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Physics Investigatory Project 2023-

2024

cse (MIT School of Distance Education)

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PHOTOELEC
TR IC
EFFECT
INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

, Exam no:
grade of XII, Vidyaa Vikas
International School, Karamadai
has satisfactorily
completed the project
in
in partial fulfillment of the
requirements of AISSCE as prescribed
by CBSE in the year 2023-
2024.

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ACKNOWLEDGM
EN T

I would like to express my special thanks

of gratitude to my teacher Mrs.Jansirani
as well as our principal

Mrs.
Vijayalakshmi who gave me the golden
opportunity to do this wonderful project
on the topic “PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT”
which also helped me in doing a lot of
research and I came to know about so
many new things. I am really thankful to
them. Secondly, I would also like to
thank my parents and friends who
helped me a lot in finalizing the project
within the limited time frame.

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CONTENT

S. INDEX PAGE
N
O
1 Introduction 5
2 History 7
3 Principle and Formula 9
4 Experimental study of 12
the
photoelectric effect
5 Uses and effects 14
6 Einstein's 17

photoelectric equation
7 Laws of Photoelectric 18
Emission
8 Applications of the 19
photoelectric effect
9 Conclusion 26
10 Bibliography 27

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01 INTRODUCTION

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in

which electrons are ejected from the surface
of a metal when light is incident on it. These
ejected electrons are called photoelectrons. It
is important to note that the emission of
photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the
ejected photoelectrons is dependent on the
frequency of the light that is incident on the
metal’s surface.
The process through which photoelectrons
are ejected from the surface of the metal due
to the action of light is commonly referred to
as photoemission.

In a broader definition, the radiant energy

may be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet light, X-
rays, or gamma rays; the material may be a
solid, liquid, or gas; and the released particles
may be ions (electrically charged atoms or
molecules) as well as electrons.
The phenomenon was fundamentally
significant in the development of modern
physics because of the puzzling questions
it raised about the nature

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of light —particle versus wavelike

behaviour—that was finally resolved by
Albert Einstein in 1905. The effect remains
important for research in areas from
materials science to astrophysics, as well
as forming the basis for a variety of useful
devices.
Photoelectric effect is one of three possible
interactions of γ radiation with the electron
shell. Out of these three interactions has
photon usually the lowest energy. It is a
physical phenomenon, where electrons are
ejected from matter (usually metal) due to
absorption of electromagnetic radiation.
Electrons emitted in this manner are then
called photo electrons. Their emission is
called photoelectric emission
(photoemission).

The photoelectric effect occurs because the

electrons at the surface of the metal tend to
absorb energy from the incident light and use
it to overcome the attractive forces that bind
them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration
detailing the emission of photoelectrons as a
result of the photoelectric effect is provided
below;

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Fig:01
Photoelect

02HISTORY OF
THE
PHOTOELECTRI
C EFFECT
The

photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887

by the German physicist Heinrich
Rudolf Hertz. In
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connection with work on radio waves, Hertz

observed that, when ultraviolet light shines
on two metal electrodes with a voltage
applied across them, the light changes the
voltage at which sparking takes place. This
relation between light and electricity (hence
photoelectric) was clarified in 1902 by
another German physicist, Philipp Lenard. He
demonstrated that electrically charged
particles are liberated from a metal surface
when it is illuminated and that these particles
are identical to electrons, which had been
discovered by the British physicist Joseph
John Thomson in 1897.
Further research showed that the
photoelectric effect represents an interaction
between light and matter that cannot be
explained by classical physics, which
describes light as an electromagnetic wave.
One inexplicable observation was that the
maximum kinetic energy of the released
electrons did not vary with the intensity of
the light, as expected according to the wave
theory, but was proportional instead to the
frequency of the light. What the light
intensity did determine was the number of
electrons released from the metal (measured
as an electric current). Another puzzling
observation was that there was virtually no
time lag between the arrival of radiation and
the emission of electrons.
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In 1922 the American physicist Arthur

Compton measured the change in
wavelength of X-rays after they interacted
with free electrons, and he showed that the
change could be calculated by treating X-rays
as made of photons. Compton received the
1927 Nobel Prize for Physics for this work. In
1931 the British mathematician Ralph
Howard Fowler extended the understanding
of photoelectric emission by establishing the
relationship between photoelectric current
and temperature in metals. Further efforts
showed that electromagnetic radiation could
also emit electrons in insulators, which do not
conduct electricity, and in semiconductors, a
variety of insulators that conduct electricity
only under certain circumstances.

Fig:02 History of

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03 PRINCIPAL
AND
FORMULA

Threshold Frequency (γTh)

It is the minimum frequency of the incident

light or radiation that will produce a
photoelectric effect, i.e., the ejection of
photoelectrons from a metal surface is known
as the threshold frequency for the metal. It is
constant for a specific metal but may be
different for different metals.

If γ = Frequency of the incident photon and γth=

Threshold frequency, then,
If γ < γTh, there will be no ejection of
photoelectron and, therefore, no
photoelectric effect.
If γ = γTh, photoelectrons are just ejected
from the metal surface; in this case, the
kinetic energy of the electron is zero.
If γ > γTh, then photoelectrons will come
out of the surface, along with kinetic energy.

Threshold Wavelength (λth)

During the emission of electrons, a metal surface
corresponding to the greatest wavelength to

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incident light is known as the threshold

wavelength.
λth = c/γTh
For wavelengths above this threshold, there
will be no photoelectron emission.

For λ = wavelength of the incident photon,

then If λ < λth, then the photoelectric
effect will
take place, and ejected electron will
possess kinetic energy.
If λ = λth, then just the photoelectric
effect will take place, and the kinetic energy
of ejected photoelectron will be zero.
If λ > λth, there will be no
photoelectric effect.

Work Function or Threshold Energy

(Φ)

The minimal energy of thermodynamic work

that is needed to remove an electron from a
conductor to a point in the vacuum
immediately outside the surface of the
conductor is known as work
function/threshold energy.

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Φ = hγth = hc/λth
The work function is the characteristic of a
given metal. If E = energy of an incident
photon, then
1. If E < Φ, no photoelectric effect will
take place.
2. If E = Φ, just a photoelectric effect will
take place, but the kinetic energy of
ejected photoelectron will be zero
3. If E > photoelectron will be zero
4. If E > Φ, the photoelectric effect will
take place along with the possession of
the kinetic energy by the ejected
electron.

Photoelectric Effect Formula

The energy of photon = Energy needed to

remove an electron + Kinetic energy of the
emitted electron
i.e., hν = W
+ E Where,
• h is Planck’s constant
• ν is the frequency of the incident photon
• W is a work function

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• E is the maximum kinetic energy of

ejected electrons: 1/2 mv²

04

EXPERIMENTA
L STUDY OF
THE
PHOTOELECTR
IC EFFECT
✓ The given experiment is used to study the
photoelectric effect experimentally. In
an evacuated glass tube, two zinc
plates, C and D, are enclosed. Plates C
acts as an anode, and D acts as a
photosensitive plate.
✓ Two plates are connected to battery B
and ammeter A. If the radiation is incident
on plate D through a quartz window, W
electrons are ejected out of the plate, and
current flows in the circuit. This is known
as photo current. Plate C can be
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maintained at desired potential (+ve or –

ve) with respect to plate D.

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Fig:03

CHARACTERISTICS OF
THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT

• The threshold frequency varies with the

material, it is different for different
materials.
• The photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the light intensity.
• The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons
is directly proportional to the light
frequency.
• The stopping potential is directly
proportional to the frequency, and the
process is instantaneous.

FACTORS AFFECTING
THE PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
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With the help of this apparatus, we will now

study the dependence of the photoelectric
effect on the following factors:
The intensity of incident radiation.
A potential difference between the metal
plate and collector.
Frequency of incident radiation.

USES AND
05

EFFECTS

Photomultipliers

These are extremely light-sensitive vacuum

tubes with a coated photocathode inside the
envelope. The photocathode contains
combinations of materials such as cesium,
rubidium, and antimony specially selected to
provide a low work function, so when
illuminated even by very low levels of light,
the photocathode readily releases electrons.
By means of a series of electrodes (dynodes)
at ever-higher potentials, these electrons are
accelerated and substantially increased in
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number through secondary emission to

provide a readily
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detectable output current. Photomultipliers

are still commonly used wherever low levels
of light must be detected.

Image sensors

Video camera tubes in the

early days of television
used the photoelectric
effect, for example,
Philo Farnsworth's "Image
Dissector" used a screen Fig:04 Image
charged by the ascanned
photoelectric effect to
transform an optical image
into electronic signal.

Spacecraft
The photoelectric effect will
cause spacecraft exposed to sunlight to
develop a positive charge. This can be a
major problem, as other parts of the
spacecraft are in shadow which will result in
the spacecraft developing a negative charge
from nearby plasmas. The imbalance can
discharge through delicate electrical
components. The static charge created by the
photoelectric effect is self-limiting because a
higher-charged object doesn't give up its
electrons as easily as a lower-charged object
does.

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Fig:

Electron Affinity
Photons hitting a thin film of alkali
metal or semiconductor material such as
gallium arsenide in an image intensifier tube
cause the ejection of photoelectrons due to
the photoelectric effect. These are
accelerated by an electrostatic field where
they strike a phosphor-coated screen,
converting the electrons back into photons.
Intensification of the signal is achieved either
through the acceleration of the electrons or
by increasing the number of electrons
through secondary emissions, such as with a
micro- channel plate.

Sometimes a combination of both methods

is used. Additional kinetic energy is required
to move an electron out of the conduction
band and into the vacuum level. This is
known as

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the electron affinity of the photocathode and

is another barrier to photoemission other
than the forbidden band, explained by the
band gap model.

Some materials such as gallium arsenide

have an effective electron affinity that is
below the level of the conduction band. In
these materials, electrons that move to the
conduction band all have sufficient energy to
be emitted from the material, so the film that
absorbs photons can be quite thick. These
materials are known as negative electron
affinity materials.

Electrons are emitted from the surface of a

metal when its exposed to light. This is called
photoelectric effect. Each metal has a certain
threshold frequency of light when an electron
is emitted. Above this frequency, the electron
is emitted and the extra energy is transferred
to the electron.

EINSTEIN’S
06

PHOTOELECT
RIC
EQUATION
According to Einstein’s theory of the
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photoelectric effect, when a photon collides

inelastically with

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electrons, the photon is absorbed completely

or partially by the electrons. So, if an electron
in a metal absorbs a photon of energy, it uses
the energy in the following ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface
electron free from the metal. It is known as
the work function of the material. Rest energy
will appear as kinetic energy (K) of the
emitted photoelectrons.
Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation Explains the
Following Concepts
• The frequency of the incident light is
directly proportional to the kinetic energy
of the electrons, and the wavelengths of
incident light are inversely proportional to
the kinetic energy of the electrons.
• If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
• γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no
emission of photoelectrons.
• The intensity of the radiation or incident
light refers to the number of photons in
the light beam. The intensity of the
radiation is increased, and the rate of
emission increases, but there will be no
change in the kinetic energy of electrons.
With an increasing number of emitted
electrons, the value of the photoelectric
current increases.

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LAWS OF
07

THE
PHOTOELECT
RIC
EMISSION
On the basis of the experimental results on
the photoelectric effect, Lenard and Millikan
gave the following laws of photoelectric
emission:
➢ For a given photosensitive material
and frequency of the incident
radiation, (Above the threshold
frequency), the photoelectric current
is directly proportional to the intensity
of light. The saturation current is
directly proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation.
➢ For a given photosensitive material,
there exists a certain minimum cut-
off frequency below which no
photoelectrons are emitted,
howsoever high is the intensity of
incident radiation. This frequency is
called threshold frequency.
➢ Above the threshold frequency, the
stopping potential or equivalently the
maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional
to the frequency of the incident
radiation but is independent of its
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intensity.
➢ Photoelectric emission is an
instantaneous process. The time lag
between the incidence of light radiation

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and the emission of photoelectrons is

very small, even less than 10 s.

APPLICATIONS
08

OF THE
PHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT
Automatic Doors
Many elevators and garage door
systems use a beam of light and a
photoelectric device known as a photocell as
a safety feature. As long as the beam of light
strikes the photocell, the photoelectric effect
generates enough ejected electrons to
produce a detectable electric current.
(Walker, 988) When the light beam is
blocked (by a person) the electric current is
interrupted and the doors are signaled to
open.

Fig:06 Automatic

Solar Energy Panels

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Photocells are also the basic unit

in solar energy panels that convert some of
the energy in sunlight into electrical energy.
These panels can operate billboards and
safety lights in remote areas far (Wfrom
Fiag:power
l0k7eSr,ol
lines
Large solar panels (240 ft.) will power the
International Space Station.
Night Vision Device
The Photoelectric effect
has numerous applications, for example,
night vision devices take advantage of the
effect. Photons entering the device strike a
plate which causes electrons to be emitted,
These pass through a disk consisting of
millions of channels, and the current through
these is amplified and directed towards a
fluorescent screen which glows when
electrons hit it. In these devices, an optical
image incident on a semitransparent
photocathode is used to transform the light
image into an “electron image.”

Fig:08 Image

Photocell

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The design of a photocell makes use of

photo-emission from a metal surface for
measuring the intensity of light. The
photoelectrons emitted from the cathode of
the photocell are drawn to the collector by an
electric field. The resultant electric current is
measured by a sensitive meter in the external
circuit. The current obtainable from a typical
Fi g: 0 9 Pho t o
photoc e l l is of the order of a
microampere. The fundamental use of a
photocell is to convert a change in the
intensity of illumination into a change in
electric current. This change in electric
current may be used to operate controls and
light-measuring devices. For example, a
person approaching a doorway may interrupt
a light beam that is incident upon a
photocell. The abrupt change in photocurrent
may be used to start a motor that opens the
door or rings an alarm. Light meters in
cameras work on this principle.
Complexion meter
By measuring the intensity of
reflected light by a photocell, one can
compare the skin complexion of different
persons. White skin will reflect more light
than dark skin and thus a larger current in
the meter. This current can be used to
compare the complexion of the skin.

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Fig:10

Illumination meter
Since the current produced in the photocell is
proportional to the intensity of light falling on
it, it is used in the camera as an exposome
to adjust the aperture according to the
intensity of light. In general, it can be used to
compare illuminating power of two sources.

Fig:11 Illumination

CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATION OF LDR
✓ CONSTRUCTION: a light-sensitive
material such as cadmium sulphide
(cds) is deposited on a ceramic
substrate.
✓ Then the substrate along with the
photosensitive layer of cds is enclosed in
a metal container.

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✓ Light is incident on the light-sensitive

material through the glass cap or lens
which is added at the top of this
assembly.
✓ OPERATION: when light is incident on the
photosensitive semiconductor material,
the incident photons collide with the
atoms of light-sensitive material and
impart energy to them.
✓ Due to this energy, the valence electron
will cross the forbidden energy gap and
enters into the conduction band.
✓ Due to a greater number of electrons
entering the conduction band,
conductivity increases and resistivity
decreases. Thus, the resistance of the
photosensitive material decreases with
increases in the intensity of light.

Fig:12 Light Dependent

Burglar Alarm
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The alarm consists of a photoelectric cell

connected to a closed electrical circuit and an
infrared source of light. The light from the
infrared source is continuously incident on
the photoelectric cell, maintaining
a constant current in the
circuit. The device is kept
concealed near the place
to be protected.
If a burglar intercepts the
invisible infrared rays, the
photoelectric current
stops.
This automatically operates a
relay, which sends an electric current to
another circuit connected to a bell. The bell
starts ringing and the alarm is raised.

Fig:13 Burglar
X- Ray Photo electron
Spectroscopy (XPS)

This technique uses X-rays to irradiate a

surface and measure the kinetic energies of
the emitted electrons. Important aspects of
the chemistry of a surface can be obtained,
such as elemental composition, chemical
composition, the empirical formula of
compounds, and chemical state.
✓ Used to generate electricity in solar
panels. These panels contain metal
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combinations that
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allow electricity generation from a wide

range of wavelengths.
✓ Motion and Position Sensors: In this case,
a photoelectric material is placed in front
of a UV or IR LED. When an object is
placed in between the Light-emitting
diode (LED) and sensor, light is cut off,
and the electronic circuit registers a
change in potential difference
✓ Lighting sensors, such as the ones used in
smartphones, enable automatic
adjustment of screen brightness
according to the lighting. This is because
the amount of current generated via the
photoelectric effect is dependent on the
intensity of light hitting the sensor.
✓ Digital cameras can detect and record
light because they have photoelectric
sensors that respond to different colors of
light.
✓ Used in photomultipliers to detect low
levels of light.
✓ Used in video camera tubes in the early
days of television.
✓ Night vision devices are based on this effect.
✓ The photoelectric effect also contributes
to the study of certain nuclear processes.
It takes part in the chemical analysis of
materials since emitted electrons tend to
carry specific energy that is characteristic
of the atomic source.

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Fig:14 Photo electron

09 CONCLUSION

Fig:15
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As we appreciated the simplicity and

elegance of Einstein’s explanation of the
photoelectric effect, we came to know
about the particle behavior of light. He
introduced revolutionary ideas which were
contrary to the scientific opinion of the
time. The photon hypothesis disturbed the
scientific community much more than the
seventeenth century Newton - Huygens
heated debate on the corpuscular and the
wave nature of light. But the new theory
gave a better description of the physical
nature than the comfortable old classical
ideas.
Hence, the world came to know about the
dual nature of light. That is a
monochromatic beam of light of frequency,
hence possessing wave attributes,
manifests in some experiments as though it
is a stream of quanta called photons.

10

BIBLIOGRAPHIES
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➢ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Photoele ctric_effect
➢https://www.britannica.com/
science/ph otoelectric-effect
➢https://byjus.com/jee/
photoelectric-
effect/#experimental-study-
of- photoelectric-effect
➢https://gkscientist.com/
applications- of-photoelectric-
effect
➢https://unacademy.com/
content/neet- ug/study-
material/physics/the-uses-and-
effects-of-photoelectric-effect/
➢https://stoplearn.com/
photoelectric- effect-
applications/

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DONE
BY Netra
Samruth
e
Swathi

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