Photovoltaic

Photovoltaic (PV) devices generate electricity directly from sunlight

via an electronic process that occurs naturally in certain types of
material, called semiconductors. Electrons in these materials are freed
by solar energy and can be induced to travel through an electrical
circuit, powering electrical devices or sending electricity to the grid.

PV devices can be used to power anything from small electronics

such as calculators and road signs up to homes and large
commercial businesses.

Photons strike and ionize semiconductor material on the solar panel,

causing outer electrons to break free of their atomic bonds. Due to the
semiconductor structure, the electrons are forced in one direction
creating a flow of electrical current. Solar cells are not 100% efficient
in crystalline silicon solar cells, in part because only certain light
within the spectrum can be absorbed. Some of the light spectrum is
reflected, some is too weak to create electricity (infrared) and some
(ultraviolet) creates heat energy instead of electricity.
In addition to crystalline silicon (c-Si), there are two other main types
of PV technology:

 Thin-film PV is a fast-growing but small part of the commercial

solar market. Many thin-film firms are start-ups developing
experimental technologies. They are generally less efficient – but
often cheaper – than c-Si modules.
 In the United States, concentrating PV arrays are found primarily
in the desert Southwest. They use lenses and mirrors to reflect
concentrated solar energy onto high-efficiency cells. They
require direct sunlight and tracking systems to be most effective.
 Building-integrated photovoltaics serve as both the outer layer of
a structure and generate electricity for on-site use or export to the
grid. BIPV systems can provide savings in materials and
electricity costs, reduce pollution, and add to the architectural
appeal of a building.

Photovoltaic (solar cell) Systems

Solar cells convert sunlight directly into electricity. Solar cells are
often used to power calculators and watches. They are made of
semiconducting materials similar to those used in computer chips.
When sunlight is absorbed by these materials, the solar energy knocks
electrons loose from their atoms, allowing the electrons to flow
through the material to produce electricity. This process of converting
light (photons) to electricity (voltage) is called the photovoltaic (PV)
effect.

Solar cells are typically combined into modules that hold up to 72

cells; a number of these modules are mounted in PV arrays that can
measure up to several meters on a side. These flat-plate PV arrays can
be mounted at a fixed angle facing south, or they can be mounted on a
tracking device that follows the sun, allowing them to capture the
most sunlight over the course of a day. Several connected PV arrays
can provide enough power for a household; for large electric utility or
industrial applications, hundreds of arrays can be interconnected to
form a single, large PV system.
Thin film solar cells use layers of semiconductor materials only a few
micrometers thick. Thin film technology has made it possible for solar
cells to now double as rooftop shingles, roof tiles, building facades, or
the glazing for skylights or atria. The solar cell version of items such
as shingles offer the same protection and durability as ordinary
asphalt shingles.

The performance of a solar cell is measured in terms of its efficiency

at turning sunlight into electricity. Only sunlight of certain energies
will work efficiently to create electricity, and much of it is reflected or
absorbed by the material that make up the cell. Because of this, a
typical commercial solar cell in 2019 has an efficiency of about 19-22
percent, meaning about one-fifth of the sunlight striking the cell
generates electricity. Low efficiencies mean that larger arrays are
needed, and that means higher cost. Improving solar cell efficiencies
while holding down the cost per cell is an important goal of the PV
industry, NREL researchers, and other U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) laboratories, and they have made significant progress. The first
solar cells, built in the 1950s, had efficiencies of less than 4%.

Advantages of Photovoltaic

 Electricity produced by solar cells is clean and silent. Because

they do not use fuel other than sunshine, PV systems do not
release any harmful air or water pollution into the environment,
deplete natural resources, or endanger animal or human health.
 Photovoltaic systems are quiet and visually unobtrusive.
 Small-scale solar plants can take advantage of unused space on
rooftops of existing buildings.
 PV cells were originally developed for use in space, where
repair is extremely expensive, if not impossible. PV still powers
nearly every satellite circling the earth because it operates
reliably for long periods of time with virtually no maintenance.
 Solar energy is a locally available renewable resource. It does
not need to be imported from other regions of the country or
across the world. This reduces environmental impacts associated
with transportation and also reduces our dependence on
 imported oil. And, unlike fuels that are mined and harvested,
when we use solar energy to produce electricity we do not
deplete or alter the resource.
 A PV system can be constructed to any size based on energy
requirements. Furthermore, the owner of a PV system can
enlarge or move it if his or her energy needs change. For
instance, homeowners can add modules every few years as their
energy usage and financial resources grow. Ranchers can use
mobile trailer-mounted pumping systems to water cattle as the
cattle are rotated to different fields.

Disadvantages

 Some toxic chemicals, like cadmium and arsenic, are used in the
PV production process. These environmental impacts are minor
and can be easily controlled through recycling and proper
disposal.
 Solar energy is somewhat more expensive to produce than
conventional sources of energy due in part to the cost of
manufacturing PV devices and in part to the conversion
efficiencies of the equipment. As the conversion efficiencies
continue to increase and the manufacturing costs continue to
come down, PV will become increasingly cost competitive with
conventional fuels.
 Solar power is a variable energy source, with energy production
dependent on the sun. Solar facilities may produce no power at
all some of the time, which could lead to an energy shortage if
too much of a region's power comes from solar power.
Solar cell

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined

as an electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy
through the photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction
diode. Solar cells are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device
whose electrical characteristics – such as current, voltage, or
resistance – vary when exposed to light.
Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly
known as solar panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell
can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to
0.6 volts

Construction of Solar Cell

A solar cell is basically a junction diode, although its construction it is
little bit different from conventional p-n junction diodes. A very thin
layer of p-type semiconductor is grown on a relatively thicker n-type
semiconductor. We then apply a few finer electrodes on the top of the
p-type semiconductor layer.
These electrodes do not obstruct light to reach the thin p-type layer.
Just below the p-type layer there is a p-n junction. We also provide a
current collecting electrode at the bottom of the n-type layer. We
encapsulate the entire assembly by thin glass to protect the solar cell
from any mechanical shock.
Working Principle of Solar Cell
When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter
in the junction, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the
form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a
number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal
equilibrium condition of the junction. The free electrons in the
depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type
side of the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to
the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier
potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side
cannot further cross the junction became of same barrier potential of
the junction. As the concentration of electrons becomes higher in one
side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes
becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the
p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A voltage is set up
which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across
the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

Types of photovoltaic cells

Photovoltaic cells or PV cells can be manufactured in many different
ways and from a variety of different materials. Despite this difference,
they all perform the same task of harvesting solar energy and
converting it to useful electricity. The most common material for solar
panel construction is silicon which has semiconducting properties.
Several of these solar cells are required to construct a solar panel and
many panels make up a photovoltaic array.
There are three types of PV cell technologies that dominate the
world market:
monocrystalline silicon,
polycrystalline silicon,
and thin film.
Higher efficiency PV technologies, including gallium arsenide and
multi-junction cells, are less common due to their high cost, but are
ideal for use in concentrated photovoltaic systems and space
applications. There is also an assortment of emerging PV cell
technologies which include Perovskite cells, organic solar cells, dye-
sensitized solar cells and quantum dots.
Monocrystalline Silicon Cell
The first commercially available solar cells were made from
monocrystalline silicon, which is an extremely pure form of silicon.
To produce these, a seed crystal is pulled out of a mass of molten
silicon creating a cylindrical ingot with a single, continuous, crystal
lattice structure. This crystal is then mechanically sawn into thin
wafers, polished and doped to create the required p-n junction. After
an anti-reflective coating and the front and rear metal contacts are
added, the cell is finally wired and packaged alongside many other
cells into a full solar panel. Monocrystalline silicon cells are
highly efficient, but their manufacturing process is slow and labour
intensive, making them more expensive than their polycrystalline or
thin film counterparts.

Polycrystalline Silicon Cell

Instead of a single uniform crystal structure, polycrystalline (or
multicrystalline) cells contain many small grains of crystals be made
by simply casting a cube-shaped ingot from molten silicon, then sawn
and packaged similar to monocrystalline cells. Another method
known as edge-defined film-fed growth (EFG) involves drawing a
thin ribbon of polycrystalline silicon from a mass of molten silicon. A
cheaper but less efficient alternative, polycrystalline silicon PV cells
dominate the world market, representing about 70% of global PV
production in 2015

Thin Film Cells

Although crystalline PV cells dominate the market, cells can also be
made from thin films—making them much more flexible and durable.
One type of thin film PV cell is amorphous silicon (a-Si) which is
produced by depositing thin layers of silicon on to a glass substrate.
The result is a very thin and flexible cell which uses less than 1% of
the silicon needed for a crystalline cell Due to this reduction in raw
material and a less energy intensive manufacturing process,
amorphous silicon cells are much cheaper to produce.
Their efficiency, however, is greatly reduced because the silicon
atoms are much less ordered than in their crystalline forms leaving
'dangling bonds' that combine with other elements making them
electrically inactive. These cells also suffer from a 20% drop in
efficiency within the first few months of operation before stabilizing,
and are therefore sold with power ratings based on their degraded
output.
Other types of thin film cells include copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These cell
technologies offer higher efficiencies than amorphous silicon, but
contain rare and toxic elements including cadmium which requires
extra precautions during manufacture and eventual recycling

Solar Cell power loss

The power loss of solar module consists of the optical power loss and
the electrical power loss. The optical power loss of solar module is
caused by tempered glass with a low iron content and the ethylene-
vinyl-acetate (EVA) copolymer encapsulants, the electrical power loss
is caused by mismatch of solar cells, resistance of ribbon, and
resistance of junction box. It is found that the power loss is mainly
caused by the resistance of ribbon and mismatch of solar cells.

Solar cell temperature & irradiation effect

Solar photovoltaics (PV) is a promising solution to combat against
energy crisis and environmental pollution. However, the high
manufacturing cost of solar cells along with the huge area required for
well‐sized PV power plants are the two major issues for the
sustainable expansion of this technology. Concentrator technology is
one of the solutions of the abovementioned problem. As concentrating
the solar radiation over a single cell is now a proven technology, so
attempt has been made in this article to extend this concept over PV
module. High irradiation intensity from 1000 to 3000 W/m2 has been
investigated to measure the power and energy of PV cell. The
numerical simulation has been conducted using finite element
technique. At 3000 W/m2 irradiation, the electrical power increases
by about 190 W compared with 63 W at irradiation level of
1000 W/m2. At the same time, at 3000 W/m2 irradiation, the thermal
energy increases by about 996 W compared with 362 W at
1000 W/m2 irradiation. Electrical power and thermal energy are
enhanced by about 6.4 and 31.3 W, respectively, for each
100‐W/m2 increase of solar radiation. The overall energy is increased
by about 179.06% with increasing irradiation level from 1000 to
3000 W/m2. It is concluded that the effect of high solar radiation
using concentrator can significantly improve the overall output of the
PV module.

Effect of Temperature

Like all other semiconductor devices, solar cells are sensitive to

temperature. Increases in temperature reduce the bandgap of a
semiconductor, thereby effecting most of the semiconductor material
parameters. The decrease in the band gap of a semiconductor with
increasing temperature can be viewed as increasing the energy of the
electrons in the material. Lower energy is therefore needed to break
the bond. In the bond model of a semiconductor bandgap, a reduction
in the bond energy also reduces the bandgap. Therefore increasing the
temperature reduces the bandgap.

In a solar cell, the parameter most affected by an increase in

temperature is the open-circuit voltage. The impact of increasing
temperature is shown in the figure below.
The open-circuit voltage decreases with temperature because of the
temperature dependence of I0. The equation for I0 from one side of
a p-n junction is given by;

where:
q is the electronic charge given in the constants page;
A is the area
D is the diffusivity of the minority carrier given for silicon as a
function of doping in the Silicon Material Parameters page;
L is the minority carrier diffusion length;
ND is the doping; and
ni is the intrinsic carrier concentration given for silicon in the Silicon
Material Parameters page.

In the above equation, many of the parameters have some temperature

dependence, but the most significant effect is due to the intrinsic
carrier concentration, ni. The intrinsic carrier concentration depends
on the bandgap energy (with lower bandgaps giving a higher intrinsic
carrier concentration), and on the energy which the carriers have (with
higher temperatures giving higher intrinsic carrier concentrations).
The equation for the intrinsic carrier concentration is;

where:
T is the temperature;
h and k are constants given in the constants page;
me and mh are the effective masses of electrons and holes,
respectively;
EGO is the bandgap linearly extrapolated to absolute zero; and
B is a constant which is essentially independent of temperature.
Substituting these equations back into the expression for I 0, and
assuming that the temperature dependencies of the other parameters
can be neglected, gives;

where B' is a temperature independent constant. A constant, γ, is used

instead of the number 3 to incorporate the possible temperature
dependencies of the other material parameters. For silicon solar cells
near room temperature, I0 approximately doubles for every 10 °C
increase in temperature.

VOC

The impact of I0 on the open-circuit voltage can be calculated by

substituting the equation for I0 into the equation for Voc as shown
below;

where EG0 = qVG0. Assuming that dVoc/dT does not depend on dIsc/dT,
dVoc/dT can be found as;

The above equation shows that the temperature sensitivity of a solar

cell depends on the open-circuit voltage of the solar cell, with higher
voltage solar cells being less affected by temperature. For silicon,
EG0 is 1.2, and using γ as 3 gives a reduction in the open-circuit
voltage of about 2.2 mV/°C;
ISC

The short-circuit current, Isc, increases slightly with temperature since

the bandgap energy, EG, decreases and more photons have enough
energy to create e-h pairs. However, this is a small effect, and the
temperature dependence of the short-circuit current from a silicon
solar cell is typically;

or 0.06% per °C for silicon.

The change of ISC with temperature is more dependent upon the

design of the cell than the semiconductor material properties. A lower
performance cell with little light trapping and a poor performance in
long wavelengths near the band edge will have very little change in
ISC with temperature. Conversely, a cell with a high response near the
band edge will see a much larger change in ISC with temperature. In
either case, the change of I SC with temperature is smaller than the
change of VOC.

The temperature dependency FF for silicon is approximated by the

following equation;

The effect of temperature on the maximum power output, Pm, is;

or 0.4% to 0.5% per °C for silicon.

Photo voltaic Applications

Solar Farms
Many acres of PV panels can provide utility-scale power—from tens
of megawatts to more than a gigawatt of electricity. These large
systems, using fixed or sun-tracking panels, feed power into
municipal or regional grids.

Remote Locations
It is not always cost-effective, convenient, or even possible to extend
power lines to locations where electricity is needed. PV can be the
solution—for rural homes, villages in developing nations,
lighthouses, offshore oil platforms, desalination plants, and remote
health clinics.

Stand-Alone Power
In urban or remote areas, PV can power stand-alone devices, tools,
and meters. PV can meet the need for electricity for parking meters,
temporary traffic signs, emergency phones, radio transmitters, water
irrigation pumps, stream-flow gauges, remote guard posts, lighting for
roadways, and more.

Power in Space
From the beginning, PV has been a primary power source for Earth-
orbiting satellites. High-efficiency PV has supplied power for
ventures such as the International Space Station and surface rovers on
the Moon and Mars, and it will continue to be an integral part of space
and planetary exploration.
Building-Related Needs
In buildings, PV panels mounted on roofs or ground can supply
electricity. PV material can also be integrated into a building’s
structure as windows, roof tiles, or cladding to serve a dual purpose.
In addition, awnings and parking structures can be covered with PV to
provide shading and power.

Military Uses
Lightweight, flexible thin-film PV can serve applications in which
portability or ruggedness are critical. Soldiers can carry lightweight
PV for charging electronic equipment in the field or at remote bases.

Transportation

PV can provide auxiliary power for vehicles such as cars and boats.
Automobile sunroofs can include PV for onboard power needs or
trickle-charging batteries. Lightweight PV can also conform to the
shape of airplane wings to help power high-altitude aircraft.

Solar thermal

Solar thermal is a popular choice for many householders, mainly

because of the relatively low capital cost and the ability of the
system to benefit a wide range of houses. Unlike solar photovoltaics,
solar thermal does not produce electricity. The panels are designed
to warm water which, depending on the set up, can be used to supply
hot water to the home or even to heat water for swimming pools or
small central heating systems.

Solar thermal systems use the heat from the sun to warm a special
heat transfer fluid inside the collector plates. This fluid is either
passed through a heat exchanger in a hot water storage tank where it
warms the water inside or in some cases is returned to the cylinder
directly, and then returns to the plates to be heated again. Solar
thermal is suitable for most homes that have a south or southeast /
southwest facing roof space, and require a lot less space than
photovoltaics; usually around 1m2 compared to 3m2 for PV.
Parts of a solar thermal system
In a typical domestic solar system, there will be three main parts:

 A solar collector: The visible panel that is placed on top of the

roof to capture the heat from the sun.
 A pump: To move the heat transfer fluid around the system.
Some systems use natural convection to achieve this, in a
process known as ‘thermosyphoning’, but the majority use an
electric pump.
 A hot water tank: Hot water tanks for solar thermal systems
tend to be larger than the average hot water tank. Many homes
will have a backup electric immersion or even a boiler system
to heat the water to the required temperature when the heat
from the sun is not adequate, so they may need to have two or
even three inlets for heat exchangers, as well as an outlet to
return heat transfer fluid to the solar collector.
Types of system
The two main types of system are:

 Open loop: This system passes water from the tank directly
through the solar panel where it is heated and then returned to
the tank. These types of systems are generally cheaper to
install, but come with the potential problem of pipes freezing in
the winter, and a lower general heat transfer efficiency.
 Closed loop: This system uses a fluid similar to antifreeze to
transfer heat from the solar collector to the water in the tank.
Because this requires a special type of tank containing a heat
exchanger, this system is more expensive to install, but thanks
to the properties of the transfer fluids use, allows for a much
higher heat generation to occur.
Types of solar collectors
Solar thermal panels are very simple in their operation, and in fact it
has been known for people to create basic solar collectors from old
radiators painted black. However, when it comes to creating enough
heat to make them a viable addition to a domestic home, a little
more thought needs to be put into the design and selection of the
panels. The two main options you will have are flat plate or
evacuated tube.

 Flat plate collectors: Usually the cheaper option, flat plate

collectors have a black or very dark coloured chrome surface
absorber, which is usually protected with safety glass. This
allows efficient absorption of heat and minimal heat losses.
Running through the absorber are a series of flow tubes
containing either water or antifreeze, which pass through the
collector in loops to maximise heat transfer. Underneath this is
a layer of insulation, which minimises heat losses from the
panel and protects the roof underneath.
 Evacuated tube collectors: These types of collectors are made
up of a series of vacuum tubes, each of which is made from
glass. Inside they have an inner tube, coated with a material to
maximise the heat absorption. Inside this is a pipe which
circulates the heat transfer fluid around the panel.

The flat-plate solar collectors are probably the most fundamental

and most studied technology for solar-powered domestic hot water
systems. The overall idea behind this technology is pretty simple.
The Sun heats a dark flat surface, which collect as much energy as
possible, and then the energy is transferred to water, air, or other
fluid for further use.

These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:

 Black surface - absorbent of the incident solar energy

 Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the
absorber, but prevents radiative and convective heat loss from the
surface
 Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the
collector
 Support structure to protect the components and hold them in
place
 Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce
heat losses

The flat plate collectors are still among the most popular devices to
intercept and exploit solar energy. The absorbed solar energy is
transferred to a fluid passing in contact with its absorber plate.
Increasing the efficiency of such a device has aroused the interest of
many investigators.
The main part of such a system is its absorber plate whose thermal
performance affects essentially its efficiency.
To study the thermal response of the collector one has to get
information on the incident global solar irradiance q (t), W/m 2 and its
variation along the local day time.
This represents an essential input parameter to study the performance
theoretically.
Several trials are made to predict the function q (t).
In the present study q (t) is considered.
Absorbers of different material such as: Copper, Aluminum, Steel,
Glass and Mica are treated.
Water is considered in the present study as the working fluid.
Other factors affect the efficiency of the collector as the water rate of
flow, selective coatings of the front surface of the absorber, heat
losses by convection and radiation, the surface absorptivity of the
surface.

Heating Problem
In setting up the problem it is assumed that the solar insolation q (t)
W/m2 is received on the upper surface of the absorber plate, where it
will be partly reflected and partly absorbed (1-R) q (t) W/m 2. The
absorbed energy will induce heating effects within the absorber. This
part of heat energy will be transferred to the working fluid glazing its
near surface.
A thin absorber is considered in this study thus neglecting any
temperature gradient across its thickness.
A simple device for the collector is shown in fig. (1). The absorber is
kept in a horizontal position. The problem is thus treated as one
dimensional problem.
Figure 1: Simple model of a flat plate collector.

The accepted distribution q (t)9 has the form:

It is a symmetrical distribution about the midday time t 0 = tmax =

td/2 with maximum irradiance qmax, W/m2 at t = tmax, where td is the
length of the solar day. The value of “t d” is given in terms of the
latitude “L” and the solar declination “δ”19 as follows:
Determination of the temperature of the absorber.
To find the temperature absorber, let us write the heat balance
equation in the form:

The first term represents the heat energy absorbed by the absorber,
“R” is the reflectance of the front surface, “h”, (W/m 2K) is the heat
transfer by convection at the front surface, “δ”, (kg/m 3) is the density
of the absorber material, “l”, (m) is thickness of the absorber, and Θ(t)
= (T – T0) is the excess temperature relative to the ambient
temperature “T0”.
Heat losses due to radiation (infrared emission) are neglected.
Equation (4) has an integrating factor:

Substituting the distribution equation (1) in equation (6) and

performing the included integration, one gets the solution for q(t)
expressed as follows:
Determination of the temperature of the working fluid temperature:
Let the thin absorber of thickness “l”, (m) represents the upper ceiling
for a reservoir of dimensions Lx, Ly and Lz,
(m). The upper surface of the thin absorber of area S x = Ly Lz, (m2) is
subjected to the incident solar radiation q(t), W/m2.
The x-axis is taken vertically downwards. It is coincident with the
direction of the incident radiation. The volume of the absorber
material is Vabs = lmLyLz, m3. The volume of the reservoir is Vres =
LxLyLz, m3.
The sides of the reservoir are assumed to be thermally insulated. The
working fluid enters the reservoir from the faced S y = Lz Lx, (m2) and
emerges from the opposite sides. For simplicity, let Ly = Lz = 1m.
The fluid flows along the y-direction with velocity v y,(m/s), and
volumetric rate:

Thus, the heat balance equation concerning the working fluid within
an interval of time Δt is written in the form:
The first term on the right-hand side of equation (11) represents the
heat energy stored in the working fluid within the reservoir. In an
interval of time Δt. The second term represents the heat energy gained
by the flowing fluid during the same interval Δt, s.
The efficiency η:
The efficiency of the flat plate collector within a certain interval of
time Δt = ∫0t dt, s, is defined through the equation:

Substituting the distribution equation (1) in equation (14) and

performing the included integration, one gets the efficiency expressed
as follows :

Evacuated Tube Collectors

This type of solar collector uses a series of evacuated tubes to heat
water for use.[ These tubes utilize a vacuum, or evacuated space, to
capture the suns energy while minimizing the loss of heat to the
surroundings. They have an inner metal tube which acts as the
absorber plate, which is connected to a heat pipe to carry the heat
collected from the Sun to the water. This heat pipe is essentially a
pipe where the fluid contents are under a very particular pressure. At
this pressure, the "hot" end of the pipe has boiling liquid in it while
the "cold" end has condensing vapour. This allows for thermal energy
to move more efficiently from one end of the pipe to the other. Once
the heat from the Sun moves from the hot end of the heat pipe to the
condensing end, the thermal energy is transported into the water being
heated for use.

Concentrating collector

A concentrating collector comprises a receiver, where the radiation is

absorbed and converted to some other energy form, and
a concentrator, which is the optical system that directs beam radiation
onto the receiver.

Concentrating collectors provide energy at temperatures higher than

those of FPCs and ETCs. They redirect solar radiation passing
through an aperture into an absorber and usually require tracking of
the Sun. In concentrating collectors, solar energy is optically
concentrated before being transferred into heat.
Concentration can be obtained by reflection or refraction of solar
radiation by the use of mirrors or lens. A concentrating collector
exhibits certain advantages and disadvantages as compared with the
conventional flat-plate-type collector.
Concentrating collectors can also be classified into non-imaging and
imaging depending on whether the image of the Sun is focused at the
receiver or not. The concentrator belonging in the first category is the
compound parabolic collector (CPC) whereas all the other types of
concentrators belong to the imaging type. The collectors falling in this
category are

parabolic trough collector (PTC);

linear Fresnel reflector (LFR);

parabolic dish reflector (PDR).

Parabolic concentrator- A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal

collector that is straight in one dimension and curved as a parabola in
the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The sunlight which
enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is focused along
the focal line, where objects are positioned that are intended to be
heated. In a solar cooker, for example, food is placed at the focal line
of a trough, which is cooked when the trough is aimed so the Sun is in
its plane of symmetry.
For other purposes, a tube containing a fluid runs the length of the
trough at its focal line. The sunlight is concentrated on the tube and
the fluid heated to a high temperature by the energy of the sunlight.
The hot fluid can be piped to a heat engine, which uses the heat
energy to drive machinery, or to generate electricity. This solar energy
collector is the most common and best known type of parabolic
trough.
When heat transfer fluid is used to heat steam to drive a standard
turbine generator, thermal efficiency ranges from 60-80%. The overall
efficiency from collector to grid, i.e. (Electrical Output Power)/(Total
Impinging Solar Power) is about 15%, similar to PV (Photovoltaic
Cells) but less than Stirling dish concentrators. Large-scale solar
thermal power plants need a method for storing the energy, such as
a thermocline tank, which uses a mixture of silica sand and quartzite
rock to displace a significant portion of the volume in the tank. It is
then filled with the heat transfer fluid, typically a molten nitrate salt.

Compound Parabolic Concentrators (CPCs)

are designed to efficiently collect and concentrate distant light
sources, with some acceptance angle.Compound Parabolic
Concentrators are critical components in solar energy collection,
wireless communication, biomedical and defense research, or for any
applications requiring condensing of a divergent light source.
CPC Design Concepts - An interesting design for a concentrating
collector makes use of the fact that when the rim of a parabola is tilted
toward the sun, the rays are no longer concentrated to a point, but are
all reflected somewhere below the focus. The rays striking the half
of the parabola which is now tilted away from the sun are reflected
somewhere above the focus. This can be seen on Figure where the
rays on the right-hand side are reflecting below the focus and the rays
on the left-hand side are reflecting above the focus. If the half
parabola tilted away from the sun is discarded, and replaced with a
similarly shaped parabola with its rim pointed toward the sun, we
have a concentrator that reflects (i.e. traps) all incoming rays to a
region below the focal point.

Figure : Off-axis light reflection from parabolic mirror.

Since the rays are no longer concentrated to a single point, this design
is called a non-imaging concentrator. A receiver is now placed in the
region below the focus and we have a concentrator that will ´trap´ sun
rays coming from any angle between the focal line of the two
parabola segments. Receivers can be flat plates at the base of the
intersection of the two parabola, or a cylindrical tube passing through
the region below the focus.

The basic shape of the compound parabolic concentrator (CPC) is

illustrated in Figure The name, compound parabolic concentrator,
derives from the fact that the CPC is comprised of two parabolic
mirror segments with different focal points as indicated. The focal
point for parabola A (FA) lies on parabola B, whereas the focal point
of parabola B (FB) lies on parabola A. The two parabolic surfaces are
symmetrical with respect to reflection through the axis of the CPC.

Figure The compound parabolic concentrator (CPC).

The axis of parabola A is also shown in Figure 9.10 and, by

definition, passes through the focal point of parabola A and the axis of
parabola B likewise passes through the focal point of parabola B. The
angle that the axes of the parabola A and B make with axis of the
CPC defines the acceptance angle of the CPC. Light with an
incidence angle less than one-half the acceptance angle will be
reflected through the receiver opening . Light with an incidence angle
greater than one-half the acceptance angle will not be reflected to the
receiver opening and will, in fact, eventually be reflected back out
through the aperture of the CPC.

Figure Light reflection from the CPC. a) Incidence angle less than
acceptance angle; b) Incidence angle greater than acceptance angle.

The concentrating ability of the CPC can be understood through the

use of ray tracing diagrams.

If beam solar irradiance parallel to the axis of parabola A were

incident on the CPC shown in Figure , the light would be perfectly
focused (ignoring the 0.5 degree solar degree-width and any mirror
inaccuracies) to point FA, the focal point of parabola A. The behavior
of beam solar irradiance not parallel to the axis of parabola A is
shown in Figure . that all of the solar irradiance incident on the right
half of the parabola is reflected such that it passes beneath the focal
point between the focal point and the surface of the parabolic mirror.
If the right half of the parabola in Figure is tilted up to angle one-half
the acceptance angle in order to approximate the orientation of
parabola A in Figure , the situation would be analogous to that
depicted in Figure . All incident beam solar irradiance that is inclined
to the right of the axis of the parabola in Figure would he reflected by
the right hand segment of the parabola beneath the focal point. Thus
such solar irradiance would enter the receiver opening of an
equivalent CPC.

The converse situation is true where the angle of incidence is greater

than one-half the acceptance angle. This situation is represented by
the left half of the parabola in Figure . In this situation, all the
incident beam solar irradiance is reflected above the focal point of the
parabola and would not, as indicated in Figure , enter the receiver
opening of an equivalent CPC.

In operation, the CPC is usually deployed with its linear receiver

aligned along an E/W line. The aperture of the CPC is typically tilted
toward the south so that the incident solar irradiance enters within the
acceptance angle of the CPC. Provided the sun’s apparent motion
does not result in the incident solar irradiance falling outside the
CPC’s acceptance angle, the CPC’s aperture need not be tracked.
Typically, a CPC’s aperture need not be tracked on an hourly basis
throughout a day since the sun’s declination does not change more
than the acceptance angle throughout a day. However, the tilt of the
CPC may have to be adjusted periodically throughout the year if the
incident solar irradiance moves outside the acceptance angle of the
CPC.

Fresnel lens concentrators

A solar concentrator uses lenses, called Fresnel lenses, which take a

large area of sunlight and direct it towards a specific spot by bending
the rays of light and focusing them. Some people use the same
principle when they use a magnifying lens to focus the Sun's rays on a
pile of kindling or paper to start fires.
How a Fresnel lens works.
Drawing not to scale---the lenses and cells are both much smaller than
the Sun!

Fresnel lenses are shaped like a dart board, with concentric rings of
prisms around a lens that's a magnifying glass. All of these features let
them focus scattered light from the Sun into a tight beam.

A Fresnel lens from the front.

Solar concentrators put one of these lenses on top of every solar cell.
This makes much more focused light come to each solar cell, making
the cells vastly more efficient. Concentrators work best when there is
a single source of light and the concentrator can be pointed right at it.
This is ideal in space, where the Sun is a single light source.

The solar concentrators also have the advantage that the solar cells
can be spaced farther apart since light can be focused on each cell.
This means fewer solar cells need to be made and the panels cost less
to construct. In addition, engineers can now put thick glass or plastic
over the solar panel to protect it from micrometorites, something they
would have a hard time doing if they had to worry about allowing
enough light to reach the solar cells.

Fresnel lenses have been around since Augustin Jean Fresnel invented
them in 1822. Theaters use them for spotlights and lighthouses use
them to make their lights visible at greater distances.
A heliostat
is a device that includes a mirror, usually a plane mirror, which turns
so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a predetermined target,
compensating for the sun's apparent motions in the sky. The target
may be a physical object, distant from the heliostat, or a direction in
space. To do this, the reflective surface of the mirror is kept
perpendicular to the bisector of the angle between the directions of the
sun and the target as seen from the mirror. In almost every case, the
target is stationary relative to the heliostat, so the light is reflected in a
fixed direction.
Heliostats should be distinguished from solar trackers or sun-trackers,
which always point directly at the sun in the sky. However, some
types of heliostat incorporate sun-trackers, together with additional
components to bisect the sun-mirror-target angle.
The principal uses of heliostats are for daylighting (bringing daylight
into a space that would otherwise be poorly illuminated), and in the
generation of electricity in solar-thermal power stations. They are also
occasionally used, or have been used in the past, in surveying, in
astronomy and other sciences, to produce very high temperatures in
solar furnaces, to improve illumination for agriculture, and to direct
constant sunlight onto solar cookers. During the 19th Century, they
were used by painters and other artists in order to provide constant,
bright illumination of their subjects.
The word "heliostat" is derived from the Greek "helios" meaning
"sun" and "stat" meaning "stationary". It is related to various English
words that refer to the sun, and also to the name of the gas helium,
which was discovered spectroscopically on the sun before it was
known on the earth. It is not related to the Greek or Latin "helix"
meaning "spiral", nor to English words descended from it such as

"helicopter".

Active Solar Heating Systems

Solar heating systems are classified as “active” or “passive” solar
heating systems, or a combination of both. We will first look at active
systems.Active solar heating systems are comprised of collectors, a
distribution system, and a storage device.

Active solar heating systems operate as follows:

 Flat plate collectors are usually placed on the roof or ground in the
sunlight. The top or sunny side has a glass or plastic cover to let
the solar energy in. The inside space is a black (absorbing) material
to maximize the absorption of the solar energy.
 Cold water is drawn from the storage tank by pump #1 and is
pumped through the flat plate collector mounted on the roof of the
house.
 The water absorbs the solar energy and is returned back to the tank.
 Warm water from the tank is pumped by pump #2 though the
heating coil.
 The fan blows air (from the room) over the heated coil, and the
heated air then passes into the room and heats the room.
 Cold air sinks to the bottom and is recirculated over the heating
coil.

Passive Solar Heating Systems

Passive systems do not use mechanical devices such as fans, blowers,
or pumps to distribute solar heat from a collector. Instead, they take
advantage of natural heat flow to distribute warmth. An example of a
passive system for space heating is a sunspace or solar greenhouse.
Passive systems also make use of materials with large heat capacities
(stone, water, or concrete) to store and deliver heat. These are called
thermal masses.

Passive systems can be categorized into three types:

 Direct Gain - Allows the solar energy to come in through the
south-facing window panes.
 Indirect Gain - Allows the solar radiation to heat a wall and then
the energy is slowly delivered into the interior of the house.
Openings in the wall (called a Trombe Wall), as shown in the
figure below, promote convective currents:
o Cold room air enters the space between the glass panel and the
wall through the bottom opening.
o As this cold air gets heated, it rises to the top and comes in
through the top opening.
 Greenhouse Addition - An attached sunspace and/or solar
greenhouse heated by the solar energy - where some of the energy
is used to grow the plants and some of it is used to heat the interior
of the house.