Python Dictionary

Dictionaries are a useful data structure for storing data in Python because they are
capable of imitating real-world data arrangements where a certain value exists for a
given key.

The data is stored as key-value pairs using a Python dictionary.

o This data structure is mutable

o The components of dictionary were made using keys and values.
o Keys must only have one component.
o Values can be of any type, including integer, list, and tuple.

A dictionary is, in other words, a group of key-value pairs, where the values can be any
Python object. The keys, in contrast, are immutable Python objects, such as strings,
tuples, or numbers. Dictionary entries are ordered as of Python version 3.7. In Python 3.6
and before, dictionaries are generally unordered.

Creating the Dictionary

Curly brackets are the simplest way to generate a Python dictionary, although there are
other approaches as well. With many key-value pairs surrounded in curly brackets and a
colon separating each key from its value, the dictionary can be built. (:). The following
provides the syntax for defining the dictionary.

Syntax:

1. Dict = {"Name": "Gayle", "Age": 25}

In the above dictionary Dict, The keys Name and Age are the strings which comes
under the category of an immutable object.

Let's see an example to create a dictionary and print its content.

Code

1. Employee = {"Name": "Johnny", "Age": 32, "salary":26000,"Company":"^TCS"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)

Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Name': 'Johnny', 'Age': 32, 'salary': 26000, 'Company': TCS}

Python provides the built-in function dict() method which is also used to create the
dictionary.

The empty curly braces {} is used to create empty dictionary.

Code

1. # Creating an empty Dictionary

2. Dict = {}
3. print("Empty Dictionary: ")
4. print(Dict)
5.
6. # Creating a Dictionary
7. # with dict() method
8. Dict = dict({1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3:'Facebook'})
9. print("\nCreate Dictionary by using dict(): ")
10. print(Dict)
11.
12. # Creating a Dictionary
13. # with each item as a Pair
14. Dict = dict([(4, 'Rinku'), (2, Singh)])
15. print("\nDictionary with each item as a pair: ")
16. print(Dict)

Output

Empty Dictionary:
{}

Create Dictionary by using dict():

{1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'Facebook'}
 Dictionary with each item as a pair:
{4: 'Rinku', 2: 'Singh'}

Accessing the dictionary values

To access data contained in lists and tuples, indexing has been studied. The keys of the
dictionary can be used to obtain the values because they are unique from one another.
The following method can be used to access dictionary values.

Code

1. Employee = {"Name": "Dev", "Age": 20, "salary":45000,"Company":"WIPRO"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print("Name : %s" %Employee["Name"])
5. print("Age : %d" %Employee["Age"])
6. print("Salary : %d" %Employee["salary"])
7. print("Company : %s" %Employee["Company"])

Output

ee["Company"])
Output
<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
Name : Dev
Age : 20
Salary : 45000
Company : WIPRO

Python provides us with an alternative to use the get() method to access the dictionary
values. It would give the same result as given by the indexing.

Adding Dictionary Values

The dictionary is a mutable data type, and utilising the right keys allows you to change
its values. Dict[key] = value and the value can both be modified. An existing value can
also be updated using the update() method.

Note: The value is updated if the key-value pair is already present in the dictionary.
Otherwise, the dictionary's newly added keys.

Let's see an example to update the dictionary values.

 Example - 1:
Code

1. # Creating an empty Dictionary

2. Dict = {}
3. print("Empty Dictionary: ")
4. print(Dict)
5.
6. # Adding elements to dictionary one at a time
7. Dict[0] = 'Peter'
8. Dict[2] = 'Joseph'
9. Dict[3] = 'Ricky'
10. print("\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: ")
11. print(Dict)
12.
13. # Adding set of values
14. # with a single Key
15. # The Emp_ages doesn't exist to dictionary
16. Dict['Emp_ages'] = 20, 33, 24
17. print("\nDictionary after adding 3 elements: ")
18. print(Dict)
19.
20. # Updating existing Key's Value
21. Dict[3] = 'JavaTpoint'
22. print("\nUpdated key value: ")
23. print(Dict)

Output

Empty Dictionary:
{}

Dictionary after adding 3 elements:

{0: 'Peter', 2: 'Joseph', 3: 'Ricky'}

Dictionary after adding 3 elements:

{0: 'Peter', 2: 'Joseph', 3: 'Ricky', 'Emp_ages': (20, 33, 24)}
 Updated key value:
{0: 'Peter', 2: 'Joseph', 3: 'JavaTpoint', 'Emp_ages': (20, 33, 24)}

Example - 2:
Code

1. Employee = {"Name": "Dev", "Age": 20, "salary":45000,"Company":"WIPRO"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Enter the details of the new employee....");
6. Employee["Name"] = input("Name: ");
7. Employee["Age"] = int(input("Age: "));
8. Employee["salary"] = int(input("Salary: "));
9. Employee["Company"] = input("Company:");
10. print("printing the new data");
11. print(Employee)

Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
Employee = {"Name": "Dev", "Age": 20, "salary":45000,"Company":"WIPRO"} Enter
the details of the new employee....
Name: Sunny
Age: 38
Salary: 39000
Company:Hcl
printing the new data
{'Name': 'Sunny', 'Age': 38, 'salary': 39000, 'Company': 'Hcl'}

Deleting Elements using del Keyword

The items of the dictionary can be deleted by using the del keyword as given below.

Code

1. Employee = {"Name": "David", "Age": 30, "salary":55000,"Company":"WIPRO"}

2. print(type(Employee))
3. print("printing Employee data .... ")
4. print(Employee)
5. print("Deleting some of the employee data")
6. del Employee["Name"]
7. del Employee["Company"]
8. print("printing the modified information ")
9. print(Employee)
10. print("Deleting the dictionary: Employee");
11. del Employee
12. print("Lets try to print it again ");
13. print(Employee)

Output

<class 'dict'>
printing Employee data ....
{'Name': 'David', 'Age': 30, 'salary': 55000, 'Company': 'WIPRO'}
Deleting some of the employee data
printing the modified information
{'Age': 30, 'salary': 55000}
Deleting the dictionary: Employee
Lets try to print it again
NameError: name 'Employee' is not defined.

The last print statement in the above code, it raised an error because we tried to print
the Employee dictionary that already deleted.

Deleting Elements using pop() Method

A dictionary is a group of key-value pairs in Python. You can retrieve, insert, and remove
items using this unordered, mutable data type by using their keys. The pop() method is
one of the ways to get rid of elements from a dictionary. In this post, we'll talk about
how to remove items from a Python dictionary using the pop() method.

The value connected to a specific key in a dictionary is removed using the pop() method,
which then returns the value. The key of the element to be removed is the only
argument needed. The pop() method can be used in the following ways:

Code

1. # Creating a Dictionary
2. Dict1 = {1: 'JavaTpoint', 2: 'Educational', 3: 'Website'}
3. # Deleting a key
4. # using pop() method
5. pop_key = Dict1.pop(2)
6. print(Dict1)

Output

{1: 'JavaTpoint', 3: 'Website'}

Additionally, Python offers built-in functions popitem() and clear() for removing
dictionary items. In contrast to the clear() method, which removes all of the elements
from the entire dictionary, popitem() removes any element from a dictionary.

Iterating Dictionary
A dictionary can be iterated using for loop as given below.

Example 1
Code

1. # for loop to print all the keys of a dictionary

2. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"WIPRO"}
3. for x in Employee:
4. print(x)

Output

Name
Age
salary
Company

Example 2
Code

1. #for loop to print all the values of the dictionary

2. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"WIPRO"} for x in Em
ployee:
3. print(Employee[x])
 Output

John
29
25000
WIPRO

Example - 3
Code

1. #for loop to print the values of the dictionary by using values() method.
2. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"WIPRO"}
3. for x in Employee.values():
4. print(x)

Output

John
29
25000
WIPRO

Example 4
Code

1. #for loop to print the items of the dictionary by using items() method
2. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":25000,"Company":"WIPRO"}
3. for x in Employee.items():
4. print(x)

Output

('Name', 'John')
('Age', 29)
('salary', 25000)
('Company', 'WIPRO')

Properties of Dictionary Keys

 1. In the dictionary, we cannot store multiple values for the same keys. If we pass more
than one value for a single key, then the value which is last assigned is considered as the
value of the key.

Consider the following example.

Code

1. Employee={"Name":"John","Age":29,"Salary":25000,"Company":"WIPRO","Name":
2. "John"}
3. for x,y in Employee.items():
4. print(x,y)

Output

Name John
Age 29
Salary 25000
Company WIPRO

2. The key cannot belong to any mutable object in Python. Numbers, strings, or tuples
can be used as the key, however mutable objects like lists cannot be used as the key in a
dictionary.

Consider the following example.

Code

1. Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29, "salary":26000,"Company":"WIPRO",[100,201,30

1]:"Department ID"}
2. for x,y in Employee.items():
3. print(x,y)

Output

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "dictionary.py", line 1, in
Employee = {"Name": "John", "Age": 29,
"salary":26000,"Company":"WIPRO",[100,201,301]:"Department ID"}
TypeError: unhashable type: 'list'

Built-in Dictionary Functions

 A function is a method that can be used on a construct to yield a value. Additionally, the
construct is unaltered. A few of the Python methods can be combined with a Python
dictionary.

The built-in Python dictionary methods are listed below, along with a brief description.

o len()

The dictionary's length is returned via the len() function in Python. The string is
lengthened by one for each key-value pair.

Code

1. dict = {1: "Ayan", 2: "Bunny", 3: "Ram", 4: "Bheem"}

2. len(dict)

Output

o any()

Like how it does with lists and tuples, the any() method returns True indeed if one
dictionary key does have a Boolean expression that evaluates to True.

Code

1. dict = {1: "Ayan", 2: "Bunny", 3: "Ram", 4: "Bheem"}

2. any({'':'','':'','3':''})

Output

True

o all()

Unlike in any() method, all() only returns True if each of the dictionary's keys contain a
True Boolean value.

Code

1. dict = {1: "Ayan", 2: "Bunny", 3: "Ram", 4: "Bheem"}

2. all({1:'',2:'','':''})
 Output

False

o sorted()

Like it does with lists and tuples, the sorted() method returns an ordered series of the
dictionary's keys. The ascending sorting has no effect on the original Python dictionary.

Code

1. dict = {7: "Ayan", 5: "Bunny", 8: "Ram", 1: "Bheem"}

2. sorted(dict)

Output

[ 1, 5, 7, 8]

Built-in Dictionary methods

The built-in python dictionary methods along with the description and Code are given
below.

o clear()

It is mainly used to delete all the items of the dictionary.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # clear() method
4. dict.clear()
5. print(dict)

Output

{ }

o copy()

It returns a shallow copy of the dictionary which is created.

 Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # copy() method
4. dict_demo = dict.copy()
5. print(dict_demo)

Output

{1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'Facebook', 4: 'Amazon', 5: 'Flipkart'}

o pop()

It mainly eliminates the element using the defined key.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # pop() method
4. dict_demo = dict.copy()
5. x = dict_demo.pop(1)
6. print(x)

Output

{2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'Facebook', 4: 'Amazon', 5: 'Flipkart'}

popitem()

removes the most recent key-value pair entered

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # popitem() method
4. dict_demo.popitem()
5. print(dict_demo)
 Output

{1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'Facebook'}

o keys()

It returns all the keys of the dictionary.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # keys() method
4. print(dict_demo.keys())

Output

dict_keys([1, 2, 3, 4, 5])

o items()

It returns all the key-value pairs as a tuple.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # items() method
4. print(dict_demo.items())

Output

dict_items([(1, 'Hcl'), (2, 'WIPRO'), (3, 'Facebook'), (4, 'Amazon'), (5,

'Flipkart')])

o get()

It is used to get the value specified for the passed key.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # get() method
4. print(dict_demo.get(3))

Output

Facebook

o update()

It mainly updates all the dictionary by adding the key-value pair of dict2 to this
dictionary.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # update() method
4. dict_demo.update({3: "TCS"})
5. print(dict_demo)

Output

{1: 'Hcl', 2: 'WIPRO', 3: 'TCS'}

o values()

It returns all the values of the dictionary with respect to given input.

Code

1. # dictionary methods
2. dict = {1: "Hcl", 2: "WIPRO", 3: "Facebook", 4: "Amazon", 5: "Flipkart"}
3. # values() method
4. print(dict_demo.values())

Output

dict_values(['Hcl', 'WIPRO', 'TCS'])

Python Functions
 This tutorial will go over the fundamentals of Python functions, including what they are,
their syntax, their primary parts, return keywords, and significant types. We'll also look at
some examples of Python function definitions.

What are Python Functions?

A collection of related assertions that carry out a mathematical, analytical, or evaluative
operation is known as a function. An assortment of proclamations called Python
Capabilities returns the specific errand. Python functions are necessary for intermediate-
level programming and are easy to define. Function names meet the same standards as
variable names do. The objective is to define a function and group-specific frequently
performed actions. Instead of repeatedly creating the same code block for various input
variables, we can call the function and reuse the code it contains with different variables.

Client-characterized and worked-in capabilities are the two primary classes of

capabilities in Python. It aids in maintaining the program's uniqueness, conciseness, and
structure.

Advantages of Python Functions

Pause We can stop a program from repeatedly using the same code block by including
functions.

o Once defined, Python functions can be called multiple times and from any
location in a program.
o Our Python program can be broken up into numerous, easy-to-follow functions if
it is significant.
o The ability to return as many outputs as we want using a variety of arguments is
one of Python's most significant achievements.
o However, Python programs have always incurred overhead when calling
functions.

However, calling functions has always been overhead in a Python program.

Syntax

1. # An example Python Function

2. def function_name( parameters ):
3. # code block

The accompanying components make up to characterize a capability, as seen previously.

o The start of a capability header is shown by a catchphrase called def.

o function_name is the function's name, which we can use to distinguish it from
other functions. We will utilize this name to call the capability later in the
program. Name functions in Python must adhere to the same guidelines as
naming variables.
o Using parameters, we provide the defined function with arguments.
Notwithstanding, they are discretionary.
o A colon (:) marks the function header's end.
o We can utilize a documentation string called docstring in the short structure to
make sense of the reason for the capability.
o Several valid Python statements make up the function's body. The entire code
block's indentation depth-typically four spaces-must be the same.
o A return expression can get a value from a defined function.

Illustration of a User-Defined Function

We will define a function that returns the argument number's square when called.

1. # Example Python Code for User-Defined function

2. def square( num ):
3. """
4. This function computes the square of the number.
5. """
6. return num**2
7. object_ = square(6)
8. print( "The square of the given number is: ", object_ )

Output:

The square of the given number is: 36

Calling a Function
 Calling a Function To define a function, use the def keyword to give it a name, specify
the arguments it must receive, and organize the code block.

When the fundamental framework for a function is finished, we can call it from
anywhere in the program. An illustration of how to use the a_function function can be
found below.

1. # Example Python Code for calling a function

2. # Defining a function
3. def a_function( string ):
4. "This prints the value of length of string"
5. return len(string)
6.
7. # Calling the function we defined
8. print( "Length of the string Functions is: ", a_function( "Functions" ) )
9. print( "Length of the string Python is: ", a_function( "Python" ) )

Output:

Length of the string Functions is: 9

Length of the string Python is: 6

Pass by Reference vs. Pass by Value

In the Python programming language, all parameters are passed by reference. It shows
that if we modify the worth of contention within a capability, the calling capability will
similarly mirror the change. For instance,

Code

1. # Example Python Code for Pass by Reference vs. Value

2. # defining the function
3. def square( item_list ):
4. '''''''This function will find the square of items in the list'''
5. squares = [ ]
6. for l in item_list:
7. squares.append( l**2 )
8. return squares
9.
10. # calling the defined function
11. my_list = [17, 52, 8];
12. my_result = square( my_list )
13. print( "Squares of the list are: ", my_result )

Output:

Squares of the list are: [289, 2704, 64]

Function Arguments
The following are the types of arguments that we can use to call a function:

1. Default arguments
2. Keyword arguments
3. Required arguments
4. Variable-length arguments

1) Default Arguments
A default contention is a boundary that takes as information a default esteem, assuming
that no worth is provided for the contention when the capability is called. The following
example demonstrates default arguments.

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate the use of default arguments

2. # defining a function
3. def function( n1, n2 = 20 ):
4. print("number 1 is: ", n1)
5. print("number 2 is: ", n2)
6.
7.
8. # Calling the function and passing only one argument
9. print( "Passing only one argument" )
10. function(30)
11.
12. # Now giving two arguments to the function
13. print( "Passing two arguments" )
14. function(50,30)

Output:

Passing only one argument

number 1 is: 30
number 2 is: 20
Passing two arguments
number 1 is: 50
number 2 is: 30

2) Keyword Arguments
Keyword arguments are linked to the arguments of a called function. While summoning
a capability with watchword contentions, the client might tell whose boundary esteem it
is by looking at the boundary name.

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We can eliminate or orchestrate specific contentions in an alternate request since the

Python translator will interface the furnished watchwords to connect the qualities with
its boundaries. One more method for utilizing watchwords to summon the capability()
strategy is as per the following:

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate the use of keyword arguments

2. # Defining a function
3. def function( n1, n2 ):
4. print("number 1 is: ", n1)
5. print("number 2 is: ", n2)
6.
7. # Calling function and passing arguments without using keyword
8. print( "Without using keyword" )
9. function( 50, 30)
10.
11. # Calling function and passing arguments using keyword
12. print( "With using keyword" )
13. function( n2 = 50, n1 = 30)

Output:

Without using keyword

number 1 is: 50
number 2 is: 30
With using keyword
number 1 is: 30
number 2 is: 50

3) Required Arguments
Required arguments are those supplied to a function during its call in a predetermined
positional sequence. The number of arguments required in the method call must be the
same as those provided in the function's definition.

We should send two contentions to the capability() all put together; it will return a
language structure blunder, as seen beneath.

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate the use of default arguments

2. # Defining a function
3. def function( n1, n2 ):
4. print("number 1 is: ", n1)
5. print("number 2 is: ", n2)
6.
7. # Calling function and passing two arguments out of order, we need num1 to be 20 and
num2 to be 30
8. print( "Passing out of order arguments" )
9. function( 30, 20 )
10.
11. # Calling function and passing only one argument
12. print( "Passing only one argument" )
13. try:
14. function( 30 )
15. except:
16. print( "Function needs two positional arguments" )

Output:

Passing out of order arguments

number 1 is: 30
number 2 is: 20
Passing only one argument
Function needs two positional arguments

4) Variable-Length Arguments
We can involve unique characters in Python capabilities to pass many contentions.
However, we need a capability. This can be accomplished with one of two types of
characters:

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"args" and "kwargs" refer to arguments not based on keywords.

To help you understand arguments of variable length, here's an example.

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate the use of variable-length arguments

2. # Defining a function
3. def function( *args_list ):
4. ans = []
5. for l in args_list:
6. ans.append( l.upper() )
7. return ans
8. # Passing args arguments
9. object = function('Python', 'Functions', 'tutorial')
10. print( object )
11.
12. # defining a function
13. def function( **kargs_list ):
14. ans = []
15. for key, value in kargs_list.items():
16. ans.append([key, value])
17. return ans
18. # Paasing kwargs arguments
19. object = function(First = "Python", Second = "Functions", Third = "Tutorial")
20. print(object)

Output:

['PYTHON', 'FUNCTIONS', 'TUTORIAL']

[['First', 'Python'], ['Second', 'Functions'], ['Third', 'Tutorial']]

return Statement
When a defined function is called, a return statement is written to exit the function and
return the calculated value.

Syntax:

1. return < expression to be returned as output >

The return statement can be an argument, a statement, or a value, and it is provided as

output when a particular job or function is finished. A declared function will return an
empty string if no return statement is written.

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A return statement in Python functions is depicted in the following example.

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate the use of return statements

2. # Defining a function with return statement
3. def square( num ):
4. return num**2
5.
6. # Calling function and passing arguments.
7. print( "With return statement" )
8. print( square( 52 ) )
9.
10. # Defining a function without return statement
11. def square( num ):
12. num**2
13.
14. # Calling function and passing arguments.
15. print( "Without return statement" )
16. print( square( 52 ) )

Output:

With return statement

2704
Without return statement
None

The Anonymous Functions

Since we do not use the def keyword to declare these kinds of Python functions, they
are unknown. The lambda keyword can define anonymous, short, single-output
functions.

Arguments can be accepted in any number by lambda expressions; However, the

function only produces a single value from them. They cannot contain multiple
instructions or expressions. Since lambda needs articulation, a mysterious capability
can't be straightforwardly called to print.

Lambda functions can only refer to variables in their argument list and the global
domain name because they contain their distinct local domain.

In contrast to inline expressions in C and C++, which pass function stack allocations at
execution for efficiency reasons, lambda expressions appear to be one-line
representations of functions.

Syntax

Lambda functions have exactly one line in their syntax:

1. lambda [argument1 [,argument2... .argumentn]] : expression

 Below is an illustration of how to use the lambda function:

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate ananymous functions

2. # Defining a function
3. lambda_ = lambda argument1, argument2: argument1 + argument2;
4.
5. # Calling the function and passing values
6. print( "Value of the function is : ", lambda_( 20, 30 ) )
7. print( "Value of the function is : ", lambda_( 40, 50 ) )

Output:

Value of the function is : 50

Value of the function is : 90

Scope and Lifetime of Variables

A variable's scope refers to the program's domain wherever it is declared. A capability's
contentions and factors are not external to the characterized capability. They only have a
local domain as a result.

The length of time a variable remains in RAM is its lifespan. The lifespan of a function is
the same as the lifespan of its internal variables. When we exit the function, they are
taken away from us. As a result, the value of a variable in a function does not persist
from previous executions.

An easy illustration of a function's scope for a variable can be found here.

Code

1. # Python code to demonstrate scope and lifetime of variables

2. #defining a function to print a number.
3. def number( ):
4. num = 50
5. print( "Value of num inside the function: ", num)
6.
7. num = 10
8. number()
9. print( "Value of num outside the function:", num)

Output:

Value of num inside the function: 50

Value of num outside the function: 10

Here, we can see that the initial value of num is 10. Even though the function number()
changed the value of num to 50, the value of num outside of the function remained
unchanged.

This is because the capability's interior variable num is not quite the same as the outer
variable (nearby to the capability). Despite having a similar variable name, they are
separate factors with discrete extensions.

Factors past the capability are available inside the capability. The impact of these
variables is global. We can retrieve their values within the function, but we cannot alter
or change them. The value of a variable can be changed outside of the function if it is
declared global with the keyword global.

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Python Capability inside Another Capability

Capabilities are viewed as top-of-the-line objects in Python. First-class objects are
treated the same everywhere they are used in a programming language. They can be
stored in built-in data structures, used as arguments, and in conditional expressions. If a
programming language treats functions like first-class objects, it is considered to
implement first-class functions. Python lends its support to the concept of First-Class
functions.

A function defined within another is called an "inner" or "nested" function. The

parameters of the outer scope are accessible to inner functions. Internal capabilities are
developed to cover them from the progressions outside the capability. Numerous
designers see this interaction as an embodiment.

Code

1. # Python code to show how to access variables of a nested functions

2. # defining a nested function
3. def word():
4. string = 'Python functions tutorial'
5. x=5
6. def number():
7. print( string )
8. print( x )
9.
10. number()
11. word()

Output:

Python functions tutorial

5

Python Built-in Functions

The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is pre-
defined in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always present
for use. These functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several built-in
functions in Python which are listed below:

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes only
one argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument can be
an integer and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number, then, abs()
returns its magnitude.

Python abs() Function Example

1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))

Output:

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Absolute value of -20 is: 20

Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83

Python all() Function

The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It
returns true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the
iterable object is empty, the all() function returns True.

Python all() Function Example

1. # all values true

2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]
3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10. k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11. print(all(k))
12.
13. # one true value
14. k = [0, False, 5]
15. print(all(k))
16.
17. # empty iterable
18. k = []
19. print(all(k))

Output:
 True
False
False
False
True

Python bin() Function

The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified
integer. A result always starts with the prefix 0b.

Python bin() Function Example

1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)

Output:

0b1010

Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard truth
testing procedure.

Python bool() Example

1. test1 = []
2. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
3. test1 = [0]
4. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
5. test1 = 0.0
6. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
7. test1 = None
8. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
9. test1 = True
10. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
11. test1 = 'Easy string'
12. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))

Output:

[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False
True is True
Easy string is True

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Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an immutable
version of the bytearray() function.

It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.

Python bytes() Example

1. string = "Hello World."

2. array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
3. print(array)

Output:

b ' Hello World.'

Python callable() Function

A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-in
function checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable, otherwise
false.

Python callable() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(callable(x))
 Output:

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False

Python compile() Function

The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object
which can later be executed by exec() function.

Python compile() Function Example

1. # compile string source to code

2. code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
3. code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
4. print(type(code))
5. exec(code)
6. exec(x)

Output:

<class 'code'>
sum = 15

Python exec() Function

The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program which
can either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code, unlike the eval()
function which only accepts a single expression.

Python exec() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. exec('print(x==8)')
3. exec('print(x+4)')

Output:
 True
12

Python sum() Function

As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an
iterable, i.e., list.

Python sum() Function Example

1. s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
2. print(s)
3.
4. s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
5. print(s)
ADVERTISEMENT

Output:

7
17

Python any() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise, it
returns False.

Python any() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))

Output:

True
False
True
False

Python ascii() Function

The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of an
object and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U escapes.

Python ascii() Function Example

1. normalText = 'Python is interesting'

2. print(ascii(normalText))
3.
4. otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
5. print(ascii(otherText))
6.
7. print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')

Output:

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'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting

Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into
bytearray objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.

Python bytearray() Example

1. string = "Python is a programming language."
2.
3. # string with encoding 'utf-8'
4. arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
5. print(arr)

Output:

bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')

Python eval() Function

The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python
expression(code) within the program.

Python eval() Function Example

1. x = 8
2. print(eval('x + 1'))

Output:

Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or string.

Python float() Example

1. # for integers
2. print(float(9))
3.
4. # for floats
5. print(float(8.19))
6.
7. # for string floats
8. print(float("-24.27"))
9.
10. # for string floats with whitespaces
11. print(float(" -17.19\n"))
12.
13. # string float error
14. print(float("xyz"))

Output:

9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'

Python format() Function

The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given value.

Python format() Function Example

1. # d, f and b are a type

2.
3. # integer
4. print(format(123, "d"))
5.
6. # float arguments
7. print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
8.
9. # binary format
10. print(format(12, "b"))

Output:

123
123.456790
1100
 Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized with
elements from the given iterable.

Python frozenset() Example

1. # tuple of letters
2. letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
3.
4. fSet = frozenset(letters)
5. print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
6. print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())

Output:

Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})

Empty frozen set is: frozenset()

Python getattr() Function

The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If it is
not found, it returns the default value.

Python getattr() Function Example

1. class Details:
2. age = 22
3. name = "Phill"
4.
5. details = Details()
6. print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
7. print('The age is:', details.age)

Output:

The age is: 22

The age is: 22
 Python globals() Function
The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

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Python globals() Function Example

1. age = 22
2.
3. globals()['age'] = 22
4. print('The age is:', age)

Output:

The age is: 22

Python hasattr() Function

The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise it
returns False.

Python hasattr() Function Example

1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10. l = []
11. print(any(l))
 Output:

True
False
True
False

Python iter() Function

The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object which
can be iterated one element at a time.

Python iter() Function Example

1. # list of numbers
2. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
3.
4. listIter = iter(list)
5.
6. # prints '1'
7. print(next(listIter))
8.
9. # prints '2'
10. print(next(listIter))
11.
12. # prints '3'
13. print(next(listIter))
14.
15. # prints '4'
16. print(next(listIter))
17.
18. # prints '5'
19. print(next(listIter))

Output:

1
2
 3
4
5

Python len() Function

The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an
object.

Python len() Function Example

1. strA = 'Python'
2. print(len(strA))

Output:

Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.

Python list() Example

1. # empty list
2. print(list())
3.
4. # string
5. String = 'abcde'
6. print(list(String))
7.
8. # tuple
9. Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
10. print(list(Tuple))
11. # list
12. List = [1,2,3,4,5]
13. print(list(List))
 Output:

[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]

Python locals() Function

The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local
symbol table.

A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.

Python locals() Function Example

1. def localsAbsent():
2. return locals()
3.
4. def localsPresent():
5. present = True
6. return locals()
7.
8. print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
9. print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())

Output:

localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}

Python map() Function

The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given
function to each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).

Python map() Function Example

1. def calculateAddition(n):
2. return n+n
3.
4. numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
5. result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
6. print(result)
7.
8. # converting map object to set
9. numbersAddition = set(result)
10. print(numbersAddition)

Output:

<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>

{8, 2, 4, 6}

Python memoryview() Function

The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given
argument.

Python memoryview () Function Example

1. #A random bytearray
2. randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
3.
4. mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
5.
6. # access the memory view's zeroth index
7. print(mv[0])
8.
9. # It create byte from memory view
10. print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
11.
12. # It create list from memory view
13. print(list(mv[0:3]))
 Output:

65
b'AB'
[65, 66, 67]

Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and holds
the built-in properties and methods which are default for all the classes.

Python object() Example

1. python = object()
2.
3. print(type(python))
4. print(dir(python))

Output:

<class 'object'>
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__',
'__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__',
'__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__',
'__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__']

Python open() Function

The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.

Python open() Function Example

1. # opens python.text file of the current directory

2. f = open("python.txt")
3. # specifying full path
4. f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")

Output:
 Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for reading.

Python chr() Function

Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points to a
Unicode code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function takes an
integer argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The standard
range of the argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.

Python chr() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char
3. result2 = chr(112)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
7. # Verify, is it string type?
8. print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)

Output:

ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)

Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex number.
This method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex number. The first
parameter is called a real and second as imaginary parts.

Python complex() Example

1. # Python complex() function example

2. # Calling function
3. a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
4. b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
5. # Displaying result
6. print(a)
7. print(b)

Output:

(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)

Python delattr() Function

Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two
parameters, first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want to
delete. After deleting the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws an error
if try to call it using the class object.

Python delattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "Pranshu"
4. email = "pranshu@abc.com"
5. # Declaring function
6. def getinfo(self):
7. print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
8. s = Student()
9. s.getinfo()
10. delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
11. s.getinfo() # error: throws an error

Output:

101 Pranshu pranshu@abc.com

AttributeError: course

Python dir() Function

 Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the object on
which method is called has a method named __dir__(), this method will be called and
must return the list of attributes. It takes a single object type argument.

Python dir() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. att = dir()
3. # Displaying result
4. print(att)

Output:

['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__',

'__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__']

Python divmod() Function

Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers. This
function takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are required
and numeric

Python divmod() Function Example

1. # Python divmod() function example

2. # Calling function
3. result = divmod(10,2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)

Output:

(5, 0)

Python enumerate() Function

 Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two parameters,
first is a sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the sequence. We can
get the elements in sequence either through a loop or next() method.

Python enumerate() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = enumerate([1,2,3])
3. # Displaying result
4. print(result)
5. print(list(result))

Output:

<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>

[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]

Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python dictionary
provides three different constructors to create a dictionary:

o If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.

o If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-value
pairs. Otherwise, pass an iterable object.
o If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
added to the dictionary created from the positional argument.

Python dict() Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
3. result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:
 {}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}

Python filter() Function

Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two
arguments, first is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a
sequence of those elements of iterable object for which function returns true value.

The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only
elements that are true.

Python filter() Function Example

1. # Python filter() function example

2. def filterdata(x):
3. if x>5:
4. return x
5. # Calling function
6. result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
7. # Displaying result
8. print(list(result))

Output:

[6]

Python hash() Function

Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates the
hash value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used to
compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types which
are given below:

Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code object.

Python hash() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hash(21) # integer value
3. result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

21
461168601842737174

Python help() Function

Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the call. It
takes an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is given, it
shows the Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.

Python help() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. info = help() # No argument
3. # Displaying result
4. print(info)

Output:

Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!

Python min() Function

Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This
function takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key, and
returns the smallest element from the collection.

Python min() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
3. small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(small)
6. print(small2)

Output:

325
1000.25

Python set() Function

In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It is
used to create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable
object as an argument and returns a new set object.

Python set() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = set() # empty set
3. result2 = set('12')
4. result3 = set('javatpoint')
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
8. print(result3)

Output:

set()
{'1', '2'}
{'a', 'n', 'v', 't', 'j', 'p', 'i', 'o'}

Python hex() Function

 Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes an
integer argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In case,
we want to get a hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.

Python hex() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = hex(1)
3. # integer value
4. result2 = hex(342)
5. # Displaying result
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)

Output:

0x1
0x156

Python id() Function

Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is
guaranteed to be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a
unique integer number which represents identity. Two objects with non-overlapping
lifetimes may have the same id() value.

Python id() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = id("Javatpoint") # string object
3. val2 = id(1200) # integer object
4. val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
5. # Displaying result
6. print(val)
7. print(val2)
8. print(val3)

Output:
 139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504

Python setattr() Function

Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes three
arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It is helpful
when we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.

Python setattr() Function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 0
3. name = ""
4.
5. def __init__(self, id, name):
6. self.id = id
7. self.name = name
8.
9. student = Student(102,"Sohan")
10. print(student.id)
11. print(student.name)
12. #print(student.email) product error
13. setattr(student, 'email','sohan@abc.com') # adding new attribute
14. print(student.email)

Output:

102
Sohan
sohan@abc.com

Python slice() Function

Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of elements.
Python provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes a single
 argument while the second function takes three arguments and returns a slice object.
This slice object can be used to get a subsection of the collection.

Python slice() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. result = slice(5) # returns slice object
3. result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)

Output:

slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)

Python sorted() Function

Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in an
ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments and
returns a collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only keys, not
values.

Python sorted() Function Example

1. str = "javatpoint" # declaring string

2. # Calling function
3. sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
4. # Displaying result
5. print(sorted1)

Output:

['a', 'a', 'i', 'j', 'n', 'o', 'p', 't', 't', 'v']

Python next() Function

 Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two
arguments, i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.

This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the
error, we can set a default value.

Python next() Function Example

1. number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator

2. # Calling function
3. item = next(number)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(item)
6. # second item
7. item = next(number)
8. print(item)
9. # third item
10. item = next(number)
11. print(item)

Output:

256
32
82

Python input() Function

Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the user
input and reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and returns it. It
throws an error EOFError if EOF is read.

Python input() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = input("Enter a value: ")
3. # Displaying result
4. print("You entered:",val)
 Output:

Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45

Python int() Function

Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression converted
into an integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the conversion truncates the
number. If the argument is outside the integer range, then it converts the number into a
long type.

If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.

Python int() Function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = int(10) # integer value
3. val2 = int(10.52) # float value
4. val3 = int('10') # string value
5. # Displaying result
6. print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)

Output:

integer values : 10 10 10

Python isinstance() Function

Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an instance of
that class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise returns False. It
also returns true if the class is a subclass.

The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then it
returns either True or False.

Python isinstance() function Example

1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "John"
4. def __init__(self, id, name):
5. self.id=id
6. self.name=name
7.
8. student = Student(1010,"John")
9. lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
10. # Calling function
11. print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
12. print(isinstance(lst, Student))

Output:

True
False

Python oct() Function

Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This method
takes an argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It throws an
error TypeError, if argument type is other than an integer.

Python oct() function Example

1. # Calling function
2. val = oct(10)
3. # Displaying result
4. print("Octal value of 10:",val)

Output:

Octal value of 10: 0o12

Python ord() Function

 The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for the
given Unicode character.

Python ord() function Example

1. # Code point of an integer

2. print(ord('8'))
3.
4. # Code point of an alphabet
5. print(ord('R'))
6.
7. # Code point of a character
8. print(ord('&'))

Output:

56
82
38

Python pow() Function

The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x to
the power of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y modulus z,
i.e. (x, y) % z.

Python pow() function Example

1. # positive x, positive y (x**y)

2. print(pow(4, 2))
3.
4. # negative x, positive y
5. print(pow(-4, 2))
6.
7. # positive x, negative y (x**-y)
8. print(pow(4, -2))
9.
10. # negative x, negative y
11. print(pow(-4, -2))

Output:

16
16
0.0625
0.0625

Python print() Function

The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard
output devices.

Python print() function Example

1. print("Python is programming language.")

2.
3. x = 7
4. # Two objects passed
5. print("x =", x)
6.
7. y = x
8. # Three objects passed
9. print('x =', x, '= y')

Output:

Python is programming language.

x = 7
x = 7 = y

Python range() Function

The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting from 0
by default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.

Python range() function Example

1. # empty range
2. print(list(range(0)))
3.
4. # using the range(stop)
5. print(list(range(4)))
6.
7. # using the range(start, stop)
8. print(list(range(1,7 )))

Output:

[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

Python reversed() Function

The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.

Python reversed() function Example

1. # for string
2. String = 'Java'
3. print(list(reversed(String)))
4.
5. # for tuple
6. Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
7. print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
8.
9. # for range
10. Range = range(8, 12)
11. print(list(reversed(Range)))
12.
13. # for list
14. List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
15. print(list(reversed(List)))
 Output:

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']

['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]

Python round() Function

The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the floating
point number.

Python round() Function Example

1. # for integers
2. print(round(10))
3.
4. # for floating point
5. print(round(10.8))
6.
7. # even choice
8. print(round(6.6))

Output:

10
11
7

Python issubclass() Function

The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is a
subclass of second class(second argument).

Python issubclass() Function Example

1. class Rectangle:
2. def __init__(rectangleType):
3. print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
4.
5. class Square(Rectangle):
6. def __init__(self):
7. Rectangle.__init__('square')
8.
9. print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
10. print(issubclass(Square, list))
11. print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
12. print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))

Output:

True
False
True
True

Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.

Python str() Function Example

1. str('4')

Output:

'4'

Python tuple() Function

The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.

Python tuple() Function Example

1. t1 = tuple()
2. print('t1=', t1)
3.
4. # creating a tuple from a list
5. t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
6. print('t2=', t2)
7.
8. # creating a tuple from a string
9. t1 = tuple('Java')
10. print('t1=',t1)
11.
12. # creating a tuple from a dictionary
13. t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
14. print('t1=',t1)

Output:

t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)

Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is passed
to the type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns a new type
object.

Python type() Function Example

1. List = [4, 5]
2. print(type(List))
3.
4. Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
5. print(type(Dict))
6.
7. class Python:
8. a=0
9.
10. InstanceOfPython = Python()
11. print(type(InstanceOfPython))
 Output:

<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class '__main__.Python'>

Python vars() function

The python vars() function returns the __dict__ attribute of the given object.

Python vars() Function Example

1. class Python:
2. def __init__(self, x = 7, y = 9):
3. self.x = x
4. self.y = y
5.
6. InstanceOfPython = Python()
7. print(vars(InstanceOfPython))

Output:

{'y': 9, 'x': 7}

Python zip() Function

The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of multiple
containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator that aggregates
the elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of tuples.

Python zip() Function Example

1. numList = [4,5, 6]
2. strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
3.
4. # No iterables are passed
5. result = zip()
6.
7. # Converting itertor to list
8. resultList = list(result)
9. print(resultList)
10.
11. # Two iterables are passed
12. result = zip(numList, strList)
13.
14. # Converting itertor to set
15. resultSet = set(result)
16. print(resultSet)

Output:

[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}