DEPARTMENT OF HUMANITIES AND SCIENCE

PH23211 – PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT II SEMICONDUCTOR PHYSICS

IIntrinsic Semiconductors - Energy band diagram - direct and indirect band gap

semiconductors - Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors - extrinsic semicon-

ductors - Variation of carrier concentration with temperature - variation of Fermi level

with temperature and impurity concentration - Hall effect and devices.

FACULTY HOD DEAN

 2. Semiconductor Physics
2.1. Introduction
Semiconducting material has electrical conductivity between a good conductor and a good
insulator. It is simply called semiconductor. It is a special class of material which is very
small in size and sensitive to heat, light and electricity.
Semiconducting materials behave as insulators at low temperature and as conductors at high
temperature. Moreover, those materials have two types of charge carriers i.e., electrons and
holes.
Germanium and silicon are two important elemental semiconductor. They are used in LEDs
and Laser diodes. The study of semiconducting materials is essential for engineers due to their
wide applications in semiconductor devices in engineering and technology.
The invention of semiconductors opened a new branch of technology called solid state
electronics. It leads to the development of ICs, microprocessors computers and
supercomputers. In short, semiconductors play a vital role in almost all advanced electronic
devices.
2.2. Definition
Based on electrical resistance
Semiconductor has electrical resistance which is lesser than an insulator but more than that of
a conductor. Its electrical conductivity is in the order of 10-4 to 0.5 ohm meter.
Based on energy band
A semiconductor has nearly an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a
small energy gap (0.1eV)
Properties
 They have crystalline structure
 Bonding between the atoms is formed by covalent bond
 They have empty conduction band at 0 K
 They have almost filled valence band
 The energy gap is small
 They exhibit negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
 If impurities (or) temperature of the semiconductor increases, electrical conductivity
also increases.
2.3. Classification of semiconductors
Semiconductors are classified mainly based on the composition of the materials. They are
(i) Elemental semiconductors
(ii) Compound semiconductors

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Elemental semiconductors are made from a single element of fourth group of elements in
periodic table. They are also called as indirect bandgap semiconductors. Example: Germanium
(0.72 eV), Silicon (1.1 eV). These semiconductors are used in diode, transistors, etc.,
Compound semiconductors are formed by combining third and fifth group (or) second and six
group elements in the periodic table. They are also called as indirect bandgap semiconductors.
Characteristics
 The compound semiconductor have large forbidden gap and carrier mobility
 They are formed by both ionic and covalent bonds.
 The recombination takes place directly and light photons are emitted in visible (or)
infrared region.
 Eg: GaAs, InP (III & V); ZnS, MgO (II a& VI)
These compounds are used in photovoltaic cell, LED and laser diodes.
2.4. Differences between elemental and compound semiconductors

S.No Elemental semiconductors Compound semiconductors

1 They are made of single element They are made of compounds
Eg: Ge, Si Eg: GaAs, CdS, MgO
2 They are known as indirect band gap They are known as direct bandgap
semiconductors semiconductors
3 Electron-hole pair recombination Electron-hole pair recombination takes place
takes place through traps which is directly with each other
present in the band gap
4 Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less due to direct
due to indirect recombination recombination
5 Heat energy is produced during Light photons are emitted during
recombination recombination
6 They carry more current They carry less current
7 They are used for making diodes and They are used for making LEDs and laser
transistors diodes.

2.5. Direct and indirect bandgap semiconductors

Semiconductors are classified in to (a) Direct bandgap semiconductor, (b) Indirect bandgap
semiconductor.
The electrons and holes in a semiconductor have energy and momentum. The momentum (k)
depends on energy (E). The lower curves represent energy and momentum values of holes in
valence band of semiconductor. Similarly upper curve denote corresponding values for
electrons in conduction band.
Indirect band gap semiconductor, the energy maximum of valence band and the energy
minimum of the conduction band are having some momentum value.
During recombination of electron from conduction band with hole in valence band, the
momentum of the electrons remains virtually constant. The energy equal to band gap energy is
released as light photon.
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But, in the case of indirect band gap semiconductor, the maximum energy of valence band and
minimum energy of conduction band are having different values of momentum. During
recombination, electron first loses momentum such that it has momentum equal to the
momentum corresponding to energy maximum of valence band. To conserve the momentum,
emission of third particle known as a photon is generated. Thus, in this type of recombination
photon is produced.

2.6. Intrinsic semiconductors

A semiconductor in extremely pure form is called intrinsic semiconductor. Its electrical
conductivity is changed only by thermal excitation.
The common examples for intrinsic semiconductors are pure silicon (Si) and germanium (Ge).
They belong to fourth group elements in the periodic table. Germanium has 32 electrons and
silicon has 14 electrons in their atomic structures. They are tetravalent atoms since they have
four valence electrons. The neighbouring atoms from covalent bonds by sharing four electrons
with each other so as to form a stable structure.
Energy band diagram

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 Figure shows a 2D crystal structure of Silicon and energy band representation of intrinsic
semiconductor at very low temperature. At very low temperature say 0 K, no free electrons are
available for conduction. Hence, this semiconductor behaves as an insulator at very low
temperature.
2.7. Charge carriers in intrinsic semiconductors
To get free electrons, covalent bonds must be broken. There are many ways of breaking the
covalent bond and setting electron free. One such way is to increase temperature above 0 K.
When the temperature of intrinsic semiconductor is increased, some of the electron get
sufficient energy to break covalent bonds. Once the electrons are liberated from bond, they
become free electrons and move randomly throughout the crystal. The energy required to break
the covalent bond depends on the semiconductors. For example Ge requires 0.72 eV while Si
required 1.1 eV to break the bond which is the bandgap energy Eg. When an electron acquires
energy Eg, it jumps from valence band to conduction band. As a result a vacant is created in
valence band. This vacant site is called as hole. A hole can attract an electron and hence it acts
as a positive charge.
When an electric field is applied these free electrons acquire directional motion and contribute
to electrical conductivity. For every electron freed from covalent band, one hole is created in
the crystal. It is relatively easy for a valence electron in a neighbouring atom to leave its
covalent bond and fill this hole.
As a result, an electron moving from a covalent bond to fill a hole leaves behind a hole in its
original position. The hole effectively moves in a direction opposite to that of an electron. The
hole in its new position may now be filled by an electron from another covalent bond. Thus
hole will correspondingly move one more step in the direction opposite to the motion of the
electron. Therefore, in intrinsic semiconductor, current conduction is due to the movement of
both electrons and holes. Here, the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes at any
given temperature.
2.8. Carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductors (derivation)
Definition
The number of electrons in conduction band per unit volume of the material is called as electron
concentration (n)
The number of holes in valence band per unit volume of the materials is called the hole
concentration (p)
The number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called carrier concentration
(or) density of charge carriers.
Density of electrons in conduction band (n)
The number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called carrier concentration or
density of charge carriers

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Electrons in Conduction Band
The number of electrons whose energy lies in the range dn = Z (E) F (E) dE (1)
“E” & “E+dE” in the conduction band is given by

Where Z (E) – density of states in the energy ranges ‘E’ &’E + dE’
F (E) – Probability of number of electron occupying in the conduction band
The number of electrons in the conduction band for the entire region is calculated by integrating
equation (1) from top energy level ‘Ec’ to bottom energy level ‘α’


i.e., n  Z ( E ) F ( E )dE
Ec
(2)

W.K.T, Density of states in the conduction band in the

energy range ‘E’ & ‘E+dE’ is given by Z (E) dE = 43  2m  2 E 2 dE

3 1
(3)
h

+α
The bottom edge of the conduction band (Ec) Conduction Band

represents the potential energy of an electron at rest. Therefore, ＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠

Ec
(E - Ec) is the kinetic energy of the conduction electron at higher EF
energy levels. Therefore the equation (3) is modified as Ev
Fig(i) ＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠

-α
Valence band

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 4 3

3  e   E  Ec  dE
1
* 2
Z (E) dE = 2 m 2 (4)
h
Since the electron is moving in a periodic potential, its mass m is replaced by its effective
mass me*.
1
The probability of electron occupancy is given by F ( E )  ( E  EF )/ kT
(5)
1 e

4 3

 
1
1
Substituting (4) & (5) in (2), we get, n  E h3 e 2 m* 2
 E  E  2 
( E  EF )/ kT
dE (6)
1 e
c
c

E  EF E  EF
For all possible temperature, E – EF >>kT, hence in the denominator, 1  e kT
e kT

1
4 3 
 E  E 2
Now equation (6) becomes, n  3  2me   ( E  EF )/ckT dE
* 2

h Ec
e

4 3 1
n  3  2me  e
EF  E  / kT
 (E  E )
* 2 2
(or) c dE
h Ec


4 3 1

3  e  2  E / kT
(or) n 2 m* 2 EF / kT
e ( E  Ec ) e dE (7)
h Ec

To solve this, assume the following:

E - Ec = x E = Ec E = +α
E = Ec + x Ec - Ec = x α – Ec = x
dE = dx x=0 x=α

4 3 1 
n  3  2me  e  x 2 e  c  dx
* 2 EF / kT  E  x / kT
Now,
h 0

4 3 1 

3  e 
 EF  Ec / kT
n  2  x / kT
* 2
(or) 2 m e x e dx (8)
h 0

3 1
 1
 kT  2  2
Using gamma function, x
0
2
e x/ kT dx 
2
(9)

3 1

4 3
 kT  2  2
Substituting eqn. (9) in (8), we get, n  3  2me*  2 e F c
 E  E  / kT

h 2

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 3
 2 me*kT  2 ( EF  EC )/ kT
(or) n  2  e (10)
 h2 

This is the expression of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.

Concentration of holes in the Valence band
We know that if an electron is transferred from valence band to conduction band, a hole is
created in valence band. Let dp be the number of holes in the valence band for the energy range
E & E+dE.
dp = Z (E) (1 – F (E)) dE (11)
Where Z (E) – Density of states in the energy range E & E+dE
(1 – F(E) ) – Probability of unoccupied (vacant) electron state (presence of hole) in valence
band

 (1 – F (E)) dE = 1  1 1  e( E  EF )/ kT  1 e( E EF )/ kT
  (12)
1  e( E  EF )/ kT 1  e( E  EF )/ kT 1  e( E  EF )/ kT
( EE
 E < EF in valence band, (E –EF) has negative quantity & hence in denominator e F ) / kT
is
very small when compared with 1, hence 1  e 1
( E  E ) / kT F

1  F ( E )  e( E EF )/ kT (13)

Ev is the top level in the valence band and having potential energy of a hole at rest. Hence
(Ev – E) is the kinetic energy of the hole at level below EV. Hence,

Density of states in the valence band is Z ( E )dE  4  2m*  2  E  E  2 dE

3 1

3 h V
(14)
h
Where, mh* - effective mass of the hole in the valence
band
4 3

 
1
dp  2 mh
* 2
 EV  E  2 e
( E  EF )/ kT
dE (15)
Substituting equation (14), (13) in (11), we get, h3
The number of holes in the valence band for the entire energy range is obtained by integrating
Above equation between the limits –α to EV

4
EV 3

 2mh*  2  EV  E  2 e( E EF )/ kT dE
1
i.e.,  dp  

h3

4 3 EV

 2m 
1

  EV  E  2 e E / kT dE
 EF / kT
(or) dp  3
*
h
2 e (16)
h 

To solve this, assume the following:

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 Ev - E = x E=-α E = Ev
E = Ev - x Ev -(- α) = x Ev– Ev = x
dE = - dx x=α x=0

4 3 1 0

3  h
2  x  E v  / kT

 EF / kT
p 2 m* 2
e x e ( dx)
h 

4 3 1 

(or) p  3  2mh  e
* 2  Ev  EF / kT
 x 2 e  x / kT dx (17)
h 0

3 1
 1
 kT  
2 2
Using gamma function, x
0
2
e x/ kT dx 
2
(18)

3 1

4 3
 E  E / kT  kT  2  2
3 
Substituting eqn (18) in (17), we get, p  2mh*  e v f 2 
h 2
3
 2 mh*kT  2 ( Ev  EF )/ kT
(or) p  2  e (19)
 h2 

This is the expression of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration:

In intrinsic semiconductor, carrier concentration of electrons in conduction band (ni) =
carrier concentration of holes in valence band np &
hence the intrinsic carrier concentration is ni2= ni x np
3 3
 2 me*kT  2 ( EF EC )/ kT  2 mh*kT  2 ( Ev EF )/ kT
ni 2  2  2  e  2  2  e (20)
 h   h 

 2 kT 
3 3

(or) ni  4  2   me*  mh*  2 e( Ev Ec )/ kT

2

 h 

 2 kT 
3 3

  me  mh  e
* 2  Eg / kT
(or) ni  4 
2 *
(21)
 h 
2

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 3 Eg
3
 2 kT  2
 

(or) ni  2   me  mh
* * 4 2 kT
e
 h 
2

Where Ec – Ev = Eg is the forbidden energy gap.

Fermi level and its variation with temperature
Fermi level is a characteristic energy level of the material. The position of Fermi level is
important in determining the electron and hole concentrations in a semiconductor.
In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons in conduction band is equal to the number
of holes in valence band.
i.e., n = p
Substitute the values from equations (10) and (19), we get
3/2 3/2
 2 mh*kT   Ev  E f / kT  2 me*kT   E f  Ec / kT
2 2  e  2   2  e
 h   h 

(or)  mh*  e 
  me*  e
 E f Ec / kT
3/2 Ev  E f / kT 3/2

3/2
 m*   E  E / kT
(or)  h*  e v c   e f f
E  E / kT

 me 
3/2
 m*   2 E / kT
(or)  h*  e v c   e f
E  E / kT

 me 

  m* 3/2 E  E / kT 
  me 



 2 E / kT
(or) log   h*  e v c    log e f  
3/2
 mh* 
 
2E f
 log e
Ev  Ec  / kT
(or) log  * 
 me  kT
3/2
 m*  Ev  Ec 2 E f
(or) log  h*   
 me  kT kT

kT   mh*   E E
3/2

(or) E f   log    v c
2   me*   2
 

3kT  m*  E  Ec
(or) E f  log  h*   v (23)
4  me  2

 m* 
If mh* = me*, then log e  h*   log e 1  0 ,
 me 
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 Ev  Ec
Then equation 23 becomes E f  (24)
2
Thus, Fermi level is located half way between the top of valence band and bottom of conduction
band. Its position is independent of temperature. In reality, mh* > me*, Fermi level is just above
the middle of energy gap and it rises slightly with increasing temperature.

Limitations
Intrinsic semiconductors cannot be directly used to fabricate devices due to:
 Electrical conductivity is low. Eg: Ge has 1.67 Ω-1 m-1 which is 107 times smaller than
copper
 Electrical conductivity is a function of temperature and increases exponentially
as temperature increases.
 The carrier concentration of electrons and holes are very low at normal temperatures.

2.9. Extrinsic Semiconductors

The application of intrinsic semiconductors is restricted due to its low conductivity.
In electronic devices, high conducting semiconductors are more essential. The concentration
of either electrons or holes in a semiconductor is increased depending upon the requirements
in the electronic devices.

Extrinsic Semiconductors are classified into two categories based on the concentration of
the charge carriers namely:
1. n – type semiconductors (electrons), and
2. p – type semiconductors (holes).

2.9.1. n – type semiconductors

When a pentavalent atom such as arsenic (antimony, bismuth, phosphorus) is added as a dopant
to the tetravalent silicon atom, the arsenic atom will occupy one site of the silicon atom. Thus,
out of five free electrons in arsenic, four electrons make covalent bonds with the four

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neighbouring silicon atoms and the fifth one is loosely bound to the silicon atom, as shown in
fig. 2

Fig. 2 Doping in n-type semiconductors.

The energy required to ionize the fifth electron is very less and hence, the thermal energy
of the material shifts the free electron to the conduction band. Each arsenic atom contributes
one free electron to the crystal and hence, it is called a donor impurity. In this type of
semiconductor, the concentration of charge carriers (i.e., electrons) is more than that of holes.
Therefore, these semiconductors are called n-type semiconductors. In an n-type semiconductor,
electrons are the majority carriers while holes are the minority carriers.
2.9.2. p - type semiconductors
Instead of a pentavalent atom, the addition of a trivalent atom indium (In) to the tetravalent
silicon atom, occupies the crystal site of the silicon atom as shown in Fig.3

Fig.3

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 The three valence electrons in indium make covalent bands with the three neighbouring silicon
atoms, whereas the fourth bond has an empty space known as hole due to the deficiency of one
electron. Therefore, when a trivalent atom is added to silicon, it creates a hole in the valence
band. The dopant (indium) accepts an electron from the neighbouring silicon atom to form a
covalent bond and hence, it is called an acceptor. The hole in the valence band moves freely
and hence, the current flows through the material.
This type of electrical conduction will take place only when the dopant valency is less than that
of the parent atom. Such semiconductors are called p – type semiconductors. In a p – type
semiconductor, holes are the majority current carriers and electrons are the minority current
carriers.

2.10. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

Consider an intrinsic Si crystal is doped with pentavalent impurities such as P,As, Sb, etc., and
the regular Si atom is replaced by these impurity atoms. Since these impurity atoms are having
five valence electrons, four electrons occupy the regular lattice site and form covalent bonding.
The one excess electron is loosely bound to the parent atom. The excess of electron is lightly
bound to the parent atom (~0.01 eV). Since, the thermal energy is sufficient to excite this
electron, this electron can contribute to the conduction process. Since, the pentavalent impurity
donate an electron, it is said to be a donor impurity. According to the energy band theory of
solids, these excess electrons possess an energy level just below the conduction band. This
energy level is known as the donor level. The semiconductor are shown in Fig.-6

Fig. – 6 Donor and acceptor energy levels in an n-type and p-type semiconductors

Consider an intrinsic semiconductor doped with trivalent impurities such as B, Al, Ga, etc.
When a trivalent impurity is doped, it occupies the regular site of a Si atom. All the three
electrons are shared by three different Si atoms. A covalent bond is not completed, because the
trivalent impurity has only three electrons. Therefore, a hole is created due to the trivalent
impurity doping. This hole is free to move within the crystal. At 0 K, all the states in the
valence band is completely occupied. The excess of hole produced due to the trivalent impurity
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doping occupies an energy level just above the valence band. This energy level is known as the
acceptor level.

2.11. n - type semiconductor

A semiconductor doped with donor impurities is known as an n-type semiconductor. For
example, if a tetravalent silicon atom is doped with pentavalent atoms such as As and Bi, it
will become an n-type semiconductor.
Fermi level
In n –type semiconductor, the donor level is just below the conduction band. Nd denotes the
donor concentration & Ed represents the energy of the donor level.
Density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
3
 2 me*kT  ( EF Ec )/ kT
2
n  2 2  e (1)
 h 

Where Ef – Fermi energy; Ec – Energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction band
Density of the ionized donors = Nd [1 – F (E)]
 1 
= N d 1  ( Ed  EF )/ kT 
 1 e 
1  e( Ed  EF )/ kT  1 
= Nd  ( Ed  EF )/ kT 
 1 e  Ef

 e( Ed  EF )/ kT 
= Nd  ( Ed  EF )/ kT 
1  e 
-
 
 Nd   Nd 
Density of ionized donors =  ( Ed  EF )/ kT = ( EF  Ed )/ kT 
(2)
1 e  1  e 
 e( Ed  EF )/ kT 

At equilibrium, the density of electrons in conduction band = Density of ionized donors.

3
 2 me*kT  2 ( EF Ec )/ kT Nd
Equating (1) & (2), 2   e  ( EF  Ed )/ kT
(3)
 h
2
 1 e

EF lies more than few kT above donor levels, hence e( Ed EF )/ kT is large compared to ‘1’. Hence
the ‘1’` in denominator of R.H.S of equation (3) is neglected.
3
 2 me*kT  2 ( EF Ec )/kT N
2 2  e  ( EF Edd )/kT
 h  e

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 3
 2 me*kT  2 ( EF Ec )/ kT
 N d e d F 
E  E / kT
(or) 2  2  e (4)
 h 

Taking log on both sides,

 3

  2 m*
e kT  2
  log e( EF Ec )/ kT  log N e Ed  EF / kT
log 2  
  h 2
 
e e d

 
3
  2 me*kT   2 EF  Ec E  EF
(or) log  2  2     log N d  d (5)
  h  kT kT

 3

EF  Ec  Ed  EF   2 m*
kT  2

(or)  log N d  log 2  e
kT   h 2  
 

 
 
2 EF  Ec  Ed
 log  
(or) Nd
  3/2 

 2  2 m2e kT  
kT *

  h  

 
 
(or)
2 EF  Ed  Ec  kT log  Nd 
  3/2 

 2  2 m2e kT  
*

  h  

 
 
(or) E  Ed  Ec  kT log  Nd  (6)
F   3/2 

 2  2 m2e kT  
2 2 *

  h  

Substituting the expression of EF from (6) in (1), we get

   
   
  Ed  Ec kT  Nd   
  log  Ec 
2 2   2 m*kT  3/2   (7)
 2  
 
3 e

 2 me*kT  2  
  h 2
   
n  2 
2  exp  
 h   kT 
 
 
 
 
 

14 | P a g e Physics for Information science

    
3    
 2 me*kT  2  E  E  2E 1  Nd  
n  2  e x p d c c
 l o g / 2

h2     2 me*kT    
3
  2kT 2
   2     
    
2
   h 


   
   
  
3
 2 me* k T   Nd 
1 / 2
d
E E
2
n  2  e x p 
c
l o g 2  
 h2   2kT    2 m* k T 3 / 21 /
  
  2  e
  
 
   h2     
 

1 / 2
 Nd  3
 2 me*kT   2  2
n  2 e( Ed  Ec ) /kT2 (8)
2  3 / 4
 h  2 me kT
 *

 h2 
 

Rearranging the expression (8), we have

3/4
 2 me*kT   Ed  Ec /2 kT
n   2Nd 
1/2
(or)  2  e S
 h 
3/4
 2 me*kT   E /2 kT
(or) n   2 N d 
1/2
 2  e
 h 

Where ▲E= Ec - Ed is the ionization energy to transfer Energy from donor energy level to the
conduction band.
Results:
(i) The density of electrons is proportional to square root of donor concentration and
valid at low temperature alone
(ii) At high temperature, intrinsic carrier concentration must take along with this
concentration

Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration:

 
 
Fermi level of n – type semiconductor is E  Ec kT
EF  d  log 
Nd  (1)
  3/2 

 2  2 m2e kT  
2 2 *

  h  

At T = 0K, the above equation reduces to EF  Ed  Ec (2)

2

(i) At 0K, Fermi level lies exactly at the centre of the donor level and bottom of the
conduction band.
15 | P a g e Physics for Information science
 (ii) As the temperature is gradually increased from a low temperature, the contribution
of electron increases and at very high temperature, it far exceeds the donor
concentration and the intrinsic behaviour predominates at higher temperature.
(iii) Fermi level shifts downwards when the temperature is increased and finally reaches
the middle of the band gap (or) intrinsic Fermi level.
Further when the concentration of donors increases, the extrinsic behaviour also extends up to
very high temperature & Fermi level reaches the middle of the band gap only at high
temperature.

2.12. p - type semiconductors

A semiconductor doped with acceptor impurities is known as a p – type semiconductor.
For example, if Si is doped with B, Al, Ga, etc., it will become a p –type semiconductor.
Fermi Level

In p – type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is just above the valence band. Let Ea
represents the energy of the acceptor level and Na represents the number of acceptor atoms per
unit volume.
3

Density of holes per unit volume in valence band is given by p  2  2 m2h kT  e( Ev EF )/ kT
* 2
(1)
 h 

Where Ev is the energy corresponding to the top of the conduction band

N a
Density of the ionized acceptors = Na F (Ea) = ( Ea  EF )/ kT
(2)
1 e

16 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 ( E a  E F ) / kT
Since Ea – EF is very large when compared to kT. e is a large quantity and thus ‘1’ in
denominator of R.H.S of equation(2) is neglected. hence, equation(2), reduces to
N
Na F (Ea) = a
( Ea  EF )/ kT
 N a e( EF  Ea )/ kT (3)
e
At equilibrium, the density of holes in Valence band = Density of ionized acceptors
3
 2 mh*kT  2 ( Ev EF )/ kT
2 2  e  N ae( EF Ea )/ kT (4)
 h 

Taking log on both sides,

 3

  2 m*
kT  2
( Ev  EF )/ kT 
log 2  h
 log  N a e( EF  Ea )/ kT 
  h 2 
e

 

 3

  2 m*
kT  2
  Ev  EF  log N  EF  Ea
(or) log 2  h
 (5)
  h 2
  kT
a
kT
 

Rearranging the expression (5), we have

 3

EF  Ea  Ev  EF   2 m*
kT  2

  log N a  log 2  h
 
kT   h2 
 

 
 
(or)  
2 EF   Ea  Ev   Na 
  log e  3 
kT  
  2 m kT  2 
*
 2  h
 

   h2   
 

 
 
(or)  
 Na 
2 EF  ( Ea  Ev )  kT log e  3 
 
  2 m*kT  2 
 2  h 
 
   h2  
 

 
 
(or)   (6)
( E  Ev ) kT  Na 
EF  a  log e  3 
2 2  
  2 m kT  2 
*
 2  h
 

   h2   
 

Sub. The expression of EF in equation (6), we get,

17 | P a g e Physics for Information science

    
   
 Ev  Ea kT  
l o g
Na
  Ev  2

2   2 m*kT  3 / 2   (7)
 2 h  
 
 c 
3
 2 mh*kT  2    h2 
p  2  exp  
 h2   kT 
 
 
 
 
 

   
(or)  3
   (8)
 2 m kT  *
 2 Ev  Ev  Ea 1  
 log 
2 Na
p  2 h
 exp  3/2   
2  
 h  
2kT 2
2 2 m*
kT  
   
h
   h2   


3  Na  2
 2 
(or) p  2  2 mh kT 
* 2

2 1
e(
 h  
 2 mh*kT  
3/2 2

 2  
  h  

3/4
 2 mh*kT   Ev  Ea /2 kT
(or) p   2 N a 
1/2
 2  e (9)
 h 

If we put Ea –Ev = ▲E, equation (9) becomes,

3/4
 2 mh*kT  E /2 kT
p   2Na 
1/2
 2  e (10)
 h 

Results:
(i) Density of holes in valence band is proportional to square root of acceptor
concentration
(ii) At very high temperature p – type semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic
semiconductor
Variation of Fermi level with temperature:

 
 
We know that   (1)
( Ea  Ev ) kT  Na 
EF   log e  3 
2 2  
  2 m*kT  2 
 2  h
 

   h2   
 

At T = 0K , the above expression becomes, EF  Ea  Ev (2)

2

18 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 (i) At 0K the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between acceptor level Ea and top of the
valence band Ev
(ii) As the temperature increases, the Fermi level shifts upwards, at a particular
temperature, when all the acceptor atoms are ionized and Fermi level crosses the
acceptor level
(iii) At very high temperature, the Fermi level is shifted to intrinsic Fermi level and
behave as intrinsic semiconductor.

2.13. Variation of carrier concentration with temperature and impurity

In extrinsic semiconductor, the resistivity decreases linearly with increase in temperature. This
variation is considered under three different regions:
(1) Extrinsic (or) impurity range (2) Exhaustion range (3) Intrinsic range
For a n type semiconductor, the variation of carrier concentration n and p with temperature is
shown in figure

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At T = 0 K, both conduction and valence bands are free from any charge carriers and hence the
electrical conductivity is zero. With increase in temperature the donor atoms get ionised and
hence electron concentration in conduction band increases with temperature until all the donor
atoms are ionized. This range is known as impurity or extrinsic range.
When the temperature is further increased to room temperature, there are no more donor atoms
to be ionised and hence the concentration of electrons in conduction band remains constant
over a certain temperature range. This region is known as exhaustion range.
As the temperature is increases further, the electrons in valence band re lifted across the
forbidden gap to conduction band. Thus, electron concentration increases in conduction band
considerably. With further increase in temperature, more and more electrons from valence band
reach conduction band and completely outnumber the donor electrons.
The material practically becomes intrinsic and so this range is called intrinsic range. All these
ranges are shown in figure. The dotted curve indicates hole concentration in an intrinsic range.

2.14. Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

S.No Intrinsic Extrinsic

1. Pure form of semiconductor Doping is added to pure semiconductor
2. Number of electrons = holes Number of electrons  holes
3. Conductivity is poor Conductivity is better than intrinsic

2.15. Differences between n type and p type semiconductors

S.No n type semiconductors p type semiconductors
1. It is formed by adding pentavalent with It is formed by adding trivalent with pure
pure intrinsic semiconductor intrinsic semiconductor
2. The discrete impurity energy level The discrete impurity energy level called
called donor energy level located just acceptor energy level which located just
below conduction band above valence band
3. It donates electron from donor energy It accepts holes from acceptor energy levels
level
4. Majority carriers are electrons Majority carriers are holes
5. Fermi energy decreases with increase Fermi energy increases with increase in
in temperature temperature.

2.16. Carrier transport in semiconductor

Random motion and mobility
In absence of an electric field, the free electrons move in all directions in a random manner.
They collide with other free electron and positive ion core during the motion. This collision is
known as elastic collision. As the motion is random, the resultant velocity in any particular
direction is zero. When an electric field is applied in a semiconducting material, the free charge

20 | P a g e Physics for Information science

carriers such as free electrons and holes attain drift velocity vd. The drift velocity attain by the
carriers is proportional to the electrical field strength E.
Vd = μ E (1)
Where μ is a proportionality constant and it is known as the mobility of charge carriers. If E =
1 V/m then μ = vd thus, mobility μ is defined as the velocity of a charge carrier per unit electric
field strength.
In a semiconductor, the electrical conductivity is due to the movement of electrons and holes.
The equation for the conductivity of a semiconductor is
  nee  peh

Where n is the concentration of electron, p the concentration of hole and μe and μh are
respectively the mobilities of electron and holes. Since the type of drift of electrons and of
holes are different, the mobility of an electron at any temperature is different from (greater
than) that of the hole.
Material Electron mobility (m2/volt-sec) Hole mobility (m2/volt-sec)
Germanium 0.135 0.048
Silicon 0.39 0.19

Expression for electrical conductivity

If the density of free electrons in the material is n, the net charge available per unit volume of
the material for the conduction is equal to ne, where e is the charge of the electron.
When an external electric field E is applied, the electrons move with a rift velocity vdn thus,
Vdn = μn E (2)
Where μn is the mobility of electron
The drift current density Jn due to electrons is defined as the charge flowing across unit area of
cross section per unit time due to their drift under the influence of an electric field E.
It is given by Jn = n e vdn (3)
If σn is the conductivity of a semiconductor due to free electrons, the current density Jn is related
to the applied electric field by
Jn = σn E (4)
J n nevdn
(or)  n   (5)
E E
nen E
Substituting eqn. (2) in eqn. (5), we get  n 
E

(or)  n  nen (6)

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If p is the number of holes per unit volume and σp the conductivity due to the drift of holes,
then  p  pe p (7)

Where μp is the mobility of holes in the material.

Thus the total conductivity σ due to free electrons and holes
σ = σn + σp
(or)   nee  peh

(or)   e  ne  ph  (8)

Where σ is the total conductivity of the material and it is generally expressed in mho/m. For an
intrinsic semiconductor n = p = ni
Therefore, the electrical conductivity σi of an intrinsic semiconductor having ni electron-hole
pairs per unit volume is given by

  ni e  e  h  (9)

The net current flow in semiconuctor is due to drift and diffusion transport.
Drift transport
In the absence of electric field, the random motion of charge carriers will not contribute
current because the charge movement in one direction is balance by the charge movement in
the other direction. When the external field is applied, the electrons are attracte to the positive
terminal and the holes are attracte to the negative terminal. This net movement is termed as
drift transport. This transport overcomes the thermal movement and produces current density

Substitute (2) in (1), we get

Je = ne e μeE (3)
Similarly, for holes, Jh = nh e μhE (4)
Then the total drift current is jdr = ne e μeE+ nh e μhE (5)
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We know that J = σE (6)
Therefore σdr = ne e μe+ nh e μh (7)
For an intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh = ni
& Hence σdr = ni e[ μe+ μh ] (8)
Diffusion transport
The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven concentrations
in the semiconductor. The charge carriers moving from the region of higher concentration to
the regions of lower concentration leading to diffusion current
Hence the concentration of charge carrier (Δne ) varies with distance x in a semiconductor.

The rate of flow of charge carriers is   ne 
x


Rate of flow of electrons =  De  ne 
x

Where De is the electron diffusion coefficient

Current density due to electrons = charge X rate of flow of electrons

i.e., Je = De e  ne 
x


Similarly for holes, Jh =  Dh e  nh 
x

Thus, if an electric field is applied to the semiconductor, the total current contribution is due
to both drift and diffusion transport.
Net current due to both electrons and holes can be obtained as
 
J total  ne e eE  eDe  ne   nh eh E  Dh e  nh 
x x

2.17. Hall effect

 The electrical conductivity measurements are not sufficient for the determination of
number of charge carriers and their mobilities. Moreover, these measurements do not
indicate whether current conduction is due to electrons or holes.
 Hence, it is very difficult to distinguish between p type and n type semiconductors.
Besides, the electrical conductivity measurements do not give any information about
the sign of the majority ( n or p type) charge carriers.
 Therefore, Hall effect is used to distinguish between two types of charge carriers
(electrons & holes). It also provides information about the sign of charge carriers.
Statement

23 | P a g e Physics for Information science

When a conductor carrying a current (I) is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field (B), a
potential difference is produced inside the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both
current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall effect. The voltage thus
generated is called Hall voltage.
Hall effect in n type semiconductor
Explanation
Consider an external field applied along the X-axis of the specimen. Assuming that the material
is n-type semiconductor, the current flow consists mainly of electrons moving from right to
left, corresponding to the conventional current direction.
When this specimen is placed in a magnetic field ‘B’ and if ‘v’ is the velocity of the electrons
perpendicular to the magnetic field then each one of them will a experience a downward force
of magnitude Bev
This downward force (Lorentz Force FL) due to magnetic field causes the electrons to be
deflected in the downward direction and hence there is an accumulation of negative charges on
the bottom face of the slab. This causes the bottom face of the slab to be more negative with
respect to the top face and a potential difference is established from top to bottom of the
specimen. This potential difference causes a field EH called Hall field in negative y direction.
There is a force eEH acting on the electron in the upward direction due to this field.

Theory of Hall Effect

At equilibrium, the downward force Bev will balance the upward force eEH
Bev = eEH (1)
In a uniform sample, the electric current density (J) is related to the drift velocity as
J = -neV
Where n is the concentration of electrons.

J
V Y (2)
ne
Substituting equation (2) in (1),
Current VH

 BJ X
EH  (3)
ne z

This can be written as EH = BJRH Magnetic field (4)

Where RH = - 1 / ne is called Hall coefficient
The negative sign indicates that the developed field is in the negative y direction.

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IIIrly, the Hall coefficient for p – type semiconductor is RH = 1 / p e.
Where p is the concentration of holes

Determination of Hall coefficient

The hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is defined as hall
coefficient.
If t is the thickness of the sample and VH is the hall voltage, then VH = EH t (5)
Where EH is hall field.
From equation (4), we get EH = RH Jx B
Substituting the value of (5) in above equation, we get VH = RH Jx B t (6)
Ix
Now the current density Jx can be written as J x  (7)
bt

Where ‘b ’ is the width and bt is the area of cross section of the sample

Substituting equation (7) in equation (6), we get RH I X Bt

VH 
bt

RH I X B (8)
VH 
b

VH b
(or) RH  (9)
IX B

For an n – type semiconductor R H   V H b (10)

IX B

Mobility of charge carriers

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 We know that hall coefficient RH   1
ne

This expression is correct only when the charge carriers is free from any attractive force in
energy band and moves with constant drift velocity. But this is not true in the case of
semiconductors.

Considering the average speed, it is shown that RH   1.18 for electrons and R H  1.18
ne pe
for holes.
We know that the electrical conductivity and mobility is related by σ = n e μe

 RH  e
(or)  e   & hence  e   e and hence  e  (11)
ne ne 1.18
 RH  h
Similarly  h  (12)
1.18

Experimental Determination of Hall Coefficient:

The experimental setup for the measurement of Hall voltage is shown in figure.
A semiconducting material is taken in the form of a rectangular slab of thickness ‘t’ and breadth
‘b’. A suitable current Ix ampere is allowed to pass through this sample along the X axis by
connecting it to battery
The sample is placed between the poles pieces of an electromagnet such that the applied
magnetic field coincides with the z – axis.
Hall voltage (VH) which is developed in the sample is measured by fixing two probes at the
centers of the bottom and top faces of the sample.
Applications
By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is calculated from the formula
(i) The sign of the hall coefficient is used to determine whether a give semiconductor is n –
type or p – type

(ii) Once Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carrier concentration can be determined from

n = 1 /e RH
(iii) The mobility of charge carriers can be obtained if conductivity is known. μe = σeRH

(iv) Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence measurement of VH

measures the magnetic field B.
 VH b
RH 
IX B

26 | P a g e Physics for Information science

(v) This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus if
current I is made proportional to one input and if B is made proportional to the other
input, then the Hall voltage VH is proportional to the product of the two inputs.

2.18. Hall devices

(a) Gauss meter

The hall voltage, we have VH  RH BZ I X . In this, VH Bz for a given hall element; RH an b are
b
constant. The current I through Hall element is also kept constant. This principle is used in
Gauss meter. It is used for measuring magnetic field. The variation of Hall voltage with
magnetic field is shown in figure. The voltmeter which is used to measure VH can be directly
calibrated in terms of Gauss. The graph can be also used to measure any unknown magnetic
fields.
N

+ - RH

(b) Electronic Multipliers

From Hall effect, we have VH  RH BZ I1 . Since RH an b are constant for an element

b

27 | P a g e Physics for Information science

VH Bz I1

But the magnetic field BZ is proportional to current (I2) through the coil.

i.e., VH I 2

VH I1I 2

VH is a measure of the product of two currents. This is the basic principle used in analog
electronic multipliers. The figure shows the circuit diagram for electronic multiplier.

I2

V
H

I1

(c) Electronic Wattmeter

Hall effect is used to measure electrical power dissipate in a load. The instrument used to
measure the power in a circuit using Hall effect principle is known as Hall effect – Wattmeter.

S is Hall element sample. It is place in a magnetic field Bz produce by the load current IL passing
through the coils CC as shown in figure. The voltage cross the load VL drives the current Iy =
VL / R through the sample. R is a series resistance which is >> than the resistance of the sample
and that of the load. Also, Iy << IL.. If b is the breadth of the sample, then the measured Hall
RH BZ I y
voltage VH  . Since VH and b are constant, VH Bz I y
b

Since Bz I L and I y VL & hence VH I LVL

This is the electric power dissipated by the load. The voltmeter that measures VH can be
calibrate to read power directly.

28 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 VL

IL IL

C S C
V
Bz
H

VL R Iy = VL / R

29 | P a g e Physics for Information science

1. Differentiate Indirect and Direct Band gap semiconductor?
Direct Bandgap Semiconductor
S.No Indirect Bandgap Semiconductor
1. Heat produced during recombination Photons emitted during recombination

2. Life time of charge carriers is more Life time of charge carriers is less

They are used as diodes, transistors, They are used as LED’s, Laser diodes
3.
etc., and IC’s, etc.,

4. Current amplification is more Current amplification is less

2. What is meant by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?

Extrinsic Semiconductor
S.No Intrinsic Semiconductor
It is due to adding Impurities to
1. It is the purest form of Semiconductor semiconductor

Charge carriers are only due to thermal Charge carriers are due to impurities and
2. thermal agitation
agitation
3. They have low electrical conductivity They have high electrical conductivity

4. They have low operating temperature They have low operating temperature
At 0K, Fermi energy is close to
At 0K, Fermi energy lies between conduction band in ‘n’ type
5. semiconductor & close to valence band
valence band & conduction band
in ‘p’ type semiconductor

3. Define Fermi level in semiconductors? Mention its position in intrinsic &

Extrinsic Semiconductor?

Fermi level is the energy level which separates the filled and empty energy states
Intrinsic Semiconductor: Here the Fermi level exactly lies between lowest energy level of
conduction band and highest energy level of valence band EF  Ec  Ev
2

‘N-type Semiconductor’ the Fermi energy lies exactly between minimum energy level of
conduction band and donor energy level EF  Ec  Ed
2

‘P-type Semiconductor’ the Fermi energy lies exactly between the acceptor energy level and
the maximum energy level of valence band EF  Ec  Ea
2

4. Define Hall Effect and Hall Voltage?

33 | P a g e Physics for Information science

When a conductor carrying a current (I) is placed in a transverse magnetic field (B), a potential
difference (Electric field) is produced inside the conductor in a direction normal to the
direction of both the current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect
and the generated voltage is called Hall voltage
5 State the law of mass action in semiconductor?

The product of electron & hole concentration remains constant at a given temperature and is
equal to the square of intrinsic carrier concentration i.e., ni.ne = ni2
6. What are the applications of Hall Effect?

(i) It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n- type semiconductor

(ii) It is used to find carrier concentration

(iii) It is used to determine the sign of the current carrying charges

(iv) It is used to measure magnetic flux density using a semiconductor sample of known
hall coefficient.

7. Mention any four advantages of semiconducting materials?

(i) It can behave as insulators at 0K and as conductors at high temperature

(ii) They possess crystalline structure

(iii) N-type & p-type semiconductors are prepared by adding impurities with the charge
carriers of electrons and holes respectively.

(iv) They find applications in manufacturing Diodes, Transistors, IC’s , etc.,

8 Write an expression for carrier concentration in intrinsic semiconductor?

3   Eg 
 2 kT  2
3
Intrinsic carrier concentration  
ni  2  2  (me*mh* ) 4 e  
2 kT

 h 

Where me* - Effective mass of electron; mh* - Effective mass of hole; Eg – Band gap

9 Write an expression for carrier concentration in n - type

semiconductor?
3
 Ed  Ec 
1
 2 me*kT  4 
n  2N  2
  e
2 kT 

Carrier concentration of n – type semiconductor is i d

 h2 
Where me* - Effective mass of electron; Nd – donor concentration; Ed- donor energy

level; Ec – Energy level in conduction band

10 Write an expression for carrier concentration in p - type semiconductor?

34 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 3
 Ev  Ea 
Carrier concentration of n – type semiconductor is ni   2 N a 
1
 2 mh*kT  4  2 kT 
2
 h2  e
 
Where me*
- Effective mass of electron; Na – acceptor concentration; Ea- acceptor energy
level; Ev – Energy level in valence band.
11. Define donors and acceptors and state its ionization energy?
Donors are the penta valent atoms which donates electrons to the pure semiconductors.
The energy required to donate an electron from donor energy level to the conduction
band by ∆E = Ec - Ed is called ionization energy of donor
Acceptors are the trivalent atoms which accept electrons from the pure semiconductor.
The energy required to move an electron from valence band to acceptor energy level
by ∆E = Ea - Ev is called ionization energy of acceptor.
12. Define drift current
The electric current produced due to the motion of charge carriers under the influence of an
external electric field is known as drift current
13. Define diffusion current
The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven concentrations
in the semiconductor. The charge carriers moving from the region of higher concentration to
the regions of lower concentration leading to diffusion current.
14. Differentiate Schottky diode and ohmic contacts?
Ohmic contact
S.No Schottky diode
1. It acts as a rectifier It acts as a resistor

Resistance is low during forward bias Resistance remains same in both the
2. biasing voltage
an very high during reverse bias
3. Work function φm > φsemi Work function φm < φsemi

Formed by the combination of metal Formed by the combination of metal and

4.
and n – type semiconductor heavily doped semiconductor

15. Differentiate Schottky diode and p –n diode

p –n diode
S.No Schottky diode
Forward current due to thermionic Forward current due to diffusion current
1.
current
Charge carriers are only due to thermal Charge carriers are due to impurities and
2. thermal agitation
agitation
Reverse current due to minority carriers
Reverse current is due to majority diffusing to the depletion layer and rifting
3.
charge carrier that overcome the barrier to the other side

35 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 4. Cut in voltage is ~ 0.3 V Cut in voltage is ~ 0.7 V

5. High switching speed Switching speed is limited

16. What is meant by ohmic contact?

It is a type of metal semiconductor junction formed by a contact of a metal with heavily doped
semiconductor. When the semiconductor has a higher work function than that of metal, then
the junction formed is called the Ohmic junction
17. What is Schottky diode?

It is a junction formed between a metal and n type semiconductor. When the metal has a higher
work function than that of n – type semiconductor then the junction formed is called Schottky
diode.
18. Mention any three hall devices?

Gauss meter, Electronic watt meter an electronic multiplier

19. What are the advantages of Schottky diode?

(v) It has very low capacitance

(vi) It will immediately switch from ON to OFF state
(vii) Small voltage is enough to produce high current
(viii) It has high efficiency
(ix) It operates at high frequencies
(x) It produces less noise
20. What are the uses of ohmic contact?

It is used to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC, or to connect an IC to its

external terminals.
21. What are the applications of Schottky diode?

(1)It is used for rectification of signals of frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz
(2)It is used in switching device at frequencies of 20 GHz
(3)It is used in radio frequency applications
(4)It is widely used in power supplies

Part – B Question & Answers

1. Derive an expression for the intrinsic carrier concentration of a semicondcutor?
The number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called carrier concentration
or density of charge carriers

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Electrons in Conduction Band
The number of electrons whose energy lies in the range dn = Z (E) F (E) dE
(1)
“E” & “E+dE” in the conduction band is given by

Where Z (E) – density of states in the energy ranges ‘E’ &’E + dE’
F (E) – Probability of number of electron occupying in the conduction band

The number of electrons in the conduction band for the entire region is calculated by
integrating equation (1) from top energy level ‘Ec’ to bottom energy level ‘α’


i.e., n   Z ( E ) F ( E )dE
Ec

(2)

W.K.T, Density of states in the conduction band in the

Z (E) dE = 4 2m2 E 2 dE
1
energy range ‘E’ & ‘E+dE’ is given by
3
(3)
h3

+α
The bottom edge of the conduction band (Ec) E
represents the potential energy of an electron at rest. Therefore, Ec
(E - Ec) is the kinetic energy of the conduction electron at higher EF
energy levels. Therefore the equation (3) is modified as Ev

Fig(i) -α

4
  2  E  E  2 dE
3 1
*
Z (E) dE = 2 m e c
(4)
h3
Since the electron is moving in a periodic potential, its mass m is replaced by its effective
mass me*.

1
The probability of electron occupancy is given by F ( E )  (5)
1 e ( E  E F ) / kT


4
    1
3 1
Substituting (4) & (5) in (2), we get, n  E h 3  2 
* 2
2 m E E dE (6)
1 e ( EE
e c F ) / kT
c

E  EF E  EF

For all possible temperature, E – EF >>kT, hence in the denominator, 1  e kT

e kT

37 | P a g e Physics for Information science

   E  E 
1
4 3 
2m
2
Now equation (6) becomes, n * 2
e
c
( E  E F ) / kT
dE
h3 Ec e

4 3 
 
1
2 E  E  / kT
n  
* 2
(or) 3
2 me ( E E c ) e F
dE
h E c

4 

n  3 2me* 2 e E
3 1

 (E  E ) e  E / kT dE
F / kT 2
(or) c (7)
h Ec

To solve this, assume the following:

E - Ec = x E = Ec E = +α
E = Ec + x Ec - Ec = x α – Ec = x
dE = dx x=0 x=α

4 

 
3 1
 E  x  / kT
n eE  x 2e
* 2 / kT
Now, 3
2 me
F
dxc

h 0

4 

n  3 2me* 2 e  E
3 1
 Ec  / kT
(or)
h
F
x
0
2
e  x / kT dx (8)

kT  
3
 1 2
2
Using gamma function, x
0
2
e  x / kT dx 
2
(9)

kT  
3
4
2me*  e  E
3 2
 / kT 2
Substituting eqn (9) in (8), we get, n  3
2 F  Ec

h 2
3

 2m kT  ( E * 2

(or) n  2  e e F  EC ) / kT
(10)
 
2
h

This is the expression of electrons in the conduction band of an intrinsic semiconductor.

Concentration of holes in the Valence band
We know that if an electron is transferred from valence band to conduction band, a hole is
created in valence band. Let dp be the number of holes in the valence band for the energy
range E & E+dE.  dp = Z (E) (1 – F (E)) dE
(1)
Where Z (E) – Density of states in the energy range E & E+dE

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(1 – F(E) ) – Probability of unoccupied (vacant) electron state (presence of hole) in valence
band

1 1  e ( E  E ) / kT  1
F
e ( E  E ) / kT F

 (1 – F (E)) dE = 1    (2)
1  e( EE F ) / kT
1  e ( E  E ) / kT F
1  e ( E  E ) / kT F

 E < EF in valence band, (E –EF) has negative quantity & hence in denominator e( E  E F ) / kT
is
very small when compared with 1, hence 1  e 1
( E  E ) / kT F

1  F ( E )  e ( E  E F ) / kT
(3)

Ev is the top level in the valence band and having potential energy of a hole at rest. Hence
(Ev – E) is the kinetic energy of the hole at level below EV. Hence,

4
   
3 1
Density of states in the valence band is Z ( E )dE  2 m * 2
h
EV
 E 2 dE (4)
h3
Where, mh* - effective mass of the hole in the valence band

4
   
3 1
Substituting equation (4), (3) in (1), we get, dp  3
2 m * 2
h
EV
 E 2e
( EE F ) / kT
dE
h
(5)
The number of holes in the valence band for the entire energy range is obtained by integrating
Above equation between the limits –α to EV

4
 dp   h 3 2mh  EV  E  2 e
EV 3 1
* 2 ( E E ) / kT
i.e., F
dE

4
2mh  e  E
EV

 E  E  e E / kT dE
3 1
(or) dp 
* 2 F / kT
3 V
2 (6)
h 

To solve this, assume the following:

Ev - E = x E=-α E = Ev
E = Ev - x Ev -(- α) = x Ev– Ev = x
dE = - dx x=α x=0

4
p  3 2mh  e  E
3 0 1
* 2 F / kT
x 2
e  x E v  / kT
(dx)
h 

4 

 
3 1

(or) p 3
2 m* 2
h
e E  E v F  / kT
 x 2e
 x / kT
dx (7)
h 0

39 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 1

kT  
3
 1 2
2
Using gamma function, x
0
2
e  x / kT dx 
2
(8)

2mh*  eE E / kT  kT  

3
4 3 2 2
Substituting eqn (8) in (7), we get, p 
v f
2
3
h 2

 2m kT  ( E  E * 2

(or) p  2  e h v F ) / kT
(9)
 
2
h

This is the expression of holes in the valence band of an intrinsic semiconductor

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration:

In intrinsic semiconductor, carrier concentration of electrons in conduction band (ni) =
carrier concentration of holes in valence band np &
hence the intrinsic carrier concentration is ni2= ni x np
3 3
 2me* kT  2 ( EF  EC ) / kT  2mh* kT  2 ( Ev  EF ) / kT
ni  2    
2
2  e 2 h2  e (1)
 h   

 2kT  *
3

 
3
* 2 ( Ev  Ec ) / kT
ni  4 2  me  mh e
2
(or)
 h 

 2kT 
3

 
3
 Eg / kT
(or) ni  4  me  mh
2 * * 2 e (2)
 h 
2

3 Eg
3
 2 kT  2
 

(or) ni  2   me  mh
* * 4 2 kT
e
 h 
2

Where Ec – Ev = Eg is the forbidden energy gap.

2. Discuss the variation of Fermi Level with temperature in an intrinsic
semiconductor?

We know that, for an intrinsic semiconductor, the density of electron in the conduction band
is equal to the density of holes in the valence band.

40 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 i.e., ni = np (1)
3 3

 2me*kT  2 ( E  EC ) / kT  2mh* kT  2 ( E  E
(or) 2  e F
= 2  e v F ) / kT

   
2 2
h h
3

 E  E  / kT  m*  2  Ev  EF  / kT
Rearranging, we get, e F C   h*  e
 me 
3

 2 E  / kT  mh*  2  Ev  Ec  / kT
(or) e F   *  e
 me 
Taking log on both sides, we get
3
m *
 2
log e e 2 EF  / kT  log e  h
*
  log e e  Ev  Ec  / kT
m e 
3
2EF 3  mh*  2 Ev  Ec
(or)  log e  *  
kT 2  me  kT

kT 3  mh*  E v  E c  3kT  mh*  kT  E v  E c 

(or) E F   
 log e  *    = log  *  
e  
2  2  e
m kT 
 4  me  2  kT 

3kT  m *   E  Ec 
(or) E F  log e  h*    v 
4  me   2 
(2)

 m* 
If me* = mh*, then log e  h*  = loge1 = 0,
 me 

 Ev  Ec 
hence the above equation becomes, E F  
 2 
(3)
Thus, the Fermi level is located half way between the top of the valence band and bottom of
the conduction band. Its position is independent of temperature. If me* < mh*,thus, the Fermi
level is just above the middle of energy gap and its rises slightly with increasing temperature.

3. Discuss the carrier concentration, the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the
case of n –type semiconductors for low doping level?

41 | P a g e Physics for Information science

In n –type semiconductor, the donor level is just below the conduction band. Nd denotes the
donor concentration & Ed represents the energy of the donor level.
Density of electrons per unit volume in the conduction band is given by
3

 2me* kT  2 ( E
n  2  e
F  Ec ) / kT
(1)
 h 
2

here Ef – Fermi energy; Ec – Energy corresponding to the bottom of the conduction

band Conduction Band
Density of the ionized donors = Nd [1 – F

(E)]
Eg
 1 
= N d 1  ( E  E ) / kT 
 1 e  d F

1  e ( E  E ) / kT
 1 d F Valence Band
= Nd   Ev
 1 e
( E  E ) / kT

d F

 e ( E  E ) / kT  d F

= Nd  ( E  E ) / kT 
1  e 
d F

 
 Nd   Nd 
Density of ionized donors =  =  (2)
1  e
( E  E ) / kT
 1  e
d F ( E E F d ) / kT

 e ( E  E ) / kT d F

At equilibrium, the density of electrons in conduction band = Density of ionized
donors. 3

 2me* kT  2 ( E N
Equating (1) & (2), 2  e
F  Ec ) / kT
 d
(3)
 h
2
 1 e ( E F  Ed ) / kT

( E  E ) / kT
EF lies more than few kT above donor levels, hence e d F is large compared to ‘1’.
Hence the ‘1’` in denominator of R.H.S of equation (3) is neglected.
3

 2m kT  ( E
* 2
N
2 e
 e
F  Ec ) / kT
 d
( E F  Ed ) / kT
 h 
2
e
3

 2me* kT  2 ( E
(or) 2  e
F  Ec ) / kT
 N d eE d  E F  / kT
(4)
 
2
h

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Taking log on both sides,

 3

  2me kT  2 
*

log 2   log e e ( E F  Ec ) / kT
 log e N d e  E d  E F  / kT

  h 2
 
 

  2m kT  
*
E F  Ec
2
E  EF
   log N d  d
e
(or) log 2  (5)
  h 
2
kT kT
Conduction Band

 3

E F  Ec  E d  E F   2me kT  2 
*
EF
 log N d  log 2
  h 2  
(or) n type or)
kT
  Ed
 
  Intrinsic
(or) 2 E F  Ec  E d  Nd 
 log Eg
kT   2m * kT  3 / 2 
 2 e
 
  h  
2
Ev

Valence Band
 
 
(or)
2 E F  E d  Ec  kT log  Nd 
  2m * kT  3 / 2 
 2 e
 
  h  
2

 
 
(or) E d  E c kT  Nd  (6)
EF   log
2 2   2m * kT  3 / 2 
 2 e
 
  h  
2

Substituting the expression of EF from (6) in (1), we get

43 | P a g e Physics for Information science

    
   
  E d  Ec  kT log  Nd   E 
 2 2   2m * kT  3 / 2   c 
(7)
  2 
e
   
    
3

 2me* kT  2   h
2

n  2  exp  
 
2
h  kT 
 
 
 
 
 

   
   
 E d  E c  2 E c  
3

 2me* kT  2
1  Nd
n  2  exp   log   
 h2    2  2me kT    
3/ 2
2kT 2 *

   h2    
       

   
   
 E  E  
3

 2me* kT    N 1/ 2

exp  d  
2
n  2  c
 log  d

 h2   2kT    2me kT    
* 3 / 2 1/ 2

  2     

     
2

 
h 

1/ 2
 Nd 
 2 
3

 2me* kT  2
  (8)
n  2  e(E d  E c ) / 2 kT

 2me kT 
3/ 4
 h2  *

 h2 
 
Rearranging the expression (8), we
have
1 / 2  2me kT 
* 3/ 4

(or)
n  2 N d
   eE d  Ec  / 2 kT

 h 
2

 2me* kT   E  / 2 kT
3/ 4

(or) n  2 N d    e
1/ 2

 
2
h
Where ▲E= Ec - Ed is the ionization energy to transfer Energy from donor energy level to the
conduction band.
Results:
(iii) The density of electrons is proportional to square root of donor concentration and valid at low
temperature alone

(iv) At high temperature, intrinsic carrier concentration must take along with this
concentration

Variation of Fermi level with temperature and impurity concentration

44 | P a g e Physics for Information science
  
 
Fermi level of n – type semiconductor is E d  E c kT  Nd  (1)
EF   log
2 2   2me kT  
* 3/ 2

 2  
  h  
2

Ed  Ec
At T = 0K, the above equation reduces to E F  (2)
2
(iv) At 0K, Fermi level lies exactly at the centre of the donor level and bottom of the
conduction band.

(v) As the temperature is gradually increased from a low temperature, the contribution of
electron increases and at very high temperature, it far exceeds the donor concentration
and the intrinsic behaviour predominates at higher temperature.

(vi) Fermi level shifts downwards when the temperature is increased and finally reaches the
middle of the band gap (or) intrinsic Fermi level.

(vii)Further when the concentration of donors increases, the extrinsic behaviour also extends
up to very high temperature & Fermi level reaches the middle of the band gap only at
high temperature.

4.Discuss the carrier concentration, the variation of Fermi level with temperature in the
case of p –type semiconductors for low doping level?

In p – type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level is just above the valence band. Let Ea
represents the energy of the acceptor level and Na represents the number of acceptor atoms
per unit volume.

45 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 3

Density of holes per unit volume in valence band is given by p  2 2mh kT  e ( E  E

* 2
) / kT
 h2 
v F

 
(1)
Where Ev is the energy corresponding to the top of the conduction band

N a
Density of the ionized acceptors = Na F (Ea) =
1 e ( Ea  E F ) / kT

(2)
( E  E ) / kT
Since Ea – EF is very large when compared to kT. e a F is a large quantity and thus ‘1’ in
denominator of R.H.S of equation(2) is neglected. hence, equation(2), reduces to

N
Na F (Ea) = a
( Ea  E F ) / kT
 N a e( E F  Ea ) / kT

e
(3)
At equilibrium, the density of holes in Valence band = Density of ionized acceptors
3

 2m kT  ( E  E
* 2
2 h
 e
v F ) / kT
 N ae(E F  Ea ) / kT
(4)
 h 
2

Taking log on both sides,

 3

     logN a e ( E 
*
2 m kT 2
log 2 h
 e ( E E v F ) / kT F  Ea ) / kT

  h 2
 
 

 3

  2m *
h
kT  2
  Ev  E F  log N a  E F  Ea
(or) log 2 
  h 2
  kT kT
 
(5)
Rearranging the expression (5), we have

 3

E F  E a  Ev  E F   2m *
kT  2

  log N a  log 2 h
 
kT   h2 
 
 
 
(or)  
2 E F  E a  E v   Na 
  log e  
   2mh* kT  2  
3
kT
 2   

   h  
2

 

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  
 
(or)  
 Na 
2 E F  ( E a  E v )  kT log e  
 3

  2m h kT  2 
*

 2   

  h
2
 
 

 
 
(or)   (6)
( E a  E v ) kT  Na 
EF   log e  
2 2  3

  2m h kT  2 
*

 2   

  h
2
 
 

Sub. The expression of EF in equation (6), we get

   
   
 Ev  Ea kT  Na  
  Ev  2

2
log
  2m * kT   
3 / 2  (7)
  2  
 
h

 
3

 2m h* kT  2   h
2
  c  
p  2  exp  
 h2   kT 
 
 
 
 
 

   
(or) 3     (8)
 2mh* kT  2
 2 E v  E v  E a 1  Na  
p  2  exp   log
 h2  2kT 2   2m * kT   
3 / 2

  2 
  
h

   h 2
  

 Na  2

 2 
3

 2m h* kT  2
 
E E v a

(or) p  2
  1
e 2 kT
 h2  
 2m h* kT  
3/ 2 2

  
   
2
h

 2mh* kT   E  E
3/ 4

(or) p  2 N a 
 / 2 kT
  e
1/ 2 v a
(9)
 h 
2

If Ea –Ev = ▲E is the acceptor ionization energy required to move the electron from valence
band to acceptor energy level, then equation (9) becomes,

47 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 3/ 4
 2mh* kT 
p  2 N a    e E / 2 kT
1/ 2
2 
 h 
(10)
Results:
(iii) Density of holes in valence band is proportional to square root of acceptor concentration

(iv) At very high temperature p – type semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic

semiconductor

Variation of Fermi level with temperature

 
 
  (1)
( E a  E v ) kT  Na 
We know that E F   log e  
   2m h* kT  2  
3
2 2
 2   


  h 2
 
 

Ea  Ev
At T = 0K , the above expression becomes, E F  (2)
2
(iv) At 0K the Fermi level lies exactly halfway between acceptor level Ea and top of the valence
band Ev

(v) As the temperature increases, the Fermi level shifts upwards, at a particular temperature,
when all the acceptor atoms are ionized and Fermi level crosses the acceptor level

(vi) At very high temperature, the Fermi level is shifted to intrinsic Fermi level and behave as
intrinsic semiconductor

48 | P a g e Physics for Information science

5. What is Hall Effect? Derive an expression of hall coefficient? Describe an experimental
setup for the measurement of hall coefficient?

“When the conductor carrying a current (I) is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field (B), a
potential difference is developed inside the conductor in a direction normal to the directions
of both the current and magnetic field”
This phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the corresponding voltage thus generated is
called Hall voltage
Explanation
Consider an external field applied along the X-axis of the specimen. Assuming that the material
is n-type semiconductor, the current flow consists mainly of electrons moving from right to
left, corresponding to the conventional current direction.
When this specimen is placed in a magnetic field ‘B’ and if ‘v’ is the velocity of the electrons
perpendicular to the magnetic field then each one of them will a experience a downward force
of magnitude Bev
This downward force (Lorentz Force FL) due to magnetic field causes the electrons to be
deflected in the downward direction and hence there is an accumulation of negative charges on
the bottom face of the slab. This causes the bottom face of the slab to be more negative with
respect to the top face and a potential difference is established from top to bottom of the
specimen. This potential difference causes a field EH called Hall field in negative y direction.
There is a force eEH acting on the electron in the upward direction due to this field.
Theory of Hall Effect
At equilibrium, the downward force Bev will balance the upward force eEH
Bev = eEH (1)
In a uniform sample, the electric current density (J) is related to the drift velocity as
J = -neV
Where n is the concentration of electrons.

J
V Y (2)
ne
Substituting equation (2) in (1),
Current VH

 BJ X
EH  (3)
ne z

This can be written as EH = BJRH Magnetic field (4)

Where RH = - 1 / ne is called Hall coefficient
The negative sign indicates that the developed field is in the negative y direction.
49 | P a g e Physics for Information science
IIIrly, the Hall coefficient for p – type semiconductor is RH = 1 / p e.
Where p is the concentration of holes

Determination of Hall coefficient

The hall field per unit current density per unit magnetic induction is defined as hall
coefficient.
If t is the thickness of the sample and VH is the hall voltage, then VH = EH t (5)
Where EH is hall field.
From equation (4), we get EH = RH Jx B
Substituting the value of (5) in above equation, we get VH = RH Jx B t (6)
Ix
Now the current density Jx can be written as J x  (7)
bt

Where ‘b ’ is the width and bt is the area of cross section of the sample

Substituting equation (7) in equation (6), we get RH I X Bt

VH 
bt

RH I X B (8)
VH 
b

VH b
(or) RH  (9)
IX B

For an n – type semiconductor R H   V H b (10)

IX B

Mobility of charge carriers

We know that hall coefficient RH   1

ne

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 This expression is correct only when the charge carriers is free from any attractive force in
energy band and moves with constant drift velocity. But this is not true in the case of
semiconductors.

Considering the average speed, it is shown that RH   1.18 for electrons and R H  1.18
ne pe
for holes.
We know that the electrical conductivity and mobility is related by σ = n e μe

 RH  e
(or)  e   & hence  e   e and hence  e 
ne ne 1.18
(11)

 RH  h
Similarly  h 
1.18
(12)
Experimental Determination of Hall Coefficient:
The experimental setup for the measurement of Hall voltage is shown in figure.
A semiconducting material is taken in the form of a rectangular slab of thickness ‘t’ and breadth
‘b’. A suitable current Ix ampere is allowed to pass through this sample along the X axis by
connecting it to battery
The sample is placed between the poles pieces of an electromagnet such that the applied
magnetic field coincides with the z – axis.
Hall voltage (VH) which is developed in the sample is measured by fixing two probes at the
centers of the bottom and top faces of the sample.
V b
By measuring Hall voltage, Hall coefficient is calculated from the formula RH  I B
H

Applications
(vi) The sign of the hall coefficient is used to determine whether a give semiconductor is n –
type or p – type

(vii) Once Hall coefficient RH is measured, the carrier concentration can be determined from

n = 1 /e RH
(viii) The mobility of charge carriers can be obtained if conductivity is known. μe = σeRH

(ix) Hall voltage VH for a given current is proportional to B. Hence measurement of VH

measures the magnetic field B.

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(x) This instrument gives an output proportional to the product of two signals. Thus if
current I is made proportional to one input and if B is made proportional to the other
input, then the Hall voltage VH is proportional to the product of the two inputs.

Magnetic field
Hall voltage (VH)
Current

+ -
Bt mA key Rh

6. Derive an expression to find the total current density due to drift and difussion of
electrons and holes in semiconductor?
The net current flow in semiconuctor is due to drift and diffusion transport.
Drift transport
In the absence of electric field, the random motion of charge carriers will not contribute
current because the charge movement in one direction is balance by the charge movement in
the other direction. When the external field is applied, the electrons are attracte to the positive
terminal and the holes are attracte to the negative terminal. This net movement is termed as
drift transport. This transport overcomes the thermal movement and produces current density
Therefore, current density due to electron drift is Je = ne e vd (1)
Since vd = μeE (2)
Substitute (2) in (1), we get
Je = ne e μeE (3)
Similarly, for holes, Jh = nh e μhE (4)
Then the total drift current is jdr = ne e μeE+ nh e μhE (5)
We know that J = σE (6)
Therefore σdr = ne e μe+ nh e μh (7)
For an intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh = ni
& Hence σdr = ni e[ μe+ μh ] (8)
Diffusion transport

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The non-uniform distribution of charge carriers creates the regions of uneven concentrations
in the semiconductor. The charge carriers moving from the region of higher concentration to
the regions of lower concentration leading to diffusion current
Hence the concentration of charge carrier (Δne ) varies with distance x in a semiconductor.

The rate of flow of charge carriers is   ne 
x


Rate of flow of electrons =  De  ne 
x

Where De is the electron diffusion coefficient

Current density due to electrons = charge X rate of flow of electrons

i.e., Je = De e  ne 
x


Similarly for holes, Jh =  Dh e  nh 
x

Thus, if an electric field is applied to the semiconductor, the total current contribution is due
to both drift and diffusion transport.
Net current due to both electrons and holes can be obtained as
 
J total  ne e eE  eDe  ne   nh eh E  Dh e  nh 
x x

7. Explain any three hall devices?

(d)Gauss meter

RH BZ I X
The hall voltage, we have VH  . In this, VH Bz for a given hall element; RH an b
b
are constant. The current I through Hall element is also kept constant. This principle is used
in Gauss meter. It is used for measuring magnetic field. The variation of Hall voltage with
magnetic field is shown in figure. The voltmeter which is used to measure VH can be directly
calibrated in terms of Gauss. The graph can be also used to measure any unknown magnetic
fields.
N

+ - RH
53 | P a g e Physics for Information science
(e) Electronic Multipliers

RH BZ I1
From Hall effect, we have VH  . Since RH an b are constant for an element
b

VH Bz I1

But the magnetic field BZ is proportional to current (I2) through the coil.
i.e., VH I 2

VH I1I 2

VH is a measure of the product of two currents. This is the basic principle used in analog
electronic multipliers. The figure shows the circuit diagram for electronic multiplier.

I2

I1

(f) Electronic Wattmeter

Hall effect is used to measure electrical power dissipate in a load. The instrument used to
measure the power in a circuit using Hall effect principle is known as Hall effect –
Wattmeter.
S is Hall element sample. It is place in a magnetic field Bz produce by the load current IL
passing through the coils CC as shown in figure. The voltage cross the load VL drives the
current Iy = VL / R through the sample. R is a series resistance which is >> than the resistance
of the sample and that of the load. Also, Iy << IL.. If b is the breadth of the sample, then the
RH BZ I y
measured Hall voltage VH  . Since VH and b are constant, VH Bz I y
b

Since Bz I L and I y VL & hence VH I LVL

This is the electric power dissipated by the load. The voltmeter that measures VH can be
calibrate to read power directly.

54 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 VL
IL IL

C S C
V
Bz

VL R Iy = VL / R

8. Describe the construction and working of Schottky diode? What are its advantages?

It is the junction formed between a metal and n – type semiconductor. When the metal has a
higher work function than that of n – type semiconductor then the junction forme is called
Schottky diode. The fermi level of the semiconductor is higher (since its work function is lower)
than the metal. Figure shows Schottky diode and its circuit symbol.

Metal n– type semiconductor

The electrons in the conduction level of the semiconductor move to the empty energy states
above the Fermi level of the metal. This leaves a positive charge on the semiconductor side and
a negative charge (due to the excess electrons) on the metal sie as shown in figure. This leads
to a contact potential.
V0
-
-
-
-
-

Metal Depletion region Semiconductor

When a Schottky junction is formed between metal and semiconductor, fermi level lines up.
Also a positive potential is formed on the semiconductor side. The formation of a depletion
region of width WD within the semiconductor is shown in figure. Because the depletion region
extends within a certain depth in the semiconductor, there is bending of the energy bands on
the semiconductor side. Band bend up in the direction of the electric field produced in depletion
region. There is a built in potential Vo in the Schottky junction. From the figure this is given by
the difference in work functions eV0 = φm – φsemi
55 | P a g e Physics for Information science
Energy band diagram I (mA)
WB
＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠＠

eV0 = Φm – Φsemi

ΦB CB Ec
EFm EFs -V μA V

VB Ev

Working
The behaviour of Schottky diode is further studied by forward and reverse bias.
(c) Forward Bias

In this bias, metal is connected to positive terminal and n – type semiconductor is connected to
negative terminal of the battery. In the forward biased Schottky junction, the external potential
opposes the in- built potential. The electrons injected from the external circuit into the n – type
semiconductor have a lower barrier to overcome before reaching the metal. This leads to a
current in the circuit which increases with increasing external potential.
(d) Reverse Bias

In reverse bias, metal is connected to negative terminal and n – type semiconductor to positive
terminal of the battery. In the case of reverse bias, the external potential is applied in the same
direction as the junction potential. This increases the width of depletion region further and hence
there is no flow of electron from semiconductor to metal. So Schottky junction acts as rectifier.
i.e., it conducts in forward bias but not in reverse bias.
V – I Characteristics
The V – I characteristics of the junction is shown in figure. There is an exponential increase in
current in the forward bias while there is a very small current in reverse bias.
Advantages
It has very low capacitance
It will immediately switch from ON to OFF state (fast recovery time)
Applying a small voltage is enough to produce large current
It has high efficiency
It operates at high frequencies
It produces less noise.

56 | P a g e Physics for Information science

9.Write a note on ohmic contact?

An ohmic contact is a type of metal semiconductor junction. It is formed by a contact of a

metal with a heavily doped semiconductor. When the semiconductor has a higher work
function than that of metal, then the junction formed is called the ohmic junction.
Here, the current is conducted equally in both directions and there is a very little voltage drop
across the junction. Before contact, Fermi levels of the metal and semiconductor are at
different positions as shown in figure.
Working
After contact, the ohmic junction is shown in figure. At equilibrium, the electrons move from
the metal to the empty states in the conduction band of semiconductor. Thus, there is an
accumulation region near the interface (on the semiconductor side). The accumulation region
has higher conductivity than the bulk semiconductor due to this higher concentration of
electrons. Thus, a ohmic contact behaves as a resistor conducting in both forward and reverse
bias. The resistivity is determined by the bulk resistivity of the semiconductor.
V – I Characteristics
The V-I characteristics of the ohmic contact is shown in figure. The current is directly
proportional to the potential across the junction and it is symmetric about the origin, as shown
in figure. Thus, ohmic contacts are non-rectifying and show negligible voltage drop and
resistance irrespective of the direction and magnitude of current.

Φm Φsemi
CB
CB
EF EFM EFS
EFS
VB
VB
Metal Semiconductor Metal Semiconductor
Negligible voltage drop I

Applications
The use of ohmic contacts is to connect one semiconductor device to another, an IC, or to
connect an IC to its external terminal.

57 | P a g e Physics for Information science

 Anna University Solved Problems
Unit - 2: Semiconductor Physics

1. Find the resistance of an intrinsic germanium rod 1cm long, 1mm wide and 1mm
thick at 300K. For germanium ni =2.5 x 1019 m-3;e = 0.39 m2V-1S-1 and h = 0.19
m2V-1S-1 (DECEMBER 2014)

Given data(s): (i) Intrinsic carrier concentration (ni) =2.5 x 1019 m-3
(ii) Electron mobility (e) = 0.39 m2V-1S-1
(iii) Hole mobility (h) = 0.19 m2V-1S-1
(iv) Length of the rod (l) = 1 cm = 1 x 10-2m
(v) Area = breadth x thickness = (1x10-3)x(1x10-3) = 1 x 10-6m
(vi) charge of electron (e) = 1.6 x 10-19 C.

Formula(s): (i) Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor  i  ni e( e  h )

l l
(ii) R  (or ) R 
A A
Calculation(s): (i)  i  2.5 10 1.6 1019  (0.39  0.19)  2.321m1 m-3
19

1102
(ii) R   4310
2.32  1106
Answer(s):
(i) Electrical conductivity (σ) = 2.32 Ω-1 m-1
(ii) Resistance (R) = 4310 Ω.

2. A silicon material is uniformly doped with phosphorus atoms at a concentration of

2 x 10-19 m-3. The Mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.05 and 0.12 m2V-1 S-1
respectively. Ni = 1.5 x 1016 m3. Find the electron and hole concentration and its
electrical conductivity. (June 2014).
Given data(s):
Carrier concentration (ni) = 1.5 x 1016 m3.
Donor concentration (ND) = 2 x 1019 m3.

ni 2
Formula(s): p 
ND
n = ND
  eN D  e

Calculations:
ni 2 (1.5 1016 ) 2
Hole concentration p    1.125 1013 m3
ND 2 10 19

Electron concentration n=ND = 2 x 1019 m-3

Electrical conductivity   1.6 1019  2 1019  0.12
σ = 0.384 σ-1 m-1
Result(s)
 Hole concentration = 1.125 x 1013 m-3
Electron concentration n= 2 x 1019 m-3
Electrical conductivity σ = 0.384 σ-1
m-1

3. The hall coefficient of a specimen of a doped silicon is found to be 3.66 x 10-4 m3/C.
The resistivity of the specimen is 8.93 x 10-3 Ω m. Find the mobility and density of
the charge
Given data carriers
(s): (April 2015).

Hall coefficient (RH) = 3.66 x 10-4 m3/C

Resistivity () =8.93 x 10-3 Ω m
Formula (s):
1
n m-3
Density of charge carriers RH e

1 R
Mobility e  (or ) e  H
 eni 

Calculation(s):
1
ne  4 19
 1.708 1022 m3
3.66 10 1.6 10

3.66  104
e  3
 0.041m 2V 1S 1
8.93 10
Results:
Carrier concentration (ne) = 1.708 x 1022 m-3
Mobility (e) = 0.041 m2 V-1 S-1.

4. For an intrinsic semiconductor with a band gap of 0.7 eV, determine the position of
EF at T = 300 K if mh* = 6me* (Nov. 2003).
Given data (s):
Eg = 0.7 eV (or) 1.12 x 10-19 J (to convert eV to J multiply by 1.6 x 10-19C)
T = 300 K
mh*
6
me*

Formula (s):

Eg 3kT  m* 
EF   log e  h* 
2 4  me 
Calculation(s):
 1.12 1019 3 1.38 10 23  300
EF   log e  6 
2 4

EF  2.41616 1021  5.6 1020 J

2.41616 1021  5.6 10 20

EF  eV
1.6 1019
EF = 0.365 eV
Results:
Fermi Energy EF = 0.365 eV
5. A copper strip 2 cm wide and 1 mm thick is placed in a magnetic field with B = 1.5
Wb/m2 perpendicular to the strip. Suppose a current of 200 A is set up in the strip.
What Hall potential difference would appear across the strip? (N = 8.4 x 10 28
electrons / m3) (May. 2015).
Given data (s):
Current (Ix) = 200 A
Magnetic field (BZ) = 1.5 Wbm-2
No. of electrons / volume (n) = 8.4 x 1028 m-3
Thickness of the sample (t) = 1 x 10-3 m

Formula (s):
RH I X BZ
Hall voltage VH 
t
I X BZ
(or) VH  (Since RH = 1 / ne)
net

Calculation(s):
200 1.5
VH   2.2 105V
8.4 10  (1.6 10 )(110 )
28 19 3

Result(s):
Hall voltage VH = 2.2 x 10-5V

6. Find the Hall coefficient and electron mobility of germanium for a given sample
( length 1 cm, breadth 5mm, thickness 1mm). A current of 5 mA flows from a 1.35 V
supply and develops a Hall voltage of 20 mV across the specimen in a magnetic field
of 0.45 Wb/m2 (May. 2015).

Given data (s):

Current (Ix) = 5mA = 5 x 10-3 A
 Magnetic field (BZ) = 0.45 Wbm-2
Hall voltage (VH) = 20 mV = 20 x 10-3 V
Length of the sample (l) = 1 cm = 1 x 10-2 m
Breadth of the sample (b) = 5 mm = 5 x 10-3 m
Thickness of the sample (t) = 1 mm = 1 x 10-3 m

Formula (s):
(i) Resistivity
RA

l
(ii) Resistance (R) = V / I
(iii) Hall field (EH) = VH / t
(iv) Current density (J) = I / A (or) J = current / (breadth x thickness)
EH
(v) Hall coefficient RH 
J X BZ

RH
(vi) Electron mobility  e 


Calculation(s):
1.35
(i) R   270
(5  103 )

(ii) A  5 103 1103  5 106 m2

270  5 10 6
(iii)    0.135m
1 10 2

20 103
(iv) EH   20Vm 1
1103

5  103
(v) J X  6
 103 Am 2
5  10
20
(vi) RH   0.044m3C 1
10  0.45
3

0.044
(vii) e   0.33m 2V 1S 1
0.135
Result(s):
(i) Resistivity () = 0.135 Ω m
(ii) Hall field (EH) = 20 Vm-1
 (iii) Current density (JX) = 103 A/m2
(iv) Hall coefficient (RH) = 0.044 m3 C-1
(v) Mobility (e) = 0.33 m2 V-1 S-1.

7. A semiconductor has a mobility of 500 cm2 V-1 S-1 at T = 300 K. Calculate the
diffusion coefficient.

Given data (s):

Mobility (e) = 500 cm2 V-1 S-1
Temperature (T) = 300 K
Boltzmann constant (k) = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 x 10-19 C
Formula(s):
 kT 
D 
 e 
Calculations(s):

 1.38 1023  300 

D 19   500  12.94 cm /sec
2
 1.6  10 
Result:
Diffusion coefficient = 12.94 cm2/sec.

8. A metal-semiconductor contact is formed between gold and n type silicon doped to a

level Nd = 5 x 1016 cm-3 at 300 K. Calculate the ideal Schottky barrier height,
difference between Fermi level and conduction band of semiconductor and built in
potential of the Schottky diode? Assume the work function of gold is 5.1 eV. The
electron affinity in semiconductor is 4.01 eV. The effective density of states function
Nc = 2.8 x 1019 cm-3

Given data(s):
Nc = 2.8 x 1019 cm-3
Nd = 5 x 1016 cm-3
T = 300 K
m = 5.1eV
semi = 4.01 eV
Boltzmann constant (k) = 1.38 x 10-23 J K-1
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 x 10-19 C

Formula (s):
 (i) Ideal Schottky barrier height Bh  m   semi
kT  N c 
(ii) Difference between EF and conduction band of semiconductor n  ln  
e  Nd 
Bh  n
(iii) Build in potential barrier Vbuildin 
e
Calculation(s)

(i) Bh  5.1  4.01  1.09eV

1.38 1023  300  2.8  1019 

(ii) n  ln  16 
 0.164V
1.6 1019  5  10 

1.09  0.164
(iii) Vbuildin   0.926V
1
Result(s):
Ideal Schottky barrier height = 1.09 eV
Difference between EF and conduction band of semiconductor = 0.164 V
Build in potential Vbuild = 0.926 V