our traveller,
who had already, as he candidly informs us, a small family in Italy,
could not be brought to believe that the fault lay in his sober
potations, and firmly resisted the temptations of his wife. With
friendly arguments upon this and other topics they beguiled the
length of the way, and at length arrived in Mazenderan, though
Maani’s passion for horsemanship more than once put her neck in
jeopardy on the road. The scene which now presented itself was
extremely different from that through which they had hitherto
generally passed. Instead of the treeless plains or unfertile deserts
which they had traversed in the northern parts of Irak, they saw
before them a country strongly resembling Europe; mountains, deep
well-wooded valleys, or rich green plains rapidly alternating with
each other, and the whole, watered by abundant streams and
fountains, refreshed and delighted the eye; and he was as yet
unconscious of the insalubrity of the atmosphere.
Pietro, who, like Petronius, was an “elegans formarum spectator,”
greatly admired the beauty and graceful figures of the women of this
province,—a fact which makes strongly against the idea of its being
unhealthy; for it may generally be inferred, that wherever the women
are handsome the air is good. Here and there they observed, as they
moved along, the ruins of castles and fortresses on the acclivities
and projections of the mountains, which had formerly served as
retreats to numerous chiefs who had there aimed at independence.
A grotto, which they discovered in a nearly inaccessible position in
the face of a mountain, was pointed out to them as the residence of
a virgin of gigantic stature, who, without associates or followers, like
the virago who obstructed the passage of Theseus from Trœzene to
Athens, formerly ravaged and depopulated that part of the country.
This and similar legends of giants, which resemble those which
prevail among all rude nations, were related to our traveller, who
rejected them with disdain as utterly fabulous and contemptible,
though not much more so, perhaps, than some which, as a true son
of the Roman church, he no doubt held in reverence.
At length, after considerable fatigue, they arrived at Ferhabad, a
small port built by the Shah Abbas on the Caspian Sea. Here the
governor of the city, when informed of his arrival, assigned him a
house in the eastern quarter of the city, the rooms of which, says
Pietro, were so low, that although by no means a tall man, he could
touch the ceiling with his hand. If the house, however, reminded him
of the huts erected by Romulus on the Capitoline, the garden, on the
other hand, was delightful, being a large space of ground thickly
planted with white mulberry-trees, and lying close upon the bank of
the river. Here he passed the greater portion of his time with Actius
Sincerus, or Marcus Aurelius, or Ferrari’s Geographical Epitome in
his hand, now offering sacrifices to the Muses, and now running over
with his eye the various countries and provinces which he was proud
to have travelled over. One of his favourite occupations was the
putting of his own adventures into verse, under a feigned name. This
he did in that terza rima which Dante’s example had made
respectable, but not popular, in Italy; and as he was not of the
humour to hide his talent under a bushel, his brain was no sooner
delivered of this conceit than he despatched it to Rome for the
amusement of his friends.
Being now placed upon the margin of the Caspian, he very
naturally desired to examine the appearance of its shores and
waters; but embarking for this purpose in a fishing-boat with Maani,
who, having passed her life in Mesopotamia, had never before seen
the sea, her sickness and the fears produced in her mind by the
tossing and rolling of the bark among the waves quickly put an end
to the voyage. He ascertained, however, from the pilots of the coast,
that the waters of this sea were not deep; immense banks of sand
and mud, borne down into this vast basin by the numerous rivers
which discharge themselves into it, being met with on all sides;
though it is probable, that had they ventured far from shore they
would have found the case different. Fish of many kinds were
plentiful; but owing, perhaps, to the fat and slimy nature of the
bottom, they were all large, gross, and insipid.
The shah was just then at Asshraff, a new city which he had
caused to be erected, and was then enlarging, about six perasangs,
or leagues, to the east of Ferhabad. Pietro, anxious to be introduced
to the monarch, soon after his arrival wrote letters to the principal
minister, which, together with others from the vicar-general of the
Carmelite monks at Ispahan, he despatched by two of his domestics;
and the ministers, according to his desire, informed the shah of his
presence at Ferhabad. Abbas, who apparently had no desire that he
should witness the state of things at Asshraff, not as yet
comprehending either his character or his motives, observed, that
the roads being extremely bad, the traveller had better remain at
Ferhabad, whither he himself was about to proceed on horseback in
a day or two. Pietro, whose vanity prevented his perceiving the
shah’s motives, supposed in good earnest that Abbas was chary of
his guest’s ease; and, to crown the absurdity, swallowed another
monstrous fiction invented by the courtiers, who, as Hajjî Baba would
say, were all the while laughing at his beard,—namely, that the
monarch was so overjoyed at his arrival, that, had he not been
annoyed by the number of soldiers who followed him against his will,
he would next morning have ridden to Ferhabad to bid him welcome!
However, when he actually arrived in that city, he did not, as our
worthy pilgrim expected, immediately admit him to an audience. In
the mean while an agent from the Cossacks inhabiting the north-
eastern shores of the Black Sea arrived, and Della Valle, who
neglected no occasion of forwarding his own views, in the shaping of
which he exhibited remarkable skill, at once connected himself with
this stranger, whom he engaged to aid and assist by every means in
his power, receiving from the barbarian the same assurances in
return. The Cossack had come to tender the shah his nation’s
services against the Turks; notwithstanding which, the business of
his presentation had been negligently or purposely delayed, probably
that he might understand, when his proposal should be afterward
received, that, although the aid he promised was acceptable, it was
by no means necessary, nor so considered.
At length the long-anticipated audience arrived, and Della Valle,
when presented, was well received by the shah; who, not being
accustomed, however, to the crusading spirit or the romance of
chivalry, could not very readily believe that the real motives which
urged him to join the Persian armies were precisely those which he
professed. Nevertheless, his offers of service were accepted, and
the provisions which he had already received rendered permanent.
He was, moreover, sumptuously entertained at the royal table, and
had frequently the honour of being consulted upon affairs of
importance by the shah.
Abbas soon afterward removing with his court into Ghilan, without
inviting Della Valle to accompany him, the latter departed for Casbin,
there to await the marching of the army against the Turks, in which
enterprise he was still mad enough to desire to engage. On reaching
this city he found that Abbas had been more expeditious than he,
and was already there, actively preparing for the war. All the military
officers of the kingdom now received orders to repair with all
possible despatch to Sultanieh, a city three days’ journey west of
Casbin; and Pietro, who had voluntarily become a member of this
martial class, hurried on among the foremost, in the hope of
acquiring glory of a new kind.
The shah and his army had not been many days encamped in the
plains of Sultanieh, when a courier from the general, who had
already proceeded towards the frontiers, arrived with the news that
the Turkish army was advancing, although slowly. This news allowed
the troops, who had been fatigued with forced marches, a short
repose; after which they pushed on vigorously towards Ardebil and
Tabriz, Pietro and his heroic wife keeping pace with the foremost. In
this critical juncture, Abbas, though in some respects a man of
strong mind, did not consider it prudent to trust altogether to
corporeal armies; but, having in his dominions certain individuals
who pretended to have some influence over the infernal powers,
sought to interest hell also in his favour; and for this purpose carried
a renowned sorceress from Zunjan along with him to the wars, in the
same spirit as Charles the First, and the Parliament shortly
afterward, employed Lily to prophesy for them. Their route now lay
through the ancient Media, over narrow plains or hills covered with
verdure but bare of trees, sometimes traversing tremendous
chasms, spanned by bridges of fearful height, at others winding
along the acclivities of mountains, or upon the edge of precipices.
Notwithstanding his seeming ardour to engage with the Turks,
Pietro, for some cause or another, did not join the fighting part of the
army, but remained with the shah’s suite at Ardebil. This
circumstance seems to have lowered him considerably in the
estimation of the court. A battle, however, was fought, in which the
Persians were victorious; but the Turkish sultan dying at this
juncture, his successor commanded his general to negotiate for
peace, which, after the usual intrigues and delays, was at length
concluded. Abbas now returned to Casbin, where the victory and the
peace was celebrated with great rejoicings; and here Della Valle,
who seems to have begun to perceive that he was not likely to make
any great figure in war, took his leave of the court in extremely bad
health and low spirits, and returned to Ispahan.
Here repose, and the conversation of the friends he had made in
this city, once more put him in good-humour with himself and with
Persia; and being of an exceedingly hasty and inconsiderate
disposition, he no sooner began to experience a little tranquillity,
than he exerted the influence he had acquired over the parents of his
wife to induce them, right or wrong, to leave Bagdad, where they
lived contentedly and in comfort, and to settle at Ispahan, where they
were in a great measure strangers, notwithstanding that one of their
younger daughters was married to an Armenian of that city. The
principal members of the family, no less imprudent than their adviser,
accordingly quitted Mesopotamia with their treasures and effects,
and established themselves in the capital of Persia.
This measure was productive of nothing but disappointment and
vexation. One of Maani’s sisters, who had remained with her mother
at Bagdad, while the father and brothers were at Ispahan, died
suddenly; and the mother, inconsolable for her loss, entreated her
husband to return to her with her other children. Then followed the
pangs of parting, rendered doubly bitter by the reflection that it was
for ever. Pietro became ill and melancholy, having now turned his
thoughts, like the prodigal in the parable, towards his country and his
father’s house, and determined shortly to commence his journey
homeward. Obtaining without difficulty his dismission from the shah,
and winding up his affairs, which were neither intricate nor
embarrassed, at Ispahan, he set out on a visit to Shiraz, intending,
when he should have examined Persepolis and its environs, to bid
an eternal adieu to Persia.
With this view, having remained some time at Shiraz, admiring but
not enjoying the pure stream of the Rocnabad, the bowers of
Mesellay, and the bright atmosphere which shed glory on all around,
he proceeded to Mineb, a small town on the river Ibrahim, a little to
the south of Gombroon and Ormus, on the shore of the Persian Gulf.
Maani, whose desire to become a mother had been an unceasing
source of unhappiness to her ever since her marriage, being now
pregnant, nothing could have been more ill-judged in her husband
than to approach those pestilential coasts; especially at such a
season of the year. He quickly discovered his error, but it was too
late. The fever which rages with unremitting violence throughout all
that part of the country during six months in the year had now seized
not only upon Maani, but on himself likewise, and upon every other
member of his family. Instant flight might, perhaps, have rescued
them from danger, as it afterward did Chardin, but a fatal lethargy
seems to have seized upon the mind of Pietro. He trembled at the
destiny which menaced him, he saw death, as it were, entering his
house, and approach gradually the individual whom he cherished
beyond all others; time was allowed him by Providence for escape,
yet he stood still, as if spellbound, and suffered the victim to be
seized without a struggle. His wife, whose condition I have alluded to
above, affected at once by the fever, and apprehensive of its
consequences, was terrified into premature labour, and a son dead-
born considerably before its time put the finishing stroke, as it were,
to the affliction of her mind. Her fever increased in violence—medical
aid was vain—death triumphed—and Maani sunk into the grave at
the age of twenty-three.
A total change now came over the mind of Della Valle, which not
only affected the actions of his life, but communicated itself to his
writings, depriving them of that dashing quixotism which up to this
point constitutes their greatest charm. A cloud, black as Erebus,
descended upon his soul, and nine months elapsed before he could
again command sufficient spirits or energy to announce the
melancholy event to his friend Schipano. He, however, resolved that
the body of his beloved wife should not be consigned to the earth in
Persia, where he should never more come to visit or shed a tear
over her grave. He therefore contrived to have it embalmed, and
then, enclosing it in a coffin adapted to the purpose, placed it in a
travelling trunk, in order that, wherever his good or bad fortune
should conduct him, the dear remains of his Maani might accompany
him to the grave. Certain circumstances attending this transaction
strongly serve to illustrate the character of Della Valle, and while they
tell in favour of his affection, and paint the melancholy condition to
which his bereavement had reduced him, likewise throw some light
upon the manners and state of the country. Dead bodies being
regarded as unclean by the Mohammedans, as they were in old
Greece and Rome, and most other nations of antiquity, no persons
could be found to undertake the task of embalming but a few old
women, whom the auri sacra fames reconciled to the pollution.
These, wrapping thick bandages over their mouths and nostrils, to
prevent the powerful odour of the gum from penetrating into their
lungs and brain, after having disembowelled the corpse, filled its
cavities with camphor, and with the same ingredient, which was of
the most pungent and desiccating nature, rubbed all its limbs and
surface until the perfume had penetrated to the very bones. Pietro, at
all times superstitious, was now rendered doubly so by sorrow.
Having somewhere heard or read that the bodies of men will be
reanimated at the general resurrection, wherever their heads happen
to be deposited, while, according to another theory, it was the
resting-place of the heart which was to determine the point, and
being desirous, according to either view of the matter, that Maani
and himself should rise on that awful day together, he gave orders
that the heart of his beloved should be carefully embalmed with the
rest of the body. It never once occurred to him that the pollinctores
(or undertakers) might neglect his commands, and therefore he
omitted to overlook this part of the operation; indeed his feelings
would not allow him to be present, and while it was going on he sat
retired, hushing the tempest of his soul in the best manner he could.
While he was in this state of agony, he observed the embalmers
approaching him with something in their hands, and on casting his
eyes upon it he beheld the heart of Maani in a saucer! An
unspeakable horror shot through his whole frame as he gazed upon
the heart which, but a few days before, had bounded with delight and
joy to meet his own; and he turned away his head with a shudder.
When the operation was completed, the mummy was laid out upon
a board, and placed under a tent in the garden, in order to be still
further desiccated by the action of the air. Here it remained seven
days and nights, and the walls being low, it was necessary to keep a
strict and perpetual watch over it, lest the hyenas should enter and
devour it. Worn down as he was by fever, by watching, and by
sorrow, Pietro would intrust this sacred duty to no vulgar guardian
during the night, but, with his loaded musket in his hand, paced to
and fro before the tent through the darkness, while the howls of the
hyenas, bursting forth suddenly quite near him, as it were, frequently
startled his ear and increased his vigilance. By day he took a few
hours’ repose, while his domestics kept watch.
When this melancholy task had been duly performed, he departed,
in sickness and dejection, for the city of Lâr, where the air being
somewhat cooler and more pure, he entertained some hopes of a
recovery. Not many days after his arrival, a Syrian whom he had
known at Ispahan brought him news from Bagdad which were any
thing but calculated to cheer or console his mind. He learned that
another sister of Maani had died on the road in returning from
Persia; that the father, stricken to the soul by this new calamity, had
likewise died a few days after reaching home; and that the widow,
thus bereaved of the better part of her family, and feeling the
decrepitude of old age coming apace, was inconsolable. Our
traveller was thunderstruck. Death seemed to have put his mark on
all those whom he loved. Persia now became hateful to him. Its very
atmosphere appeared to teem with misfortunes as with clouds.
Nothing, therefore, seemed left him but to quit it with all possible
celerity.
Pietro’s desire to return to Italy was now abated, and travelling
more desirable than home; motion, the presence of strange objects,
the surmounting of difficulties and dangers, being better adapted
than ease and leisure for the dissipating of sharp grief. For this
reason he returned to the shore of the Persian Gulf, and embarked
at Gombroon on board of an English ship for India, taking along with
him the body of his wife, and a little orphan Georgian girl whom he
and Maani had adopted at Ispahan. As even a father cannot remove
his daughter, or a husband his wife, from the shah’s dominions
without an especial permission, which might not be granted without
considerable delay, Pietro determined to elude the laws, and
disguising the Georgian in the dress of a boy, contrived to get her on
board among the ship’s crew in the dusk of the evening, on the 19th
of January, 1623.
Traversing the Indian Ocean with favourable winds, he arrived on
the 10th of February at Surat, where he was hospitably entertained
by the English and Dutch residents. He found Guzerat a pleasant
country, consisting, as far as his experience extended, of rich, green
plains, well watered, and thickly interspersed with trees. From Surat
he proceeded to Cambay, a large city situated upon the extremity of
a fine plain at the bottom of the gulf of the same name. Here he
adopted the dress, and as far as possible the manners of the
Hindoos, and then, striking off a little from the coast, visited
Ahmedabad, travelling thither with a small cafila or caravan, the
roads being considered dangerous for solitary individuals. At a small
village on the road he observed an immense number of beautiful
yellow squirrels, with fine large tails, leaping from tree to tree; and a
little farther on met with a great number of beggars armed with bows
and arrows, who demanded charity with sound of trumpet. His
observations in this country, though sufficiently curious occasionally,
were the fruit of a too hasty survey, which could not enable him to
pierce deeply below the exterior crust of manners. Indeed, he seems
rather to have amused himself with strange sights, than sought to
philosophize upon the circumstances of humanity. In a temple of
Mahades in this city, where numerous Yoghees, the Gymnosophists
of antiquity, were standing like so many statues behind the sacred
lamps, he observed an image of the god entirely of crystal. On the
banks of the Sabermati, which ran close beneath the walls of the
city, numerous Yoghees, as naked as at the moment of their birth,
were seated, with matted hair, and wild looks, and powdered all over
with the ashes of the dead bodies which they had aided in burning.
Returning to Cambay, he embarked in a Portuguese ship for Goa,
a city chiefly remarkable for the number of monks that flocked thither,
and for the atrocities which they there perpetrated in the name of the
Church of Rome. Della Valle soon found that there was more
security and pleasure in living among pagans “suckled in a creed
outworn,” or even among heretics, than in this Portuguese city,
where all strangers were regarded with horror, and met with nothing
but baseness and treachery. Leaving this den of monks and traitors,
he proceeded southward along the coast, and in a few days arrived
at Onore, where he went to pay a visit to a native of distinction,
whom they found upon the shore, seated beneath the shade of some
fine trees, flanked and overshadowed, as it were, by a range of small
hills. Being in the company of a Portuguese ambassador from Goa
to a rajah of the Sadasiva race, who then held his court at Ikery, he
regarded the opportunity of observing something of the interior of the
peninsula as too favourable to be rejected, and obtained permission
to form a part of the ambassador’s suite. They set out from Onore in
boats, but the current of the river they were ascending was so rapid
and powerful, that with the aid of both sails and oars they were
unable to push on that day beyond Garsopa, formerly a large and
flourishing city, but now inconsiderable and neglected. Here the
scenery, a point which seldom commanded much of Della Valle’s
attention, however picturesque or beautiful it might be, was of so
exquisite a character, so rich, so glowing, so variable, so full of
contrasts, that indifferent as he was on that head, his imagination
was kindled, and he confessed, that turn which way soever he might,
the face of nature was marvellously delightful. A succession of hills
of all forms, and of every shade of verdure, between which valleys,
now deep and umbrageous, now presenting broad, green, sunny
slopes to the eye, branched about in every direction; lofty forests of
incomparable beauty, among which the most magnificent fruit-trees,
such as the Indian walnut, the fawfel, and the amba, were
interspersed, small winding streams, now glancing and quivering and
rippling in the sun, and now plunging into the deep shades of the
woods; while vast flights of gay tropical birds were perched upon the
branches, or skimming over the waters; all these combined certainly
formed a glorious picture, and justified the admiration of Pietro when
he exclaimed that nothing to equal it had ever met his eye. On
entering the Ghauts he perceived in them some resemblance to the
Apennines, though they were more beautiful; and to enjoy so
splendid a prospect he travelled part of the way on foot. The
Western Ghauts, which divide the vast plateau of Mysore from
Malabar, Canasen, and the other maritime provinces of the Deccan,
are in most parts covered with forests of prodigious grandeur, and in
one of these Pietro and his party were overtaken by the night.
Though “overhead the moon hung imminent, and shed her silver
light,” not a ray could descend to them through the impenetrable
canopy of the wood, so that they were compelled to kindle torches,
notwithstanding which they failed to find their way, and contented
themselves with kindling a fire and passing the night under a tree.
Ikery, the bourn beyond which they were not to proceed towards
the interior, was then an extensive but thinly-peopled city, though
according to the Hindoos it once contained a hundred thousand
inhabitants. Around it extended three lines of fortifications, of which
the exterior was a row of bamboos, thickly planted, and of enormous
height, whose lifted heads, with the beautiful flowering parasites
which crept round their stems to the summit, yielded a grateful
shade. Here he beheld a suttee, visited various temples, and saw
the celebrated dancing girls of Hindostan perform their graceful but
voluptuous postures. He examined likewise the ceremonial of the
rajah’s court, and instituted numerous inquiries into the religion and
manners of the country, upon all which points he obtained
information curious enough for that age, but now, from the more
extensive and exact researches of later travellers, of little value.
Returning to the seacoast, he proceeded southward as far as
Calicut, the extreme point of his travels. Here he faced about, as it
were, turned his eyes towards home, and began to experience a
desire to be at rest. Still, at Cananou, at Salsette, and the other parts
of India at which he touched on his return, he continued assiduously
to observe and describe, though rather from habit than any delight
which it afforded him.
On the 15th of November, 1624, he embarked at Goa in a ship
bound for Muskat, from whence he proceeded up the Persian Gulf to
Bassorah. Here he hired mules and camels, and provided all things
necessary for crossing the desert; and on the 21st of May, 1625,
departed, being accompanied by an Italian friar, Marian, the
Georgian girl, and the corpse of Maani. During this journey he
observed the sand in many places strewed with seashells, bright and
glittering as mother-of-pearl, and in others with bitumen.
Occasionally their road lay over extensive marshes, covered thickly
with reeds or brushwood, or white with salt; but at this season of the
year every thing was so dry that a spark falling from the pipe of a
muleteer upon the parched grass nearly produced a conflagration in
the desert. When they had advanced many days’ journey into the
waste, and beheld on all sides nothing but sand and sky, a troop of
Arab robbers, who came scouring along the desert upon their fleet
barbs, attacked and rifled their little caravan; and Della Valle saw
himself about to be deprived of his wife’s body, after having
preserved it so long, and conveyed it safely over so many seas and
mountains. In this fear he addressed himself to the banditti,
describing the contents of the chest, and the motives which urged
him so vehemently to desire its preservation. The Arabs were
touched with compassion. The sight of the coffin, enforcing the effect
of his eloquence, interested their hearts; so that not only did they
respect the dead, and praise the affectionate and pious motives of
the traveller, but also narrowed their demands, for they pretended to
exact dues, not to rob, and allowed the caravan to proceed with the
greater part of its wealth.
On arriving at the port of Alexandretta another difficulty arose. The
Turks would never have allowed a corpse to pass through the
custom-house, nor would the sailors of the ship in which he desired
to embark for Cyprus on any account have suffered it to come on
board. To overreach both parties, Pietro had the body enveloped in
bales of spun cotton, upon which he paid the regular duty, and thus
one further step was gained. After visiting Cyprus, Malta, and Sicily,
where he remained some short time, he set sail for Naples. Here he
found his old friend Schipano still living, and after describing to him
the various scenes and dangers through which he had passed,
moved forward towards Rome, where he arrived on the 28th of
March, 1626, after an absence of more than twelve years.
His return was no sooner made known in the city than numerous
friends and relations and the greater number of the nobility crowded
to his house, to bid him welcome and congratulate him upon the
successful termination of his travels. His presentation to the pope
took place a few days afterward, when Urban VIII. was so charmed
with his conversation and manners, that, without application or
intrigue on the part of the traveller, he was appointed his holiness’s
honorary chamberlain,—a compliment regarded at Rome as highly
flattering. In order to induce the pope to send out missionaries to
Georgia, Pietro now presented him with a short account of that
country, which he had formerly written; and the affair being seriously
taken into consideration, it was determined by the society De
Propaganda Fide that the proposed measure should be carried into
effect, and that Pietro should be regularly consulted respecting the
business of the Levant missions in general.
Early in the spring of 1627, he caused the funeral obsequies of his
wife to be celebrated with extraordinary magnificence in the church
of Aracœli at Rome. The funeral oration he himself pronounced; and
when, after describing the various circumstances of her life, and the
happiness of their union, he came to expatiate upon her beauty, his
emotions became so violent that tears and sobs choked his
utterance, and he failed to proceed. His auditors, according to some
accounts, were likewise affected even unto tears; while others relate
that they burst into a fit of laughter. If they did, the fault was in their
own hearts; for, however extravagant the manner of Della Valle may
have been, death is a solemn thing, and can never fail properly to
affect all well-constituted minds.
However, though his love for Maani’s memory seems never to
have abated, the vanity of keeping up the illustrious name of Della
Valle, and the consequent wish of leaving a legitimate offspring
behind him, reconciled a second marriage to his mind, and Marian
Tinatin, the Georgian girl whom he had brought with him from the
East, appears to have been the person selected for his second wife.
M. Eyriès asserts, but I know not upon what authority, that it was a
relation of Maani whom he married; but this seems to be extremely
improbable, since, so far as can be discovered from his travels, no
relation of hers ever accompanied him, excepting the brother and
sister who spent some time with him in Persia.
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Durability of reinforced concrete structures 1st Edition

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete Behavior Modelling and

Reinforced Concrete Structures Analysis and Design (2nd

Steel-Reinforced Concrete Structures: Assessment and

Practical Design of Reinforced Concrete Buildings 1st

Fatigue of Textile and Short Fiber Reinforced Composites

Reinforced Concrete Design to Eurocode 2 1st Edition

Hydrothermal Behavior of Fiber- and Nanomaterial-

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

For information on all Woodhead Publishing

Publisher: Matthew Deans

2 Fiber-reinforced polymer composites 11

5 Provisions for installation, quality control, and maintenance 143

6 Laboratory testing 191

7 Field testing 213

9 Design examples 251

Appendix A: Nomenclature 285

Hwai-Chung Wu and Christopher D. Eamon

Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP).

FRP has been used for strengthening applications in various industries.

1.2 FRP strengthening systems

early 1990s by seismically upgrading bridge columns in California with Glass

1.3 Composite interfacial debonding

1.4 FRP design standards and guides

Sika unidirectional (0 ) Fyfe unidirectional (0 )

Laminate physical properties

Fiber type Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon Carbon

Cured laminate mechanical properties

Table 1.2 Bidirectional laminate selection offered by Sika

Sikawrap Hex 113C Sikawrap Hex 115C

Laminate physical properties

Cured laminate mechanical properties (with Sikadur Hex 300 epoxy)

Design Test Design

Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) are design/construction guides

application, a QA/QC plan, as well as training, qualification, inspection, and maintenance

1.5 Designing with FRP reinforcement

1.5.1 Flexural strengthening

1.5.2 Shear strengthening

Vn 5 ðVc 1 Vs 1 ψVf Þ (1.2)

Af f fe ðsin α 1 cos αÞdf

1.6 Numerical modeling

1.7 Installation of EB FRP systems

2.1 FRP constituents

Table 2.1 Typical reinforcing fiber material properties

Basalt 168 13,050 435 3.2 8.0

Table 2.2 Mechanical properties of commonly used FRP epoxies

2.2 Composite interfacial adhesion and debonding

Another popular approach to model debonding is to use finite element analysis.

2.3 FRP durability

(3) constant freezing at 217.8 C resulted in a minor increase in flexural strength

Strengthening of Concrete Structures Using Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRP).

3.2.1 Unidirectional ply

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