1 SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS.

Introduction to Integrated Science.

What is integrated science?
 To integrate is to bring together or to combine parts of something into a whole.
 Integrated science means the study of five basic natural sciences which are Physics,
Chemistry, Biology, Earth Science and Astronomy and how they overlap.

Knowledge and Skills gained from Integrated Science.

 Integrated Science provides learners with an opportunity to measure their ability
in science.
 It prepares a learner to study science at higher levels and even choose it as a career.
 It provides learners with the required skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary for
specialization in Applied Sciences as well as Pure sciences (Physics, chemistry and
Biology), and Careers and technology studies (CTS) offered in the Science Technology
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) pathway at the senior school level.
 The following tables shows the STEM pathway.

Track Core subjects Optional subjects

Pure  Community Service The learner should select a minimum
sciences Learning. of three from the following subjects:
 Physical Education. Mathematics.
 Information Physics.
Communication Chemistry.
Technology (ICT) Biology.
Applied  Community Service The learner should select one of the
sciences Learning. following subjects:
 Physical Education. Agriculture.
 Information Computer science.
Communication Food and Nutrition.
Technology (ICT) Home Management.
Technical  Community Service The learner should select one of the
and Learning. following subjects:
engineering  Physical Education. Agricultural technology.
 Information Geoscience technology.
Communication Marine and fisheries
Technology (ICT) technology.
 Mathematics. Aviation technology.
 Chemistry or Biological Wood technology.
Sciences. Electrical technology.
Metal technology.
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  Physics or Biology or Power mechanics.
Physical Science. Clothing technology.
Construction technology.
Media technology.
Electronics technology.
Manufacturing technology.
Mechatronics.
Career and  Community Service The learner should select one of the
technology Learning. following subjects:
studies  Physical Education.  Garment making and interior
(CTS)  Information design.
Communication  Leather work.
Technology (ICT)  Culinary arts.
 Hair dressing and beauty
therapy.
 Plumbing and ceramics.
 Welding and fabrication.
 Tourism and travel.
 Air conditioning and
refrigeration.
 Exterior design and
landscaping.
 Building construction.
 Photography.
 Graphic designing and
animation.
 Food and beverage.
 Motor vehicle mechanics.
 Carpentry and joinery.
 Fire fighting.
 Metal works.
 Electricity.
 Land surveying.
 Science laboratory
technology.
 Electronics.
 Printing technology.
 Crop production.

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 Importance of Integrated Science in Daily Life.
Scientific knowledge has allowed us to develop new technologies, solve problems and make
informed decisions. Some uses of science in different fields are as follows:
 Transportation.
 Science has made the world a global village for example, bicycles, cars and
aircrafts are invented of science. Therefore, people and goods can be
transported easily and faster.
 Medicine.
 Most equipment used in medical field are scientific inventions. Examples include
stretchers, electrocardiogram (ECG) machines and magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) machines etc.
 Agriculture.
 In agriculture field science has major contributions such as the machines
like tractors, drip irrigation system, sprinklers irrigation system among
others.
 Communication.
 Mobile phones and computers are scientific inventions used majorly
in communication.
 Construction.
 Construction of building is based on science and technology. Machines used
in construction works such as motor graders, bulldozers are scientific
inventions.

Laboratory Safety
 The school laboratory designs should be in such a way that learners can
perform experiments safely.
 Learners must also be careful when handling materials and when using equipment in the
laboratory.
 The table below shows common hazards and the accidents they can cause in
the laboratory.
Hazard Accident caused.
Acids and bases (chemicals)  These can irritate or burn the eyes and the skin.
 They can also cause respiratory complications.
Corrosives.  These can cause severe burns on contact.
Electrical hazards (heating  Electricity can cause electric shock, burns, fires
apparatus) and even explosions.
Glass apparatus  These can cause cuts and bruises.

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 Common Hazards and their symbols in the laboratory.
 Besides the laboratory acting as a store for chemicals and apparatus, many experiments
are done in the laboratory. Hence there are many hazard symbols in the laboratory to
help learners take necessary precautions against dangers and hazards.
 The following are hazard symbols, their meaning and interpretations.

Hazard symbol Meaning Interpretation

Corrosive  The substance can
destroy living tissues
and equipment on
contact.
Caution! Do not breathe in
vapour; avoid contact with
skin and eyes.

Oxidizer  The substance can

ignite flammable and
combustible materials
or worsen existing
fires thus make
firefighting more
difficult.
Caution! Keep away from
such flammable and
combustible materials.

Poisonous  The substance is

hazardous when
inhaled, swallowed or
exposed to the skin. It
may even lead to
death.
Caution! Avoid contact
with the human body and
immediately consult a
physician in case of contact.

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Radioactive  The substance has
measurable
radioactivity.

Caution! Avoid exposure to

the substance.

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 Flammable  The substance can
easily catch fire.

Caution! Keep away from

open flames, sources of heat
and sparks.

Toxic  The substance is

toxic, will
contaminate the
environment and
affects aquatic
animals.
Caution! Avoid contact
with human body and water
bodies. Immediately consult
a doctor in case of contact.
Harmful or irritating.  This substance can
cause harm or
irritation to human
beings.
Caution! Avoid contact
with the human body and
immediately consult a
doctor in case of contact.

Carcinogenic  This substance is

capable of causing
cancer.
Caution! Avoid exposure to
the substance.

Common Accidents in the Laboratory and Related First Aid measures.

The following are the causes of common laboratory accidents.

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 Cuts are caused by broken glass apparatus (for example test tubes or glass tunings),
tools (for example dissecting instruments or cutters) or sharp edges.

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  Carelessness in handling hot objects for example tripod stands, glassware, metal rods or
plates), hot liquids, Bunsen burner flame or lighted matches.
 Learners’ mischievous behaviour of pouring chemicals to others that result into chemical
spillage.
 Learner’s unintentionally rubbing their eyes with hands contaminated with chemicals.
 Accidental ignition of flammable liquids.
 Drinking liquids or inhaling fumes accidentally.

 The effects of common laboratory accidents include burns and scalds, cuts and ingestion
of harmful substances.
 In case of an accident, proceed using the PIA rule where:
 P: PROTECT- move the casuality to a safe place.
 I: INFORM-report to the appropriate authority.
 A: ASSIST-give the necessary help.
Keep calm.
Keep the casuality warm.
Do not move the casuality if you are unaware of the seriousness of the situation.
 All laboratories should have a first aid kit. The first aid kit should contain
the following:
 An instruction manual giving general guidance.
 Individually wrapped sterile adhesive dressings in a variety of sizes.
 Sterile eye pads with bandages for attachment.
 Triangular bandages.
 Safety pins.
 A bottle that contains eye drops.
 A First Aid manual.
 Scissors.
 Gloves.
 Antiseptic.
 The Table below shows common laboratory accidents and related first
aid measures.

Common accident Meaning First Aid.

Cuts. Sharp or pointed • Wash the wound using clean water.
objects penetrate the • Disinfect the wound.
skin causing cuts. Cuts • Apply an antiseptic solution to the
result in bleeding. wound.
• Place a dressing and a bandage to hold it
in place.
• Go to a health centre in case the cut
needs stitches.

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Burns and Scalds. Burns are soft tissue • Run the burnt area under cold tap water
injuries caused by with low pressure for 10-15 minutes.
chemical hazards, • Study the size, depth and location of the
burnt areas. If necessary, proceed to a
electrical hazards or
health centre.
radiation. • Cover the burn with a loose gauze
Scalds are soft tissue dressing or a clean piece of cloth. Do not
injuries caused by hot puncture blisters.
liquid or steam.
Note;
 In case of chemical burns, remove any
clothing contaminated by the chemical,
as long as it is not stuck to the skin. Do
not apply any lotion or any other remedy
to the burnt area.
 In case of electrical burns, ensure the
following
• Before starting First Aid, stop the flow
of electricity.
• The rescuer must be on a rubber or
wooden surface.
• Remove the injured person from the
source of electricity using a plastic or
wooden object, as these do not conduct
electricity.

Ingestion of Harmful substances If the victim is unconscious:

harmful can enter the body  Ask for urgent medical assistance.
substances through the mouth by  Put the casuality in recovery position.
swallowing.  Loosen the clothing and wrap the victim
in a warm blanket.
 Do not induce vomit. If the victim
vomits, clear up the respiratory tract
(cover your fingers) with fabric to clean
the victim’s mouth).
 Do not administer anything orally to an
unconscious victim.
 Do not try to neutralize the toxic
product.
If the victim is conscious and the toxic
substance is corrosive;
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  Make the victim drink plenty of water.
 Do not induce vomit.
 Take the victim to a health centre.

Safety measures and regulations in the laboratory.

When working in the laboratory, you must observe the following safety rules:
🢒 Work carefully as carelessness can cause accidents as well as inaccurate results.
🢒 Wear gloves, laboratory aprons and safety glasses.
🢒 Never eat or drink in the laboratory.
🢒 Tie back loose hair, roll back and secure open sleeves and neckties and make sure
you wear shoes that fully cover your feet.
🢒 Do not carry out laboratory experiments at home or in the dormitories unless directed to
do so by your class teacher.
🢒 Carefully read chemical labels and understand the hazard symbol on them.
🢒 Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions on when and how to use safety equipment
such as glasses, protective aprons, fire extinguishers and fire blankets.
🢒 Make sure you know where the nearest fire alarm is in your school laboratory.
🢒 Do not begin an experiment until the teacher instructs you to do so.
🢒 Do not touch substances unless the teacher instructs you to do so. What looks
harmless may be dangerous.
🢒 Wash your hands with soap and running water after handling chemical substances. Some
chemical substances are poisonous.
🢒 Heat materials in suitable containers only, such as Pyrex glass container that can resist
breakage.
🢒 Always keep the open end of the test tube pointed away from the learners and
yourself when heating chemicals because the fumes produced may be harmful.
🢒 Pick up hot objects carefully using tongs or insulated materials.
🢒 Make sure that you turn off the heat source when not in use to conserve energy.
🢒 Always unplug electric cords by pulling out the plug and not the cord.
🢒 Check that there are no flammable substances near the burner. Flammable substances
will cause fire if exposed to a flame.
🢒 After each experiment, tidy up your working area, clean all equipment and put them in
their respective storage areas.
🢒 Report any accidents, broken equipment and damaged facilities to your teacher. In this
way, you will be taking responsibility for your safety and for those who use the
laboratory after you.
🢒 If a chemical gets into your eyes, wash it out with running water for about 12 minutes and
then visit a health centre or hospital for further medical attention.
🢒 If you inhale poisonous gases or vapour, move outside the laboratory for fresh air.
Immediately seek medical assistance.
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🢒 In case of electric shock, immediately cut off the electric power source using an insulated
object.
🢒 In case of a fire outbreak, use sand, fire blankets and fire extinguishers to put out the fire.

Basic Science Skills.

 Science involves processes that are part of a scientific method.
 Scientists approach problems in various ways which have several processes that
are common to them. These commonly used process are called science process
skills.
a.) Manipulative skills and abilities.
 These include skills in handling materials and apparatus in a scientific investigation.
 They also involve the ability to follow instructions and make accurate observations.
Examples.
🢝 Using and handling scientific apparatus.
🢝 Cleaning and maintaining scientific apparatus properly
and safely.
🢝 Handling specimens properly and safely.
🢝 Mixing primary colours to create more colours.
b.) Observation
skills.
 This is the most common basic skill in science. Scientists make observations by using
the five senses. Good observation skills are helpful in learning other science process
skills. Example.
🢝 Making observations using the sense of touch.
🢝 Creating observation about a coin using the five senses.

c.) Classification skills.

 After observing, it is important to identify he similarities and differences and to
group objects.
Examples.
• Using a magnet to classify objects as either magnetic or nonmagnetic.
• Using a balance and sorting objects according to mass.

d.) Measuring skills.

 Measuring is very important in collecting, comparing and interpreting data.
 It helps us to classify and communicate with others.
Examples.
 Finding the mass of different liquids that have the same volume.
 Using technology to find the speed of a vehicle.
 Measuring the distance that a person travels.

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 e.) Communication skills.
 Important so that it becomes possible to share our experiences.
 One can do this by using graphs, diagrams, maps and spoken word.
Examples.
 Creating a line graph showing the relationship between speed and time.
 Discussing possible errors with other classmates.

f.) Predicting skills.

 A prediction is an educated guess based on good observation and making a
conclusion about an observed event or prior knowledge.
Examples.
 Predicting what is in a box based on the sense of touch.
 Writing an assumption about the effect of increasing salt on the
buoyancy of an egg.

g.) Conclusion skills.

 A conclusion is an explanation based on observation. It is a link between what you
observe and what you already know.
Example
 Writing a conclusion at the end of each investigation.
 Creating conclusions about observations made about a particular
object, for example, I conclude that it is a solid and not a liquid.’
Packaging Labels on Quantities or Products.
• Packaging labels can be used to pass information about a certain type of products such as
chemicals or food materials.
• A food label is a piece of paper or other materials marked or inscribed and attached to a
food package.
• It contains a variety of information about the nutritive value of the food label.

A food package
label
 Information that are found on a packaging label.
🢝 Name under which the product sells.
🢝 The manufacture and expiry date.
🢝 Lis of ingredients. Ingredients are things that are combined to make a particular product.
🢝 The quantity of product in the package.
🢝 Any special storage instructions.
🢝 Instructions for use, where necessary.

What is the importance of reading Packaging labels?

🢝 Labels help the consumers to make the right choices on what to buy.
🢝 Labels guide on how to use, store and what to avoid while using the product.
🢝 Labels inform consumers of the products’ name, quantity, ingredients, manufacturing
and expiry date.
🢝 Labels also help people with allergies, especially food allergies, to make
informed choices and know what to avoid.
International System of Units (SI) for basic and derived quantities.
 Products such as sugar, milk, salt are purchased from shops in specific quantities or units
of measure.
Basic and derived units of measurement.
 In 1971 the fourth General Conference on Weights and measures identified seven (7)
quantities as basic quantities. This formed the basis of the International System of Units
abbreviated as SI units from French name Syteme Internationale d’unites.

What are Basic quantities?

 A basic quantity is one whose unit can be defined without referring to other quantities.
 The basic quantities are:
 Length.
 Mass.
 Time.
 Temperature.
 Electric current.
 The table below shows the basic quantity unites and their symbols.
Basic quantity SI unit Symbol
Mass Kilogram kg
Length Metre m
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
 What are Derived Quantities?
 Derived quantities are quantities that are calculated from two or more measurements.
 Derived quantities cannot be measured directly.
 Derived quantities an only be calculated.
Examples of derived quantities are:
 Volume.
 Density.
 Area.

 Volume =length x width x height (m x m x m) or m3 (cubic metres).

 Density = Mass (Kg/m3)
Volume

 Area (square or rectangle) = Length x width (m x m) or m2 (square metres)

Applying the International System of Units (SI)

 Mass.
 Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
 Mass is measured in milligrams (mg), grams (g), kilograms (kg) and tonnes (t).

 Length.
 Length is defined when we measure how long something is.
 It is the distance between two points.
 The units for measurement of length are millimeter (mm), centimeter (cm), Metre
(m) and Kilometres (km)

 Time.
 Time is measured using a digital or analogue clock.
 The basic unit of measuring time is seconds (s).
 Larger units of time are minutes (min) and hours (hr).

 Temperature.
 An instrument that measures temperature is called a thermometer.
 Temperatures is measured in
 Degrees Celsius (0C.)
 Degree Fahrenheit (0F.)
 Kelvin (K)
 The thermometer that measures our body temperature id called a clinical
thermomemtre. The scale used or unit of measurement used is the Celsius scale (0C.)
 A clinical thermometer reads temperatures from 35oC to 42 oC.
 There are other thermometers that measure temperature of other materials such
as laboratory thermometer which has a range from -10 oC to 110 oC.

 Electric current.
 An electric current is the rate of flow of charge through a given point in an
electric circuit.
 The SI unit for measuring the magnitude of an electric current is Amperes (A).

 Area.
🢝 Area is the measure of the size of a surface.
🢝 Two length measurements usually describe area hence presented in square units.
🢝 The basic unit of measuring area is square metres (m2)
🢝 Area can also be expressed in square millimeters (mm2), square centimeters (cm2) and
square kilometres (km2).
🢝 Area of regular shapes

Types of formula Shapes

 Triangle

Area =1/2 x base x perpendicular

height
=1/2 bh

Rectangle
Area=length x width
=lw

Trapezium

Area =
1
Area = /2 (sum of parallel side) x
perpendicular distance between the
lines
1
= /2 (a+b)h

Area = 𝜋𝑟2
Circle

🢝 Area of irregular shapes.

 Area of an irregular shape can be estimate by first subdiving the shape into small regular
shapes.
 The small regular shapes used can be of 1 cm length.
 The area of the whole shape can be calculated as follows.
🢖 Count the number of whole squares.
🢖 Count the squares which are either half or more than half.
🢖 Add the total number of complete squares to half the total number of
the incomplete squares. For example, in the above picture
Full squares=5
Number of squares that are more than half or half =6 then divide by 2 =3
Approximated are=5+3 = 8 square units.

 Volume.
🢝 It is the amount of space an object occupies.
🢝 Objects can be solids like a brick or liquid like water.
🢝 Apparatus that measure volume of a liquid include;
 Measuring spoon.
 Measuring jug.
 Measuring cylinder.
🢝 The SI unit for measuring volume is cubic metre (m3)
🢝 Volume can also be measured in other units such as;
 Cubic centimetres (cm3)
 Cubic millimetres (mm3)
🢝 Common units for measuring liquid volume include
 Litres.
 Millilitres.

 Density.
🢝 It is the heaviness of a substance in relation to their volume. Therefore, density is mass
per unit volume.
🢝 Mass can be measured in kilograms (kg) while volume is measured in cubic metre (m3)
🢝 Since mass is measured in kg and volume is measured in m3, the SI unit for density is
kg/m3.
🢝 Density can also be expressed in grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
 Laboratory apparatus and instruments.
 Apparatus and Instruments for Heating.
 Most common source of heat in the laboratory is the Bunsen burner.
 Other heat sources include portable burners, kerosene stoves, spirit lamps, candles
and electric hot plates.
Spirit lamp Candle Electric hot Portable burner Kerosene stove
plate

Observing A Bunsen burner.

Parts of a Bunsen burner

Functions of the parts of a Bunsen burner.

Part Function
Collar Regulates amount of air entering the Bunsen burner through the air hole.
Air hole Allows air to enter the chimney. (air mixes with the gas making flame hotter and
blue.
Chimney Raises the flame to a suitable height for burning.
(barrel)
Base Supports the Bunsen burner and prevent it from toppling.
Gas hose The flexible hose pipe connects the Bunsen burner and the gas tap.
Flame A hot glowing mass of ignited gas that is generated by something on fire.
Gas inlet Controls the flow of gas to the Bunsen burner.
  Apparatus and Instruments for Measuring Mass.
 Various instruments are used to measure mass.
 Mass can be measured using a beam balance, electronic balance and weighing balance.

Electric balance Beam balance Weighing balance

 Apparatus and Instruments for Temperature.

 Temperature is defined as the hotness or coldness of any object or substance.
 Kelvin (K) is the SI units for temperature.
 Apart from Kelvin, temperature is also measured using the Celsius scale (oC) and
Fahrenheit scale (oF)
 A laboratory thermometer is the instrument used to measure temperature in
the laboratory.

 Apparatus and Instruments for Measuring Length.

 Length of an object in the laboratory is mostly measured using the metre rule, 15
cm ruler, 30 cm ruler and the tape measure.
Metre rule Tape measure

Part of metre rule.

  Apparatus and Instruments for Measuring Volume.
 In the laboratory various instruments are used to measure volume of liquids.
 Examples of these instruments include:
 Conical flask.
 Syringe.
 Beaker.
 Burette.
 Graduated cylinder.
 Pipette.
 Volumetric flask.

Conical flask Syringe Beaker

Burette Graduated cylinder Pipette

Volumetric flask
  Apparatus and Instruments for Measuring weight.
 Weight is the pull of gravity on a mass of a body.
 The pull of gravity is the force that pulls objects towards the centre of the earth.
 The SI unit of weight is Newton (N)
 A spring balance is commonly used to measure weights of objects in the laboratory.
Spring balance

 Apparatus and Instruments for Measuring time.

 In the laboratory, a clock, wristwatches and stopwatches are commonly used to measure
time.
 The SI units for measuring time is seconds (s).
 Time can also be measures using other dimensions such as minutes and hours.
Clock Wristwatch Stop watch
  Apparatus and Instruments for Magnification.
 Hand lens.
 It is a lens of specified magnification fixed on a frame.
 When a hand lens is moved up (far) and down (close) over a specimen, it enlarges up to
the sharpest image where you can clearly view the specimen and the viewer can observe
particular details.
 Hand lens have a limited magnification of between X5 and X10.

 Microscope.
 A microscope is an instrument used to magnify (enlarge) small objects for clear visibility.
 Plant and animal cells are too small to be viewed with naked eyes, therefore a
microscope is used to view the cells.
Parts of the Microscope.
Functions of different parts of the Microscope.

PART USE/FUNCTION
1 Eyepiece lens Used to observe specimen under the microscope.
2 Body tube It holds the eyepiece lens and the objective lens in position
allowing light from the specimen to pass to the observer.
3 Stage It is where the specimen is placed during examination or
viewing.
4 Arm It supports the body tube and the lenses.
It is also used to carry the microscope when moving it from
one place to another.
5 Fine adjustment Moves the body tube hence bringing the object (specimen)
knob into focus.
6 Coarse Brings the object further through a long distance.
adjustment
7 Objective lens It magnifies the object or specimen after the eyepiece lens.
8 Revolving nose It holds objective lenses in position.
piece
9 Diaphragm It regulates (controls) the amount of light entering the stage.
10 Condenser It concentrates light onto the stage from a source.
11 Base Supports the entire microscope firmly.
12 Stage clips It holds the specimen on the slide in position during
observation.

Handling of common laboratory apparatus and instruments.

 Handle all glass material carefully. Breakages are dangerous and may result in
losing important materials.
 Place flasks and beakers on a gauze mat or wire gauze when heating over a Bunsen
burner flame.
 When diluting concentrated acids, use thin-walled glassware since the heat evolved
by the procedure often cracks thick glassware.
 Number containers and their corresponding ground glass stoppers to ensure direct
matching when you replace the stopper.
 All chemicals should be well labelled and stored in the right place using
proper containers.
 Handling of the Bunsen Burner.
 Always turn off the Bunsen burner after use.
 Always make sure that flammable liquids and combustible materials are not near
the Bunsen burner to avoid the risk of unwanted fires and explosions.
 When lighting the gas, have your strikers ready to avoid excess gas leakage that
might lead to an explosion.
 Once you are done with the Bunsen burner, it is critical to turn off the main gas valve
to avoid leakages.
 The burner should cool completely after use before any further handling.

Handling a light microscope.

 Always use both hands when carrying a light microscope.
 Do not place a light microscope on the edge of a bench or table as it may fall.
 Do not place specimens directly on the stage of a light microscope. Always place them
on a microscope slide and cover them with a cover slip.
 Always use a lens tissue to cleans the lenses. Hard materials are likely to scratch the
lenses.
 Ensure that the low power lens is in position before storing the microscope.
 Always dust the microscope using a soft cloth, for example linen.
2 MIXTURES, ELEMENTS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT
 A mixture is a combination of two or more substances put together resulting to a mass.
 Mixtures are commonly used in daily life such as soil, coffee and air.
 Soil is a mixture of sand, stone, clay, salts and living organisms.
 Air is a mixture of different gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water
vapour and other gases.
 The substances that are combined to form a mixture are called components.

Types of Mixture.
 Homogeneous mixture.
 It appears uniform to the eyes.
 Homogenous mixtures form a uniform composition.
 Example, cement is a homogenous mixture of different solids such as limestone,
shells and chalk among others.
 Other homogeneous mixtures are steel (iron and carbon) and bronze (copper and tin).

 Heterogeneous mixture.
 Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture made up of a non-uniform composition.
 If you take two samples from different parts of the mixture they will not be identical.
 For example, you can differentiate rice (solid) from salt(solid) in the mixture.
 Other heterogeneous mixtures include salt and sand, sand -sugar, salt -gravel mixtures.

In some cases, two or more substances are mixed together to form a special kind of
mixture.
 For example, when you mix salt (solid) and water (liquid), the solid seems to disappear in
the water. This process is called dissolving and it forms a solution.
 When a solid dissolve in a liquid, the liquid is called a solvent and the solid that dissolves
is called a solute.
 A solution is a special type of mixture that is homogenous and so you cannot tell the
difference between the components of a solution.
 Water and sand forms a heterogeneous mixture. One can easily separate the sand from
water.
 Milk (liquid) mixes with water (liquid) completely to form a uniform mixture.
Therefore, this mixture is homogeneous.
 Oil (liquid) mixes with water (liquid) to form a new substance that is not uniform. Both
substances of the mixture can be seen. Therefore, this mixture is heterogeneous.
 A gas-gas mixture is comprised of various gases, for example, the air we breathe is
a combination of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and other gases.
 The air we breathe is therefore a homogeneous mixture.
 Pure and Impure substances.
 When two pure substances are mixed together they form a mixture.
 A mixture is an impure substance. Therefore, a pure substance is any material that is not
a mixture at all.
 The melting and boiling points of pure and impure substances can be determined.

Melting point of pure substances (Ice).

 It is the temperature at which a solid change into liquid state.
 The melting point of ice is the temperature at which ice is converted from its solid state to
its liquid state.
 Heat from a heat source is used to melt the ice.
 The thermometer helps to note the temperature at which the ice melts.
 After the initial and final readings are taken, it will be observed that once the ice attained
its melting temperature (0oC), the temperature remains the same until all the ice is
converted into liquid state.
 Pure solids have specific melting points. Therefore, it means that ice is a pure substance.

Melting point of Impure substances (Candle wax).

 The melting point of candle wax is the temperature at which the solid materials turns
into liquid (by heating it).
 The melting point of candle wax ranges between 46oC to 68 oC. Therefore, it means that
candle wax is an impure substance.
 Impure substances do not have specific melting points. The presence of impurities
affects the melting point of the substances.

Determining Boiling points of Pure and Impure substances.

Requirements for the

experiment
1. Boiling tube.
2. Thermometer.
 3. Heating apparatus.
4. Distilled water.
5. A spatula.
6. Salt and water.
 Procedure for the experiment above.
🢖 Put about 10cm3 of distilled water on a boiling tube.
🢖 Close the tube with a stopper that has two holes.
🢖 Pass a thermometer through one hole. Immerse the thermometer bulb into the water.
🢖 Push and ‘L’ shaped tube through the other hole as shown above.
🢖 Heat the apparatus using a small flame.
🢖 Observe the changes in temperature and record your observations.
🢖 Cool the apparatus and remove the stopper.
🢖 Add a spoonful of salt to some water/ stir to dissolve all the salt to form a salty
water solution.
🢖 Repeat the above experiment using a salty water solution in place of pure distilled water.
🢖 Observe changes in temperature, record your observation. What conclusion have
you made.
🢖 At what temperature does water (pure water) boil?
🢖 At what temperature does water with dissolved salt (impure water) boil/
🢖 Compare your observations.

Observations and conclusion & Explanation.

⮫ When distilled water is heated, the temperature of the water rises to about 100oC.
⮫ After this, the temperature remains constant (not changing) for some time. The heat
absorbed changes liquid water into water vapour or steam.
⮫ Pure water has a definite or specific boiling point.
⮫ Salty (impure) water has a range of boiling temperatures above 100oC.
⮫ Impurities cause a rise in temperatures of the boiling point of liquids.
⮫ The greater the impurities in the given solution, the higher the boiling point. Therefore,
we can use the boiling point to determine the purity of a liquid.
Separating Mixtures using different methods.
 Different methods can be used to separate various mixtures.
 Each method is suitable for separating a particular mixture.
a.) Separating mixtures through distillation.
 Requirements.
 A spatula.
 Water.
 A measuring jar.
 A thermometer.
 Common salt.
 Distillation flask
 Condenser.

 Procedure.
 Add about 25cm3 of water to common salt in a distillation flask.
 Shake the mixture carefully to dissolve the salt.
 Set up the apparatus as shown above.
 Heat the mixture until only a little solution remains in the distillation flask.
Questions from the experiment.
1. Through which process does the steam change to liquid in the collecting jar?
2. What is the term used to refer to the water that is collected in the receiving flask?
3. Why is cold water used in the condenser?
4. What is the substance that is left in the boiling tube after the water has evaporated?

 Observation and explanation.

 Simple distillation is successful when the substances in the mixture have different boiling
points such as water and salt.
 The process of distillation is used to get salt and water from the salt-water mixture.
 It involves heating a liquid to form vapour which is then cooled back to the liquid.
 The liquid is obtained by condensing the vapour.
b.) Separating mixtures through filtration.
 Requirements.
 A filter funnel.
 Conical flask.
 Filter paper.
 Water.
 Fine sand particles.

 Procedure.
 Get a filter paper and fold it into a cone.
 Clamp the filter funnel.
 Add sand into a conical flask that contains warm water and stir. Pour the mixture into
the filter funnel and observe. Record your observations.
 Question from the experiment.
1. What observation did you make?
2. What made it possible for the mixture to separate?
3. What is the purpose of the filter paper?
4. What is the name of the liquid that passes through the filter paper?
5. Give the name of the solid particles trapped by the filter paper.
 Observations and explanation
 Filter paper is made up of porous materials that allow liquids to pass through but
traps solid particles during filtration.
 The liquid obtained through the filter paper is called filtrate.
 In the experiment water is the filtrate.
 The filter paper traps solid particles.
 The solid particles trapped is called residue.
 In the experiment sand particles form the residue.
 Sand is insoluble in water and therefore it does not dissolve in water.
c.) Separating mixtures through decantation.
 Requirements.
 Sand particles.
 Water.
 Two beakers.

 Procedure.
 Mix sand and water in a beaker.
 Stir the mixture.
 Leave the mixture to stand for some time until the sand settles at the bottom of
the beaker.
 Carefully, pour the water (liquid) into the other beaker.
 Pour the water in such a manner that the insoluble material (sand) remains in the
fisrt beaker.
 Discuss and record your observations.

 Observation and explanation.

 Decantation is the process of separating insoluble solid particles from a liquid,
for example, sand from water.
 After leaving the mixture to stand for some time, the heavy particles of sand settle at
the bottom of the beaker, however the water collected is not clear as it contains some
solids and dirt.
 Decantation can also separate two insoluble liquids such as paraffin and water. The liquid
at the top is poured off in a different container.
d.) Separating mixtures using a magnet.
 Requirements.
🢝 Iron fillings.
🢝 Sand.
🢝 A magnet.
🢝 A bowl.

 Procedure.
🢝 Put the iron fillings in a bowl.
🢝 Add some sand into the bowl.
🢝 Mix the two substances. Describe the mixture.
🢝 Pick the magnet and hold it slightly above the mixture.
🢝 Observe what happens. Record your observations.
Questions from the experiment.
1. What do you notice on the surface of the magnet?
2. Why did the magnet pick the iron filings and not the sand?
3. What kind of mixture is a magnet used to separate?

 Observation and Explanation.

 A magnet is used to separate materials attracted to it from those not attracted to it.
 Materials that are attracted to a magnet are called magnetic materials.
 In the experiment above, a magnet attracts iron filings because iron filings are magnetic.
 A magnet does not attract sand as it is nonmagnetic.
 Therefore, the magnet will attract iron filings and separate them from the sand.
e.) Separating mixture using sublimation.
 Requirements.
🢝 Sodium chloride.
🢝 Ammonium chloride.
🢝 Bunsen burner.
🢝 Wire gauze.
🢝 Watch glass.
🢝 Beaker.
🢝 Cold water in a round bottomed flask.

 Procedure.
🢝 Mix sodium chloride (common salt) and ammonium chloride in a glass beaker.
🢝 Cover the beaker with a round-bottomed flask containing cold water.
🢝 Heat the mixture gently and observe what happens. Record your observation.

Questions from the experiment.

1. What happens to the mixture when heated?
2. What happens to the surface of the round-bottomed flask?
3. Describe the work of the cold water in the round-bottomed flask.

 Observation and explanation.

 Ammonium chloride form white fumes which condense into a white solid on the
cooler surface of the round-bottomed flask and the beaker.
 Sodium chloride (salt) remains in the beaker.
 Sublimation is the direct change of a solid into gas after heating and vapour into solid on
cooling without passing through the liquid state.
 A sublimate is the solid formed when a vapour cools.
f.) Separating mixture through paper Chromatography.
 Requirements.
 Chromatography paper.
 Ink.
 Dyes.
 Colouring agents.
 Water and small plate or bowl with a flat bottom.

 Procedure.
 Draw a line with a pencil on the chromatography paper and place spots of ink or dye on
the pencil line.
 Place the paper uprightly in water (solvent) in the small plate or bowl with flat bottom.
 As the paper is lowered into the solvent, some dye spread on the paper. As the solvent
soaks up the paper, it carries the mixture with it. Different components of the mixture
will move at different rates. This separates the mixture.
 The paper continues to absorb the solvent and the dye spreads further up the paper.
 Compare your observations with those of others, make your conclusion.

 Observation and explanation.

 Paper chromatography is a method used to separate Coloured mixtures into their
different parts.
 Paper chromatography is commonly used to separate pigments, dyes and ink.
 Paper chromatography works because ink contains different colours.
g.) Separating mixture through solvent extraction.
 Requirements.
 Piece of plain paper.
 Evaporating dish.
 Mortar and pestle.
 Nuts.

 Procedure.
 Remove outside covering of the grounds.
 Put the nuts in a mortar and grind them using pestle.
 Add propanone and continue grinding for a while.
 Leave the mixture to settle, and then decant the resulting solution into an
evaporating dish.
 Leave the solution in the sun for some time.
 Smear a drop of the remaining solution on a piece of paper.
 Hold the paper towards light and try to look through
it. Discus and record your observation.
Questions from the experiment.
1. Explain why the solvent is used in the extraction of oil from nuts.
2. Name other seeds that can be used in place of nuts.

 Observation and explanation.

 Solvent extraction is the use of a solvent to dissolve a substance from a mixture to
separate the components of the mixture.
 A solvent can selectively dissolve one or more of the components of a mixture.
 Propanone is a solvent for oil and therefore dissolves oil from the nuts.
 When you put propanone solution in the sun, it quickly evaporates, leaving oil behind.
 Oil seed like corn, sunflower, castor oil and cotton seed can be used in place of nuts.
h.) Separating mixtures through crystallization.
 Requirements.
 Water in a beaker.
 Some salt.
 A heat source.
 Filter paper.
 Glass bowl.

 Procedure.
 Place 50ml water in a
beaker.
 Add salt to it and stir.
 Heat the solution.
 Continue adding salt to
the solution.
 After some time, there will be a point at which no more salt can dissolve in water. This
stage is called saturation point and the solution in known as a saturated solution.
 Therefore, a saturated solution is a solution that can no longer dissolve any more
solute.
 Filter the salt with the help of a filter paper.
 Collect the filtrate in a glass bowl and cool it.
 Record your observation.

 Observation and explanation.

 In the experiment, some fine crystals are formed in the bowl.
 Crystallization is a separation method used to separate a solid that has dissolved in
a liquid.
 A solid, for example salt(solute), is dissolved in a liquid, for example water, (solvent)
making a solution.
 The solute is added to the solvent until no more of it dissolved. This makes the solution
saturated.
 As the solvent evaporates from the saturated solution, the solid will come out of the
solution and crystals will start to form.
 Collect the crystals and allow them to dry.
 Applications of Separating Mixtures in day to day life.
 We filter dirty water through a piece of cotton cloth to obtain clean water at
home. However, we should always boil such water to kill germs before drinking
it.
 We filter tea leaves from the tea before taking the tea.
 Decantation separates the cream from milk. Cream rises to the top of the liquid and
is easily skimmed off.
 Fractional distillation is used in some industries to separate components of mixtures that
have different boiling points. Example is crude oil refining. Crude oil consists of products
with different boiling points. The components of crude oil include:
 Petrol- a fuel for petrol engines.
 Kerosene-used in cooking stoves and lamps.
 Gas oil, lubricating oil, paraffin wax and bitumen or tar used for
tarmacking roads.
 Fractional distillation is used to separate liquid air into its major components of nitrogen
and oxygen.
 Chromatography can be used to find out which flavouring has been added to food.
 Extraction of oil from nuts uses the solvent extraction method.

ACIDS, BASES AND INDICATORS.

 Substances such as lemon, oranges juice and vinegar tastes sour. These is because they
substances contains acids. The chemical nature of these substances is acidic. The acids in
them are natural.
 Some substances taste bitter with their solutions filling soapy when rubbed between
the fingers when touching. These are bases. Their chemical nature is basic.

Plant extracts as acid-base indicators.

 To determine if a substance is acidic or basic we use indicators.
 Indicators change colour when added to a solution contain either a n acidic or
basic substance.
 Turmeric, litmus among others are some of the naturally occurring indicators.

Cautions:
⮫ Do not taste anything unless the teacher asks you to do so.
⮫ So not touch anything unless the teacher asks you to do so.
 Preparing and using Plant Extract indicators.
Requirements.
 Red cabbage.
 A mixer or blender.
 Water.
 Filter paper.
 Common solutions such as lemon, milk, vinegar and bleach.

Procedure.
 Cop some red cabbage and put it in a mixer or blender.
 Add water to it.
 Mix until juice is formed.
 Strain(filter) this mixture in to a beaker. This is the natural indicator.
 Use the prepared red cabbage indicator to test whether the household solutions are acidic
or basic.
 What observations did you make?
 What can you conclude from your observations?
Observation and explanation.
 Acidic substances change colour of the solution from purple to red or pink.
 Neutral substances turn the purple solution to blue.
 Basic substances change the colour of the purple solution to green or yellow.
 Therefore, red cabbage is a natural indicator.

Categories of different household solutions.

 Indicator are substances that change colour when added to acidic or basic solutions.
 Common indicators used in the laboratory are:
 Litmus paper.
 Phenolphthalein.
 Methyl orange.
 Litmus indicator solution turns red in acidic solutions, blue in basic solution and purple
in neutral solutions.
 Colour changes of litmus paper indicators in different solutions.
Red litmus paper Blue litmus paper.
Acidic solution Stays red Turns red
Neutral solution Stays red Stays blue
Basic solution Turns blue Stays blue
  The table below shows colour of Methyl Orange and Phenolphthalein in
acidic, neutral and basic solutions.
Indicator Acidic solution Neutral solution Basic solution
Methyl Orange Red Yellow Yellow
Phenolphthalein Colourless. Colourless Pink

Strength of Acids and Bases.

 pH scale and pH chart.
 pH stands for potential of Hydrogen.
 It is used to find the numeric value of the level of acidity or basicity of a substance.
 It is the most common and trusted way to measure how acidic or basic a substance is.
 The chemical properties of many solution enables them to be divided into
three categories-acidic, basic or neutral solutions.
 The pH scale is used to measure acidity and basicity (alkalinity).
 Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic.
 Solutions with a pH of 7 are neutral.
 Solutions with a pH more than 7 are basic (alkaline).

 The pH scale reads from value 0-14.

 Solutions with pH less than 3 are strong acids.
 Solutions with pH values of 3-6 are weak acids.
 Solutions with a pH value of 7 are neutral.
 Solutions with a pH value of more 8-11are weak bases.
 Solutions with a pH value of 11-14 are strong bases.

Hydroc lemo vineg Ap bana mil Wa Soap ammo Dra Alkali/

n ar na k Bak nia base
hloric ple ter ing in
sod
acid tom blo a clea
ato od ner
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Universal Indicator
 A universal indicator is a mixture of a variety of other indicators.
 A universal indicator can measure the approximate pH of a solution.
 if a universal indicator is added to a solution, it changes to a colour showing the pH of the
solution.
 Acids, Bases and Indicators in Real life.
 Acids and bases are widely used in our daily life such as in agriculture, food
preparation and medicine.
 Uses of acids.
 Vinegar has various household uses such as preservation.
 Citric acid is important part of lemon juice and orange juice; it can also be used in food
preservation.
 Sulphuric acid is widely used in batteries that are used to start the engines of automobiles.
 Industrial production of dyes, paints and fertilizers involve the use of Sulphuric acids and
nitric acid.
 Phosphoric acid is a key ingredient in many soft drinks.

 Uses of bases.
 Manufacturing of soaps and paper involves the use of sodium hydroxide.
 Calcium hydroxide is used to manufacture bleaching powder.
 Magnesium hydroxide is commonly used as a laxative. It also reduces excess acidity in
the human stomach and is therefore, used as an antacid.
 Slaked lime can neutralize any excess acidity in soils.
3 LIVING THINGS & THEIR ENVIRONMENT
Reproduction in Human beings.
 Menstrual cycle.
 Menstrual cycle consists of natural changes that occur to the body of a female
human being every month in preparation to pregnancy.
 A menstrual cycle lasts between 28-35 days. However, this can vary between female and
from one cycle to the next. The cycle depends on hormones.
 Hormones are chemical messengers in the body.
 They direct the body on what to do and when to do it.
 The menstrual cycle is a process controlled by hormones in the female body.
 These hormones include:
 Oestrogen.
 Progesterone.
 Luteinizing hormone.
 Follicle stimulating hormone.
 The menstrual cycle is divided in to the following phases:

Challenges related to the Human menstrual cycle.

Approximate Event(s)
day(s)
1-5 day  Bleeding from the vagina begins. This is caused by the
loss of the lining of the uterus.
 This is called menstruation or monthly periods
6-14 days  Blood loss stops.
 The lining of the uterus begins to regrow and an ovum
starts to mature in one of the ovaries.
14-25 days  Ovulation occurs.
 The ovum travels through the oviduct towards the uterus.
25-28 days  If the egg becomes fertilized by a sperm and attaches itself
to the uterus wall, the woman becomes pregnant.
 If pregnancy does not occur, the uterus lining begins to
break down again, repeating the cycle.

 Irregular periods.
 This can be determined by finding out how long your menstrual cycles are.
 You can determine your personal menstrual length by counting from day 1 of your
period to day 1 of your next period.
 Day 1 means the first day of the actual flow.
 It is normal to have menstrual cycles that are between 21 and 35 says.
 Your periods are irregular if it tends to come more frequently than every 21 days oe less
often than 35 days.
 If the circle length falls in the normal range but varies by 7 to 9 days from the cycle
to cycle, that is a sign of an irregular period too.
 For example, if one is 25 days and the next is 33 days, your cycles would be
considered irregular.

 Absent periods.
 In some cases, some females may fail to get periods.
 Others might not get their first period by the age of 16 years.
 Other cases when some females stop getting their regular periods for 6 months or more.

 Irregular bleeding.
 Bleeding very little or no bleeding at all with each menstrual cycle is another
challenge related to the menstrual cycle.
 Light or lack of bleeding can result from being extremely underweight or overweight.
 If you are overweight, losing weight might help to make your periods regular.
 If you are underweight, slow and steady weight gain may help to regulate your
menstrual circle.
 Excessive bleeding is another challenge related to the menstrual cycle.
 Bleeding is considered heavy if it interferes with normal activities.
 However, though common, you should see a doctor.
 Heavy periods can be a sign of a health problem.

 Painful periods.
 Most women experience menstrual cramps before or during their period at some point in
their lives.
 For some of them it is part of the regular monthly routine.
 However, if the cramps are painful and persistent, you should see a doctor.

Management of Menstrual challenges.

 A doctor can prescribe hormonal medication that can help control heavy bleeding.
 If one experiences heavy bleeding, an iron supplement might help to prevent anaemia.
 Mild to moderate pain or cramps can be lessened (reduced) by taking an appropriate
pain reliever.
 Taking a warm bath might also help to relieve cramps.
 Surgery can also be performed.
 If symptoms persist, always visit a doctor.
 Fertilization and Implantation.
 Fertilization is the fusion of a sperm with an ovum in the oviduct (also called
the fallopian tube.)
 During sexual intercourse, thousands of sperms are released into the vagina by the penis.
 Sperms swim through the cervix into the uterus up to the oviduct.


Sperm

Ovum

 Few sperms that reach the ovum try to penetrate it.

 Only one sperm penetrates the ovum.
 When the sperm penetrates the ovum, the surface of the sperm fuses with the nucleus
of the ovum to form a zygote.
 The zygote moves from the oviduct and enters the uterus, attaching itself to the uterus
walls.
 This process is called implantation.
 Once implantation has taken place, the zygote is now referred to as an embryo.
 Sex related challenges.
 People born with reproductive or sexual structure that does not fit the category of male
or female are termed as intersex.
 An intersex can be identified at birth, during puberty or in adulthood.
 Intersex is a sex related challenge.

Intersex challenges may be managed through the following ways.

 Educating and advocating against stigmatization of intersex people.
 Eliminating practices like medical operations that can cause harm to intersex people.
 Creating programmes that take care of the needs of intersex people.
 Offering guidance and counselling to intersex people to improve their self-esteem.
 Allowing people with sex challenges to make their own choices and express themselves.
Allowing freedom of choice and expression on sex issues.

Human excretory System-Skin and Urinary system.

 Excretion is the process by which living organisms remove waste products from
their bodies.
 The excretory system removes waste from the body in human beings.
 Examples of waste in the human body include:
 Urine.
 Salt.
 Excess water.
 Carbon dioxide.
Importance of excretion.
 Excretion helps to remove harmful waste products from the body. This prevents
them from accumulating to toxic levels which can cause sickness or death.

The Skin.
External parts of the Skin.
 The skin is the largest body organ.
 The parts of the skin are:
 Hair.
 Sweat glands.
 Epidermis.

Functions of the Human skin.

The human skin has the following functions.
🢖 It covers the whole body protecting against heat, light, injury and infection.
🢖 It helps to make vitamin D when exposed to the sun. vitamin D is important in the body.
🢖 The skin helps to regulate the body temperature. It also helps to prevent dehydration
and protect one from the harmful effects of too much heat or cold.
🢖 The skin is a sensory organ. It allows the body to feel warm, cold, pressure, itchy
and pain.
🢖 New skin cells form at the base of the epidermis. The epidermis also gives the skin its
colour.
🢖 The skin has hair which covers the body providing warmth and protecting the skin. The
hair such as eyebrows and eyelashes protects the eyes and contributes to a persons’
appearance.
🢖 The sweat pores allow sweat to get out of the body.

Waste products excreted through the Skin.

🢖 Epidermis of the skin contains tiny pores through which sweat leaves the body.
🢖 Sweat consists of mainly water and salts.
🢖 Sweating eliminates excess water and some salts from the body.

Body Cosmetics.
🢖 Body cosmetics are substances used to care for the skin to improve its appearance or
smell.
🢖 Usually, they are a mixture of chemical compounds derived from either natural sources or
manufactured ones. The following are expels of cosmetics:
 Lightening creams, powders and colours for the skin, eyes and lips.
 Lotions, shampoos, oils, bleaches, dyes removers for the hair.
 Nail polishes and colours for the nails and lipsticks.
 Hair removers.
 Shower gels, soaps and face wash soaps.
 Skin bleaching and skin tanning preparations.
 Antiperspirants, deodorants and other personal hygiene products.
 Perfumes.
 Health effects of cosmetics.
 Most cosmetic products have chemicals that are harmful to the body when
used excessively or over a long period of time.
 Prolonged use of hair products may lead to hair loss, itching, dandruff and thinning
of hair.
 Heavy eye makeup may lead to eye infections.
 Extensive application of nail polish makes nails fragile, thin and they lose their
natural colour.
 Some cosmetics can cause cracks and wrinkles on the skin, which cause infections.
 Lipstick dries the moisture out of the lips. Some lipsticks contain oils and chemicals that
can damage the lips.
 Cosmetics such as deodorants and antiperspirants can cause redness, irritation
and itching.
 Prolonged use of make ups may lead to dizziness, fatigue and contribute to ageing of the
skin. These substances dry out natural oils, vitamins and minerals in the human skin
causing the skin to lose its moisture and texture. Skin develops wrinkles and dry patches.

Effects of Skin lightening creams.

 Skin lightening creams are beauty products used to reduce a pigment called melanin
from the skin.
 Melanin is a skin pigment that makes it black in colour.
 Skin lightening creams are also called skin whitening creams or skin bleaching creams.
 Some people used the skin lightening creams to make their skin tone or
complexions lighter.
The following are some of the effects of skin lightening creams.
⮫ These creams contain chemical substances that may be harmful to the skin. They can
cause skin to have redness, irritation and swelling.
⮫ They cause itchy and flaky skin.
⮫ They cause a burning or stinging sensation. They also make the skin to have uneven skin
tone, thus appearing to have spots.
⮫ They cause kidney, liver and nerve damage.
⮫ They cause the skin to weaken and become vulnerable to injuries and infections.
⮫ They cause scaring.
Uneven skin tone Irritation of the skin Scar on the legs
 Healthy lifestyle that promote skin health.
The health of the skin can be improved by doing the following.
1. Drinking plenty of water-this helps to keep the skin stay hydrated.
2. Protect it from the sun-exposing the skin to the sun can cause wrinkles, age spots and
other skin problems increasing the risk of skin cancer. Avoid direct sunlight when the
sun rays are strong.
3. Avoid smoking. Smoking makes the skin look older and contributes to wrinkles.
4. Keep the skin gentle by doing the following.
 Avoid strong soaps and detergents that remove oil from the skin, instead
use mild cleansers.
 Shave carefully to protect your skin. Apply shaving cream, lotion or gel
before shaving.
 After washing or bathing, gently pat your skin dry with a towel so that
some moisture remains on your skin.
5. Eat a healthy diet-eat plenty of fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
6. Manage tress- Stress can make one’s skin more sensitive. This can trigger acne
breakouts and other skin problems.
7. Exercise regularly- exercising increase blood flow and nourishes skin cells.
Parts of the Urinary system.

Ureter

 The Urinary system consists of:

 Kidneys.
 Vessels serving the kidney.
 Ureters.
 Urinary bladder.
 Urethra.
Part Function
Vessels serving Carry urea in the blood stream to the kidney, where it is removed
the kidney along with water and other wastes in the form of urine.
Kidneys They are a pair of reddish-brown organs that are bean shaped.
They are the organs that filter the blood, remove the wastes and
excrete the waste in the urine.
Urinary It is a hollow organ located in the lower abdomen that is triangular
bladder in shape.
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage place for urine.
Ureters These are narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidney to the
urinary bladder.
Humans have two ureters, one attached to each kidney.
Urethra This tube allow urine to pass outside the body from the urinary
bladder.

Functions of the Urinary system.

 Kidneys filter urea, salts and excess water from the blood.
 After the waste materials are filtered by the kidneys, they combine to form urine.
 Urine flows out of the kidney through the ureters into the urinary bladder.
 The bladder acts as a temporary store of urine. When it gets full, one feels the urge
to
pass out urine through a process called urination.
 Urine flows from the bladder into the urethra and out of the kidney.

Cause and prevention of kidney disorder.

 A kidney disorder is a term used to include any kidney abnormality.
 Kidney disorders can affect the ability of the body to clean blood, filter out extra
water from the blood and control pressure.
 The disorder can also affect the production of red blood cells.
 Examples of kidney disorders are:
 Kidney stones.
 Nephritis.
 Kidney failure.
 Chronic kidney diseases.

Causes of Kidney Disorders.

 Diseases of the immune system, for example diabetes.
 Long-lasting illness such as HIV and AIDS and hepatitis B.
 Some infections that affect kidney may come from other parts of the urinary tract, such as
the bladder, ureter or urethra.
 Defects prefect at birth may block the urinary tract or affect the kidneys.
 The following are ways of preventing Kidney disorders.
1. Drinking enough water-dehydration reduces blood flow to your kidneys which can
damage them.
2. Eating a healthy diet-a healthy diet id goo for your kidneys.
3. Controlling blood pressure- high blood pressure can damage the kidney and increase the
chances of getting kidney diseases.
4. Managing blood sugar- high blood sugar levels can cause blood vessels inside the
kidney to become narrow and clogged. This can cause damage to the blood vessels and
harm the kidneys.
5. Exercising- exercise can help one to maintain a healthy weight, control blood
pressure, build strength and endurance and lower the chances of getting diabetes and
kidney diseases.
6. Avoid smoking- smoking may cause certain diseases in the kidneys.
7. Using medicines when necessary- using too much medication may cause kidney diseases.
8. Reducing salt intake- too much salt is associated with high blood pressure.
9. Managing stress- managing stress and anxiety can lower your blood pressure which
is good for your kidneys.
10.Managing regular health check-ups -to detect any kidney problems early.

Healthy lifestyles that promote kidney health.

 Maintaining kidney healthy is very important for overall health and general well-being.
 The following are some of the ways that help to keep the kidney healthy.
 Exercising.
 Controlling blood sugar.
 Monitoring blood pressure.
 Monitoring weight and eating a healthy diet.
 Drinking plenty of fluids.
 Avoid smoking.
 Having regular medical checkups.
4 FORCE AND ENERGY
 Static Electricity.
 Static electricity is a buildup of electric charges on objects.
 Static electric charge is experienced in the following observations.
 A cracking sound is produced when taking off woolen clothes.
 When you take of your sweater, the hair on your head and arms stand up
erect.
 You hear a cracking sound when you comb dry hair using a plastic comb.
 These observations are due to static electricity which builds up when objects rub
against each other.

Explain what happens when you rub a pen or ruler against your
hair then place it over pieces of paper?
 When you rub a pen on your hair and then place it over pieces of paper, the
pieces of paper move towards the pen.
 When you rub a ruler on your cloth and then pass it over pieces of paper, it attracts
the pieces of paper.
 this shows that hair and cloth have charges that transfer to the pen and ruler
making them attract the pieces of papers.
 These charges are known as static charges.
 The charges are referred to as static because they remain in one area for a while rather
than moving or flowing as current to another area.

Types of Charges.
 There are two types of static electric charges: a.)
Positive charges.
b.) Negative charges.
 If the same amount of negative and positive charges are present on an object, there is
no charges on the object. The object is said to be neutral or electrically neutral.

Charging Objects-By Rubbing.

🢝 When you bring an inflated balloon close to pieces of paper without actually
touching the papers, the inflated balloon fails to attract the pieces of papers.
🢝 However, when you rub a woolen fabric against the inflated balloon and bring the
balloon close to the pieces of paper the papers are attracted and move towards the
balloon surface.
 Explanation.
🢝 Rubbing the inflated balloon or comb against a woolen fabric or against your hair
transfers a negative charge to both objects. This creates static electricity.
🢝 However, when you bring a dry plastic comb or inflated balloon close to the
materials without rubbing, none of the materials is attracted to it.
🢝 When you rub the inflated balloon or comb against your hair or the woollen fabric,
they become negatively charged.
🢝 If there is enough charge, the balloon or comb will stick to surfaces of neutral
objects such as pieces of paper or pieces of tissue.
🢝 The negatively charged inflated balloon or comb attracts the pieces of paper or tissue
by attracting the positive charges in these materials.
🢝 It left for some time, the attracted items will eventually fall off the comb or the
balloon. This is because the static charges scatter and slowly vanish over time. (they
become weak).
🢝 Finally, the balloon or comb loses its negative charges and the materials get
unstuck.
🢝 Therefore, you can charge an object by rubbing.

Charging Objects-By Induction

🢖 Charging by Induction occurs when a charged object is placed near an object that is
neutral (conductor) without getting in contact with it.
🢖 When an object is charged by induction, it gains charges opposite to the inducing
charges.

Effects of force between charged objects.

🢖 When you inflate two balloons and rub them against hair or wool, they become
electrically charged. They gain the same charges.
🢖 Like charges repel each other and therefore when the balloons are hanged and moved
close to each other, they move apart. This is called repulsion.
🢖 After a while, the charged particles vanish gradually. The balloons are no longer
charged and they move closer.

Demonstrating Repulsion between charged objects.

🢖 To demonstrate repulsion between charged objects, Styrofoam plates are rubbed at the
base with piece of cloth.
🢖 The plates are placed on a flat surface and their bases moved closer to each other.
🢖 The Styrofoam plate gains negative charges from the cloth and becomes negatively
charged. The Styrofoam plates move apart. They repel each other. This is called
repulsion.
 Demonstrating attraction between charged objects.
🢖 Using an empty soda aluminum can that is placed on a flat surface, rub an inflated
balloon against your hair or against woolen cloth.
🢖 Hold the inflated balloon close to the soda can (without touching the can) and
observe the interaction between the inflated balloon and the can.

Observation and explanation.

🢖 Rubbing the balloon against hair or wool causes negative charges to move from the
hair or wool to the inflated balloon.
🢖 The balloon, therefore, becomes negatively charged.
🢖 The negative charges on the inflated balloon attracts the positive charges on a can
(Aluminium can)
🢖 Therefore, the can rolls towards the inflated balloon.
🢖 As you pull the balloon away from the can, the can continue to roll towards the
balloon. This is called attraction.
🢖 It one object has negative charge and the other has a positive charge, the two objects
attract each other. Therefore, a positive charge and a negative charge attract each
other.

Use of Static charges in

daily life.

Static electricity has several uses or applications in real world life.

 In Printers and photocopiers, static electric charges are used to attract ink or toner to the
papers.
 Static electric charges are also applied in paint sprayers, air filters and dust removal

Photocopy machine Air filter machine Paint sprayer

Safety measures when dealing with Static charges.

🢖 Rain clouds move through the air in the sky building up positive and negative
 electric charges.
🢖 When enough charges build up, they jump between the cloud and the ground
causing a spark called lightning.
🢖 The easiest route for lightning to the ground is usually the tallest point from the
ground surface.
🢖 This makes buildings to be the quickest route for lightning spark to the ground.
🢖 This is why many buildings have lightning arresters.
🢖 A lightning arrester is a device used to protect buildings from the effect of lighting.
🢖 A metallic rod, taller than the building is installed in the walls of the building
during its construction.
🢖 One end of the rod is kept out in the air and the other one is buried deep in the ground.
🢖 The rod provides an easy route for the transfer of electric charge to the ground.

The following should be done to reduce risk caused by static electricity.

1. Avoid wearing rubber-soled footwear, install grounding systems in home
appliances, ground yourself, keep the indoor air humid and keep your skin
moisturized.
2. When there is a thunderstorm find a safe enclosed shelter nearby such as homes and
offices.
3. If you are caught outside during a storm without safe shelter nearby the following should
be done:
 Immediately get off elevated areas such as hills, mountain ridges or peaks.
 Never lie flat on the ground, crouch down in a ball-like position with your
head tucked and hands over your ears so that you have minimal contact
with the ground.
 Never shelter under an isolated tree.
 Never use a cliff or overhang as a shelter.
 Immediately get out of and away from water bodies, for example ponds
and lakes.
 Stay away from objects that conduct electricity such as barbed wire
fences and power lines.
4. Stay away from concrete floors or walls. Lightning can travel through any metal wires
or bars in concrete walls or flooring.
5. Avoid contact with water during a thunderstorm. Lightning can travel through
plumbing.
6. Avoid using electronic equipment of all types during a thunderstorm. Lightning can
travel through electrical systems.
 Electrical Energy.
Sources of Electrical electricity
🢝 Electricity is one of the basic forms of energy.
🢝 Electricity in motion is called electric current.
🢝 Electricity can be obtained from various sources which includes the following:
 Hydroelectric power
 This is production of electricity using the force of moving water.
 Water is held behind a dam and released through a turbine.
 The turbine spins or rotates a generator that produces electricity.
 An example of a hydroelectric power plant in Kenya is the Masinga
Hydroelectric Dam.

Hydroelectric dam
 Geothermal power.
 This is the production of electricity using steam.
 This comes steam from the reservoirs of hot water below the earth’s surface.
 The steam spins a turbine which drive an electrical generator that produces
electricity.
 An example of a geothermal power plant in Kenya is the Olkaria
Geothermal Power Plant.
 Solar power.
 This is energy we get from the sun.
 A solar panel is used to trap this form of energy.
 Solar energy is then used for lighting up homes and to heat water.
 An example of a solar power plant in Kenya is the Garissa Solar Plant.

 Wind power.
 This is the production of electricity from wind.
 When the wind blows, it spins blades on a wind turbine or windmill.
 This generates electricity.
 An example of a wind power project in kenya is the Lake Turkana Wind
Project.
Simple Electrical Circuits.
🢝 An electric circuit is a complete path in which electric current flows from one
terminal to another.
🢝 An electric circuit has a source of energy such as dry cells, current conductors or wires,
a bulb and a switch.

Dry cells

Current conductor or wire

Bulbs with bulb holder

Switch
 Ammeter

Voltmeter

🢝 We make electricity by creating an electric circuit.

🢝 For example, when you flip the switch on in the house, you are completing the
electrical circuit. This causes electricity to flow and turn on the light bulb.

🢝 When devices are connected in a circuit one after the other, the circuit is called a series
circuit.
🢝 A series circuit has only one path which the charges flow.
🢝 A parallel circuit had more than one path through which charges can flow.
🢝 The instrument which measures voltage is known as a voltmeter. Voltage refers to
electrical force that would drive electric current between two points.
🢝 A voltmeter is connected in parallel at two pints where the potential difference is
measured.
🢝 When cells are connected in parallel, the current flowing through the circuit is the same.
Therefore, the brightness of the bulbs remains the same regardless of the number of dry
cells.
 🢝 When you increase the number of bulbs in a series circuit, the brightness of the
bulbs decreases.
🢝 Bulbs arranged in parallel are brighter than bulbs arranged in series.
🢝 The instrument that measures the electric current flowing in a circuit is an
ammeter.
🢝 An ammeter is connected in series with a circuit so that the current being
measured flows through the ammeter.
🢝 A bulb connected to two cells in series is brighter than a bulb connected to two
cells in parallel.

Conductors and Non-conductors of Electricity.

Classifying materials as Conductors and Non-conductors of electricity.
 The ability to conduct electricity is called conductivity.
 Some materials allow electricity to flow easily through them. These materials are
called conductors of electricity.
 Examples of conductors of electricity are:
 Copper wire.
 Aluminium foil.
 Iron
 Carbon
 Other materials do not allow electricity to flow through them. These materials are called
non-conductors of electricity.
 They are also known as insulators.
 Examples of insulators include:
 Plastics.
 glass.
 Cloth.
 Threads.
 Rubber.
 Paper.
 Stone.
 Dry wood.
 Mattress.
 Sisal.
 Dry sponge
Electrical Appliances in our Locality.
Identifying Electrical appliances in our Locality.
 Electrical appliances are devices that use electricity to work.
 They are found in various places in our locality such as at homes, offices, hospitals and
schools among other places.
 They include the following appliances:
 Electric cooker.  Laptop.
 Iron box.  Desktop computer.
 Fan.  Refrigerator.
 Television.  Phone.
 Printer.  Radio.
 Electric kettle.  Heater.

Uses of Electricity in the Environment.

 Electricity has many uses in different environments.
 Some uses include:
 Running machines.
 Cooking.
 Heating.
 Lighting.
 Refrigerators
 Entertainment.

Safety measures when handling electrical appliances.

 Safety measures are put in place when handling electrical appliances to prevent any
dangers brought about by electricity.
Possible danger of electricity. Safety measure to apply
Overloading a single socket Do not overload a single socket
Inserting metallic objects or fingers into the Do not insert objects or fingers into
sockets. sockets

In case of a power outage or leakage. Switch of the main switch.

Naked exposed electric copper wires Insulate or mask the naked wires or
cables.
 Wet hands Dry your hands.

Illegal connection. Do not connect electricity illegally.

Using spoiled, broken or defective Repair broken appliances, devices and

appliances. sockets.

Splash water near sockets Do not splash water near sockets.

Safety measures to observe when using electrical appliances.

 We should switch off the main switch when not using any electrical appliance.
 We should repair broken appliances, devices and sockets.
 We should not touch naked wires with bare hands.
 We should not handle electrical appliances or switches with wet hands.
 We should not over load a sing socket.
 We should not insert objects or fingers into sockets.
 We should not splash water near sockets and switches.
 We should not attempt to connect electricity illegally.

Magnetism.
 A magnet pulls objects towards it or pushes objects away from it.
 When a magnet pulls something, it attracts it.
 When a magnet pushes something away from it, it repels it.
 Magnets can move, pull or push magnetic objects without touching them. This
invisible force is called magnetism.

Identify Poles of a Magnetic.

 When you place iron fillings on a sheet of paper and place a magnet bar on the sheet of
paper, you will observe that the iron fillings are attracted more towards the region
close to the two ends of the magnet bars.
 Poles of a magnet are said to be near the end of the magnet bars.
 All magnets have two ends that are called magnetic poles.
 These are North pole and South pole.
 Most magnets are labelled N and S where N stands for North pole while S stands for
south pole.
 The magnetic force of a magnet is strongest at the poles. This means that the poles attract
and repel more than the other parts of the magnet.

Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials.

 A magnet attracts some materials.
 Materials attracted by a magnet are called magnetic materials.
 Magnetic materials include objects such as iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.
 Some materials are not attracted by a magnet. These materials are called non-
magnetic materials. They include objects such as plastic, wood, copper and
Aluminium.

The force between like and unlike poles.

 When you move closer two magnet bars suspended using a thread you will
observe that some sides repel and other attract each other.
 You notice that the North pole of one magnet and the south pole of the other magnet
pull each other and stick together. This is called attraction. This shows that the
unlike poles of magnet attract.

Unlike poles attract

Like poles attract

 The north pole of one magnet pushes a way the north pole of another magnet. this is
called repulsion. this shows like poles of magnet repel.
 Similarly, the south pole of one magnet pushes a way the South pole of another magnet.
 This also shows that like poles of a magnet repel.
 This experiment shows the law of attraction and repulsion.
 Finding the Direction of A freely suspended Magnet.
 When you suspend a bar magnet freely in the middle using a string it will turn until
it stops.
 The magnet aligns itself to the Earth’s North pole and South poles when it stops.

 The magnetic pole pointing towards the Earth’s North magnetic pole is the
magnet’s North pole.
 The magnetic pole pointing towards the Earth’s South magnetic pole is the
magnet’s South pole.

Uses of Magnets in day to day life.

 Magnetic recording media-computers have hard disks that record data on a thin
magnetic coating.
 Credit, debit and ATM cards-all of these cards have a magnetic strip on one side.
 Common televisions and computer monitors-some televisions and computer
screens contain a device that has an electromagnet.
 Electric guitars-they use magnetic devices to convert the vibration of guitar strings into
electric currents that they amplify.
 Speakers -most speakers use magnets to generate sounds.
 Medicine-Hospitals use magnetic devices (magnetic resonance imaging) to spot
problems in a patient’s organ.
 Toys- magnets are often used in children’s’ toys.
 Picking up magnetic items-iron nails, staples, tacks and paper clips that are either too
small, too hard to reach or too small for fingers to hold can be picked using magnets.
Some screw drivers are magnetized for this purpose.
 Topical questions.

1. Explain how material get charged?

2. Which two ways can you use to give objects charges?
3. What are the dangers of static charges?
4. How can we keep safe from the dangers of lightning?
5. How can you create awareness to prevent damages caused by lightning?
6. What are the sources of electricity?
7. What are the differences between conductors and non-conductors of electricity?
8. Identify electrical appliances used in your area.
9. Describe safety measures you would observe when using electrical appliances.
10.What are sone of the uses of electricity in your environment?
11. Name 4 magnetic and 4 non-magnetic material in your locality. 12.How
do you identify magnetic materials in your environment?
13. What will happen when the North pole and south pole of different magnets are
brought together?
14. How are magnets used in day to day life?
15. Iron fillings and pins accidentally fell into maize flour. Explain how you would
separate the two materials to obtain pure maize floor.
16. Ruth tried to pick a sweet using a magnet. Explain what happened and why it
happened.
17. Rotich took a soda from a refrigerator in town. He noticed that the door quickly
locked and sealed itself. Give the reason for this.
 Self-Assessment report.
Tick in the box that describes your performance of the competencies outlined.
Competency Yes I need help
Demonstrate the existence of static charges in objects
Charge objects using different methods.

Demonstrate the effect of force between charged objects.

Appreciate the use of static charge in daily life.
Identify various sources of electricity in their
environment.
Set up simple electrical circuits in series and parallel
using dry cells, bulbs, ammeter and voltmeter.
Classify materials as conductors and non-conductors of
electricity.
Identify electrical appliances in their locality.
Identify safety measures when handling electrical
appliances.
Appreciate the use of electricity in their daily life.
Classify materials in the environment as magnetic and
non-magnetic.
Investigate the force between like and unlike poles of
magnets.
Identify the uses of magnets in day to day life.
Appreciate the applications of magnets in day to day life
Additional comments

Page 1 of 55
HEALTH
 Health

 It is the condition of a person’s body or mind.

 A healthy person has complete physical, mental and social well-being.
 Education.
 Is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, morals, beliefs and habits.
 Health education.
 It is the gaining of knowledge and skills which helps to improve the health of
other people in the community.
 Health education provides learning experience in various areas such as physical health,
environmental health, mental health, social health and reproductive health.
 Importance of Health Education.
 It helps to gain knowledge on how to promote personal, family and community health.
 It enhances the quality of life for all people through learning about life skills.
 It provides information on health which enables people to make healthy choices.
 It forms a basis for health promotion activities.
 It enables learners to acquire skills, knowledge and positive attitude towards health.

 Career Opportunities in Health Education.

 Nutritionists.
 They are specialists that advise people on healthy eating habits for healthy living.
 Nurses.
 They are health professionals who care for the sick.
 They also collaborate with doctors and other health care workers in performing duties.
 Medical doctors.
 They are highly qualified health personnel who help in identifying and guiding
on treatment and management of diseases.
 Psychologists.
 They are specialists who assess and give guidance on how to cope with mental illness
Page 2 of 55
 and disorders.
 Clinical officers.
 They are health personnel who perform general medicinal duties such as diagnosis
and treatment of general diseases and injuries.
 Public health officer.
 They are specialists who focus on the overall health of the community.
 They ensure that activities taking place in the community meet the required
health standards set by the government.
 Health promotion officers.
 They are specialists who assists individuals and the community to improve their health
by creating awareness on healthy lifestyles.
 They plan and coordinate health promotion programs in the community.

Page 3 of 55
 Occupational therapists.
 They may help people with injuries, illness or disability to live better. For example,
they help people living with disability injuries to gain skills for coping with daily life.
 Physiotherapists.
 They help injured, ill or elderly to develop or restore movement and other physical
functions of the body.
 Physiotherapists may prescribe exercises and any assistive devices for example,
wheelchair and crutches.
 Promoting Health Education activities in the Community.
 Activities that promote health education include the following;
 Washing hands.
 Exercising regularly.
 Cooking and eating healthy food.
 Observing personal hygiene.
 Cleaning our environment.

 Health Promotion.

 Meaning of health promotion.

🢒 Health promotion is the process of enabling people to take control of their health
by empowering them with knowledge on how to manage and improve their health.
🢒 Health promotion activities enable people to choose and adopt good habits
while avoiding habits that are harmful to their health.
🢒 We can promote health at home, in schools, in the community and in health facilities
🢒 Health promotion can be successfully done using;
~ Billboards.
~ Health talks.
~ Posters.
~ Televisions.
~ Radios.
~ newspapers

Page 4 of 55
 Common Health concerns in the community.
🢒 A healthy concern is a health issue that needs urgent attention. For example, Corona
Virus Disease (Civid-19) has been a health concern since its outbreak in the year 2019.
Examples of Health concerns in the community.
 Pollution.
 Poor eating habit leading to being overweight (obesity)
 Female genital mutilation.
 Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cancer, hypertension and heart disease.
 Communicable diseases such as Corona Virus Disease (Covid-19), malaria and
tuberculosis.
 Nutritional deficiencies and disorders such as kwashiorkor, marasmus, rickets and
scurvy.
 Waterborne disease such as cholera, diarrhea and typhoid.
 Drug, alcohol and substance abuse.
 Accidents and injuries such as cuts, burns and fractures.
 Promoting wellness in individuals and the community.
Wellness is the state of being in a good health.
The following are healthy practices that we should observe to maintain wellness.
🢒 Eating a healthy diet.
🢒 Using clean and safe water.
🢒 Engaging in regular physical exercises.
🢒 Maintaining good hygiene.
🢒 Having enough rest and sleep.
 Sources of information on Health.
 Books.
 Digital devices.
 Magazines.
 Other recommended print materials.
 Ways through which information on health can be shared.
 Charts.
 Flyers.
 Posters.
 Talking walls.
 Talking trees.
 Video clips.
 Challenges hindering Health promotion in the community.
 Inadequate or Lack of enough health personnel to carry out or follow up on health
promotion.
 Limited access to health facilities in the community.
 Low literacy levels make it difficult for people to read and understand
promotional materials.

Page 5 of 55
  Lack of enough resources for creating and distributing promotional materials to
the community.
 Cultural and social norms that hinder people from adopting new health practices.
 Poverty inhibiting ability to afford basic necessities that promote health.
 Lifestyle-some people are always busy to create time for activities such as
physical exercises as recommended by health promoters.
Role of good governance for sustainable health promotion.

The government promotes health by;

o Developing infrastructure such as hospitals.
o Training and employing enough health care workers.
o Organizing health promotion activities such as road shows and sponsoring
advertisements on media.
o Investing resources in health promotion.
o Ensuring citizens have access to safe water for domestic use.
o Providing affordable healthcare.
o Enforcing laws that reduce water, soil and air pollution.
o Aligning tax guidelines to regulate on unhealthy products.

Nutrients and their functions in the body.

 The difference between macronutrients and micronutrients
🢒 The body require nutrients in different amounts.
🢒 Macronutrients are nutrients required by the body in large amounts.
🢒 Examples of macronutrients are:
 Carbohydrates.
 Proteins.
 Fats or lipids.
🢒 Micronutrients are the nutrients require by the body in small amounts.
🢒 Examples of micronutrients are:
 Vitamins.
 Minerals.
 Macronutrients. a.)
Carbohydrates.
 Carbohydrates are energy giving foods.
 When we eat foods rich in carbohydrates, we get energy to do different activities
and tasks.
 Examples of foods that provide energy are maize, yams, arrowroots, sweet potatoes,
rice and cassava.
 When we lack carbohydrates in the body, we are likely to experience the following
signs and symptoms;
 Dizziness.
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  Fatigue.
 Headache.

Maize Rice

Yams Cassava

Arrowroots Sweet
potatoes

b.) Proteins.
 Proteins are body building foods.
 They help in repair of worn out tissues.
 Examples of proteins foods include dry beans, dry peas, eggs, green grams, fish, milk
and beef.
 Lack of proteins in the body leads to a disease called kwashiorkor.
 A person suffering from kwashiorkor has the following signs and symptom.
~ Pot belly or protruding belly.
~ Loose and pale skin.
~ Swollen parts of the body such as face, cheeks, stomach, arms and legs.
~ Brown and thin hair which easily falls off.
~ Sores at the corner of the mouth.

Dry beans Beef

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Dry peas Fish

Eggs Milk

c.) Fats or lipids.

 Fats also provides us with energy.
 They help to absorb certain nutrients and maintain body temperature.
 Example of foods rich in fats are;
 Avocados.
 Nuts.
 Cheese.
 Olive oil.
Avocado Cheese

Nuts Olive oil

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 Signs and symptoms of fat deficiency in the body.
 Scaly or dry rashes.
 Hair loss.
 Fatigue.
 Low immunity.
Marasmus.
 Marasmus is a disease caused by lack of eating enough food that is rich in all
the nutrients.
Signs and Symptoms of marasmus in children.
🢒 Child cries a lot.
🢒 Stunted growth.
🢒 Child’s face looks like of an old man or woman.
🢒 The child lacks interest in playing or doing their work.
🢒 The brain is affected and the child may take time to learn.
🢒 He or she has wasted muscles.
🢒 Marasmus can be prevented by eating enough food with all the nutrients.

 Micronutrients.
a.) Vitamins.
o They are also referred to as protective foods.
o They protect us from diseases and they improve our immunity.
o The main sources of vitamins in our diet are fruits and vegetables.
o Examples of vitamins are Vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E
and vitamin K.
o The following table describe different vitamins, their sources, functions in the body
and deficiency diseases they cause as well as signs and symptoms.

Vitamin Sources of Deficiency Signs and Intervention

vitamin disease and symptoms measures.
disorder.
Vitamin A Fish, liver, Night Poor vision Eat foods rich in
dairy blindness especially at night. vitamin A.
products, Dry, rough and
Oranges, scaly skin
mangoes,
carrots,
pumpkin,
spinach and
kales.

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Vitamin Peas, fresh Beriberi Muscle weakness Eat foods rich in
B1(Thiamine) fruits, nuts, and pain in the vitamin B1.
liver, and limbs.
whole grains. Memory loss.
Numbness in the
hands and feet.
Vitamin Fish, meat, Ariboflavinosis Cracked lips. Eat foods rich in
B2(Riboflavin) chicken, Dry skin. vitamin B2.
eggs, dairy Sore throat.
products, Swelling of the
cereals and corner of the mouth.
green Swelling and
vegetables. redness of the
tongue.
Vitamin Red meat, Pellagra. Redness of the Eat food rich in
B3(Niacin) legumes, tongue. vitamin B3.
poultry meat, Loss of appetite.
fish, bananas. Mental confusion.
Diarrhea.
Scaly rashes on the
skin.
Vitamin C Liver, green Scurvy. Swollen and Wat foods rich in
vegetables, bleeding gums. vitamin C
pawpaw, Loose teeth.
lemon, Slow healing of
oranges, wounds.
mangoes and Anaemia.
grapes. Reduced resistance
to infections.
Vitamin D Milk, fish, Rickets. Weak bones leading Eat food rich in
liver, egg to bow legs or vitamin D.
yolk and knock knees. Exposure to
sunlight. Delayed growth. sunlight in the
midmorning or late
in the evening for
synthesis of vitamin
D.
Vitamin E Fruits and Sterility. Muscle pain and Eat foods rich in in
vegetables, (inability to weakness. vitamin E.
vegetable oils reproduce.) Hair loss.
such as Dry skin.
sunflower oil,

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 nuts and
seeds.
Vitamin K Green Excessive loss of Eat foods rich in
vegetables blood in case of a vitamin K.
such as cut.
spinach and Skin that bruises
kales, eggs easily.
yolks and
liver.

b.) Minerals
🢒 Sources of minerals in the diet include fruits, vegetables, milk, fish, nuts and whole
grain cereals.
🢒 Minerals help our body to function normally.
🢒 Examples of minerals found in food are iron, iodine, calcium, phosphorus and potassium.
🢒 Minerals like calcium and phosphorus make our bones and teeth strong.

Mineral Source of mineral Deficiency disease Signs and

or disorder symptoms.
Phosphorus Milk, beans, lentils, Rickets. Poorly developed
poultry, eggs, fish, bones.
cereals and meat.
Iron Liver, eggs, red meat, Nutritional anaemia. Pale skin.
beans and green leafy Extreme fatigue.
vegetables such as Fast heartbeat and
spinach and kales. shortness of breath.
Iodine Cheese, fresh milk, Goiter. Swelling of thyroid
yoghurt, iodised table gland in the neck
salt and fish such as region.
salmon and cod. A visible bump om
the neck.
Dry skin.
Calcium Milk, cheese, green Rickets. Muscle cramps.
vegetables and bone Oesteomalacia Fatigue.
soup. (softening of bones in Delayed motor skills.
adults) Tooth decay and gum
disease.
Weak and soft bones.

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 The following are intervention measures that prevent nutritional deficiencies
and disorders:
🢖 Creating awareness on importance of nutrition.
🢖 Taking nutritional supplements when recommended by a nutritionist.
🢖 Eating a varied diet.
🢖 Exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months.
🢖 Providing immunization, oral rehydration and periodic deworming.
🢖 Early diagnosis and proper treatment of common illness.

 Role of water and Dietary fibre in promoting health.

 Water promotes health in the following ways.

~ It helps to regulate the body temperature.
~ It is a medium of transport for substances such as dissolved minerals salts, glucose and
vitamins.
~ It helps in removal of waste products from the body through urine, sweat and faeces.
~ It softens food allowing easy chewing and swallowing.
~ Water prevents dehydration.

 Role of Fibre in promoting health.

 Dietary fibre is also called Roughages.

 It includes parts of plants that the body cannot digest or absorb.
 Dietary fibre is mainly found in fruits, vegetables and whole grains.
 Dietary fibre has the following importance.
~ It promotes normal bowel movement. This is by increasing weight and size of the stool
and also softens. Bulky stool is easier to pass through rectum preventing constipation.
~ It helps to control blood sugar level. Some fibres slows down the absorption of sugar and
help to improve blood sugar levels thus preventing diabetes.
~ It helps in achieving healthy weight. Foods with high fibre tend to fill the stomach more
compared to those low in fibre. This means that a person is likely to eat less but stay for a
longer time.

 Caring for plants and animals as sources of nutrients.

 We should take care of both plants and animals in order to sustain our sources
of nutrients.
 Enough food ensures adequate supply of nutrients and this in turn promotes good
health.
 We can take care of Plants and animal in the following ways.
 Watering plants and animals.
 Weeding plants.
 Thinning plants.
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 Cleaning animals’ houses.
 Providing animals with clean water and feed.

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 Pruning plants when required.
 Protection of plants against animals.
 Control disease in plants and animals.
 Control pests and parasites in animals and plants.

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HUMAN BODY SYSTEM

 Digestive System

 Digestive system is made up of a tract that runs from the mouth to the anus together with
its accessory organs.
 The digestive system is involved the breakdown of food into smaller components that can
easily be absorbed into the bloodstream.
 Normal functioning of various parts of the digestive system can be affected by
conditions or diseases which leads to health problems.
 Therefore, it is important to analyse causes of the conditions or diseases and take
necessary preventive measures.

 Parts of digestive system.

 The digestive system is made up of different parts.

 They include; mouth, teeth, tongue, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines,
large intestines, rectum, appendix and anus.
 There are other organs that help in digestion but they are not part of the digestive system.
 These organs include: salivary glands, liver, pancreas and gall bladder.

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  Functions of parts of the human digestive system.

Part Functions
1 Mouth It is where digestion of carbohydrates starts.
It has teeth that are used for biting, cutting and chewing food.
The salivary glands in the mouth produce saliva that contains
digestive enzymes that help in digestion of carbohydrates. Saliva
also contains water that moistens food and mucus that lubricates
food particles for easy swallowing.
2 Oesophagus  It has muscles which help in movement of food from the mouth to
the stomach, this process is called peristalsis.
3 Stomach It provides a site for temporary storage of food.
Produces gastric juice which has enzymes that help in digestion of
proteins.
Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid which kills bacteria that come
alongside the food. The acid also creates an acidic environment that
is favourable for digestion.
The walls of the stomach secrete mucus which lubricates food and
protects its wall against corrosion.
Small 🢝 This is where the final digestion of food takes place.
intestines. 🢝 Absorption of food nutrients into the bloodstream also takes place
here.
Large o This is where absorption of water and mineral salts take place.
intestines. o No digestion of food nutrients occurs in the large intestines.
Rectum o It acts as a temporary storage for undigested and indigestible food
(faeces) before it is released out of the body.
Anus o It is an opening through which faeces are removed from the body.
Accessory glands
Pancreas 🢝 It produces pancreatic juice which contains enzymes that help in
digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, fats and oils in the small
intestines.
Liver 🢝 It secretes bile which helps in the breakdown of fats into small
droplets. The breakdown of fats takes place in the small intestine.
Gall 🢝 It stores the bile and releases it to the small intestines
bladder

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Common conditions and diseases affecting the human digestive system.
1. Constipation.
Constipation is a condition where one experiences difficulty in passing stool. Constipation
is caused by:
🢖 Eating foods that do not have enough fibre.
🢖 Not drinking enough fluids.
🢖 Lack of exercise.
🢖 Using some medicine.
Prevention of constipation.
 Eating foods that are high in fibre example, fruits, vegetables and
whole grains.
 Drinking enough fluids regularly.
 Carrying out physical exercises regularly.
 Passing stool when there is an urge.

2. Roundworms.

Round worms are caused by eating contaminated food and drinking contaminated water.
Prevention of Roundworms.
🢝 Proper washing and cooking of food.
🢝 Boiling or treating water for drinking.
🢝 Washing hands using clean water and soap before eating meals or after visiting the
toilet or latrines.
🢝 Proper disposal of human waste.
🢝 Washing fruits and vegetables before cooking and eating.
🢝 Preventing children from eating soil.
🢝 Ensure deworming after every six months or twice a year.

3. Ulcers.

Ulcers are sores on the lining of the stomach or small intestines.

They are caused by a bacterial infection. Other factors such as stress and eating acidic and
spicy foods worsen ulcers.
Prevention of Ulcers.
🢖 Avoid infections by frequently washing hands with soap and water and by
eating properly washed and cooked foods.
🢖 Manage stress.
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🢖 Avoid eating foods that are acidic and spicy.

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 4. Acid reflux.
🢝 An acid reflux is a burning sensation felt as stomach acid moves upwards into
the oesophagus.
🢝 It is also called heartburn.
🢝 Most people experience acid reflux from time to time.
Causes of acid reflux.
🢝 An acid reflux can be caused or worsened by;
 Eating some foods that are acidic or spicy for example lemons.
 Drinking alcohol or citric juices.
 Smoking.
 Pregnancy.
 Being overweight.
 Stress or anxiety.
 Frequent use of painkillers.

Prevention of acid reflux.

In prevention of acid reflux, the following should be don’t and the following should be
avoided.
Do’s (what to do) Don’ts (what to avoid)
Eat smaller, more frequent meals. Do not eat foods or take in drinks that trigger
acid reflux.
Use a pillow to raise your head and chest Do not eat 3 or 4 hours before bedtime.
above the level of your waist to prevent
stomach acid from moving into the
oesophagus.
Lose weight, if you’re overweight. Do not wear very tight clothes around your
waist.
Engage in regular physical exercises. Do not smoke.

 Preventive measures for a healthy digestive system.

🢖 A healthy digestive system ensures normal functioning of the body.

🢖 In order to maintain a healthy digestive system, it is important to practice healthy eating
habits.
🢖 This can be done by creating a meal plan of healthy foods, drinking enough water
and keeping daily logs on the foods we eat.

 Excretory system.

🢝 The excretory system is composed of organs like skin, lungs, liver and kidney.
🢝 The system is involved in the removal of metabolic waste products from the body in
a process known as excretion.
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  Excretory organs in the human body.

Excretory organs Waste eliminated from the body

Lungs Carbon (IV) oxide and water vapour formed during respiration.
Kidneys. Urea, excess water and salts(urine)
Liver Toxic or poisonous materials from the blood.
Skin Excess water and salts (sweat)
 Functions of the skin.
🢖 The skin is the largest organ in the human body.
🢖 It covers the external part of the body.
🢖 The following are functions of the skin:
 Protects internal parts of the body against physical injury.
 Regulates body temperature through sweating.
 It is a sensory organ. It helps us to sense touch.
 It helps in synthesis of vitamin D in presence of sunlight.
 It helps to get rid of sweat from the body. The sweat contains excess water
and salts.
 It blocks harmful ultra-violet rays produced by the sun from entering into the body.
 Common conditions and disease of the skin.
1. Fungal infections.
Causes of fungal infections.
🢖 Fungal diseases are caused by fungi.
🢖 They are easily spread from one person to another through sharing of personal items
such as towels, clothes, caps and combs.
🢖 Examples of fungal infections are athlete’s foot and ringworms.
Prevention of fungal infections.
 Ringworms.
🢖 Ringworms are spread by physical contact with an infected person or pet.
🢖 They can also be spread by sharing personal items such as towels, combs and clothes.
Signs and symptoms of ringworms.
 The affected areas develop small pus-filled bumps that are very itchy. Bumps
may become dry and scaly over time.
 Due to constant itching and scratching, the affected parts may develop cracks
and blisters.
 If the ringworms are on the head, one may experience patchy hair loss.
Prevention of ringworms.
🢖 Not sharing personal items with other people.
🢖 Observing personal hygiene by bathing regularly and keeping the hair clean.
🢖 Maintaining proper hygiene of our bedding and areas which are in contact with our skin,
for example seats.
🢖 Washing hands after touching pets or coming in contact with an infected person.
🢖 Avoiding contact with infected people and pets.
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 Athlete’s foot
🢖 It is caused by a fungi that lives in warm and moist places.
🢖 Athlete’s foot usually forms between the toes.
🢖 The fungi develop if we;
 Do not dry feet properly.
 Wear closed shoes for long hours.
 Wear socks that are not absorbent or share towels, pairs of socks and shoes with
an infected person.
Prevention of athlete’s foot.
🢖 Clean and dry your feet properly before wearing shoes.
🢖 Wear pairs of socks made form absorbent materials like cotton and wool.
🢖 Avoid sharing socks, towels and shoes.
🢖 Wear open shoes or scandals to air your fit.
🢖 Air your shoes properly before putting them on.
🢖 Avoid walking barefoot in public places.

2. Allergic reactions.
🢝 Allergic reactions can occur when somebody comes into contact with substances
or surfaces that he or she is allergic to.
🢝 Examples of materials that can cause allergic skin reactions are body oils, medicines,
fabrics, pollen grains, some household cleaning agents, some foods and some metals
used in making jewellery.
🢝 Common examples of allergic skin conditions are:
 Eczema.
 Acne.
 Contact dermatitis.

Common signs and symptoms of allergic skin reactions include:

 Redness of the skin.
 Swelling.
 Blisters.
 Itching.
These signs and symptoms may vary from one person to another.

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Prevention of allergic skin conditions.
Ways of preventing Eczema, acne and contact dermatitis.

Eczema  Avoid conditions or environments that may cause allergic skin

reactions.
 Do not eat foods that can make you have allergic skin reactions.
Acne  Practice proper hygiene of the skin.
 Avoid touching your face especially if your hands are not clean.
 Do not pop pimples or rashes that appear on the skin.
 Observe proper diet. Avoid fatty foods and other foods that may
trigger outbreak of pimples.
 Stop using medicine or beauty products that cause irritation of the
skin.
Contact dermatitis  Staying away from materials or substances that can cause allergic
reactions.
 Washing our hands from time to time.
 Avoid touching our face and other exposed areas of our bodies
with dirty hands.
3. Boils
 Boils are caused by bacteria.
 The bacteria enter the skin through cuts or tiny pores made on the skin.
 Boils can be spread through contact with an infected person or contaminated clothing
and bedding.
Signs and symptoms of boils.
🢖 Skin of affected area forms a hard bump that grows in size as pus accumulates in it.
 When it has accumulated much pus, it becomes soft and can be punctured easily.

Prevention of boils.
o Wash your hands frequently with soap and water to prevent spread of bacteria.
If possible, use antibacterial soap and gels.
o Bathe regularly with soap and water.
o Wash bedding regularly.
o Avoid contact with an infected person.
o Do not share personal items.

4. Scabies.
 Scabies are caused by tiny itch mites that bite and burrow under the skin.
 The condition is highly contagious and is spread when one comes into contact with
an infected person.
 It is also spread through sharing of personal items such as clothing, beddings or
towels with an infected person.

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 Signs and symptoms.
🢖 Affected parts has medium sized painful pus-filled bumps that are very itchy.
🢖 When the place is scratched for a while pus-filled sores may form.
Prevention of scabies.
 Bathe regularly with soap and water.
 Wash bedding regularly and air them out in sunlight.
 Avoid sharing personal belongings.
 Avoid contact with an infected person.
 Spray the homestead with appropriate chemicals.
 Ways of preventing skin diseases and conditions.
 Washing hands with soap and warm water often.
 Avoiding close contact with people who have skin infections.
 Disinfecting items for public use before using them.
 Not sharing personal items such as towels, hair brushes or swimsuits.
 Drinking plenty of water.
 Avoiding excessive physical or emotional stress.
 Eating a varied diet.
 Getting vaccinated against infectious skin conditions such as chicken pox.

 Importance of Healthy skin.

🢖 Healthy skin prevents skin conditions and diseases which may affect it.

Circulatory System.

 The circulatory system is a system that moves blood throughout the body.
 It is composed of the heart, blood and blood vessels.
 Blood is carried away from the heart by arteries and transported back by veins,
 Blood capillaries connect the arteries and the veins. They are found around body cells
and they all exchange of materials between the cells and blood.
 When the heart beats, oxygenated blood is pumped out of the heart to other parts of
the body.
 The oxygen from the blood is used up by different parts of the body.
 Deoxygenated blood comes back to the heart from all parts of the body and it is pumped
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 into the lungs for oxygenation.
 The oxygenated blood flows back to the heart and the process continues over and
over again.

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Structure and function of the heart.

A-Pulmonary artery B-

Venacava

C-Right auricle D-

Right ventricle E-

Aorta

F- Pulmonary vein.

G- Left auricle.

H- Left ventricle

🢒 The heart is a very important part of the circulatory system.

🢒 It is made up od strong muscles called cardiac muscles which enables it to contract
and relax easily.
🢒 It is divided into the right and left chambers.
🢒 The left chamber receives oxygenated blood while the right chamber receives de-
oxygenated blood separately.
🢒 The chambers are:
 The right auricle.
 The right ventricle.
 The left auricle.
 The left ventricle.

Functions of different parts of the heat.

Part of the Heart Function of the part

Venacava It carries de-oxygenated blood from the rest of the body and drains it
into the right auricle.
Right auricle. It receives de-oxygenated blood from the Venacava.
Right ventricle. It receives blood from the right auricle and pumps it into the lungs.

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Pulmonary artery It transports blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for
oxygenation.
Pulmonary vein. It transports oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left auricle.
Left auricle. It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary vein.
Left ventricle It receives blood from the left auricle and pumps it to all parts of the
body through the aorta.
Coronary artery It supplies the heart with oxygenated blood and nutrients.
Coronary vein It removes de-oxygenated blood and waste materials from the heart.

Common conditions and diseases of the circulatory system.

 Circulatory system is very important in human lives and the heart must continuously
beat to stay alive. All blood vessels must be healthy for blood to flow to all parts of the
body.
 Factors that may interfere with proper functioning of the heart or blood vessels can
cause a condition or a disease of the circulatory system.
 Common conditions and diseases of heart include:
 Heart attack.
 Hypertension (high blood pressure)
 Stroke.
1. Hypertension. (High Blood Pressure)
• Hypertension is a condition in which blood moves through the arteries at a
persistently higher pressure than normal.
• People may be at risk of suffering from hypertension for the following reason:
 Having diabetes or kidney diseases.
 Eating foods with high amount of salt, fats and sugar.
 Failure to exercise regularly which may lead to being overweight or obese.
 Smoking tobacco or drinking alcohol.
 If they are born from families where people are hypertensive.
 If they live in a highly stressful environment.
Signs & symptoms of Hypertension.
 Severe headache.
 Frequent nose bleeding.
 Occasional dizziness.
 Chest pain.

2. Heart attack.
• Arteries have a wide lumen for them to transport blood effectively.
• A heart attack occurs when the flow of blood to the heart is cut off due to a blockage
in the major arteries of the heart.
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• These arteries include coronary artery, pulmonary artery and aorta.

Page 27 of 55
 • The blockage is caused by a build-up of fat, cholesterol or other substances making the
arteries narrow
• A heart attack can also occur when an artery bursts.
• The affected heart muscles do not receive oxygen and nutrients leading to paralysis
or death.
• Paralysis is the loss of ability to move part or most of the body.

•
Signs and symptoms of a heart attack.
 Tightness or pain in the chest. The pain spread to the neck, back and jaws.
 Fatigue.
 Shortness of breath.
 Sudden dizziness.
 Abnormal heartbeat.
 Increased anxiety and sweating.
3. Stroke.
• A stroke happens when blood supply to part of the brain is interrupted or reduced. This
prevents the brain tissue from receiving oxygen and nutrients and the cells begin to
die.
• People may be at risk of suffering from stroke if:
a) They smoke tobacco or drink alcohol.
b) They are overweight or obese.
c) They have unmanaged hypertension.
d) They do not engage in enough physical exercises.
Signs and symptoms of stroke.
 Inability to see clearly.
 Sudden headache accompanied by vomiting or dizziness.
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 Difficulty in speaking or understanding what others are saying.
 Sudden difficulty in walking. Some people may stumble or lose balance.
 Drooping or sagging of the face to one side.

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Ways of preventing common conditions and diseases of the Circulatory system.
 Eat foods that are low in fats and oils such as whole grains products, fruits and
vegetables.
 Limit the amount of salt in your diet. Avoid adding salt to foo at the table.
 Exercise regularly for at least 30 minutes a day to maintain healthy weight.
 Avoid smoking tobacco.
 Avoid use of alcohol.
 Manage stress.
 Go for medical checkups to detect early signs and symptoms of diseases and
conditions of the circulatory system for early treatment.

What is the importance of a healthy circulatory system?

 It ensures that the body functions normally by delivering oxygen and nutrients to all parts
of the body.
 It also helps to remove waste products from the body cells before they become toxic in
the body.

Topical questions.

1. What is the role of the four chambers of the heart?

2. Name the part of the heart that:
3. State the causes, signs and symptoms of stroke.
4. What healthy practices should we observe to prevent stroke?

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 MENTAL AND EMOTIONAL HEALTH.
Meaning of mental health and mental illness.

 Mental-refers to anything that relates to the mind.

 Health-it is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not just
absence of disease.
 An illness- is a disease or period of sickness affecting the body of mind.
 Mental health-is a state of well-being in which a person performs what is expected of
him or her and is able to cope with normal challenges of life. Our mental health
determines how we think, feel, act and relate with others.
 Mental illnesses or disorders are health conditions that negatively affects a
person’s mood, thinking and behavior.
 Examples of mental illness and disorders are:
~ Depression.
~ Anxiety.
~ Post-traumatic stress.
a) Depression is a mood disorder that involves a persistent feeling of sadness and loss of
interest.
b) Anxiety is a feeling of extreme worry or fear about events that are about to or likely
to happen.
c) Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental health condition that is triggered by
a terrifying event that happened in the past.
Importance of Mental Health.

🢖 It helps us to determine how we handle stress.

🢖 It helps us determine how we relate with others.
🢖 It helps us to make the right choices.
🢖 It promotes our personal growth and development.
🢖 It enables us to work productively in our community.
Causes of Mental illness and disorders.

 Major life losses for example loss of job or loss of a loved one.
 Unhealthy relationships, for example family disputes.
 History of mental illness in the family.
 Traumatic experience for example, being a victim of kidnapping, road accident,
physical or sexual abuse.
 Unhealthy sleeping and feeling habits.
 Drug and substance abuse.

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 Signs and symptoms of mental illness and disorder.
 Reduced concentration in school and at work.
 Worry, anxiety and excessive fear.
 Prolonged sadness.
 Frequent mood swings.
 Withdrawal from family and friends.
 Eating disorders (too much or too little food)
 Sleep disorder (sleeping for many or few hours)

Signs and symptoms of Specific mental illness and disorder.

Specific Mental Signs and symptoms

disorder
Depression 🢝 Feelings of sadness and emptiness.
🢝 Severe anger; irritability and frustration.
🢝 Loss of interest in most or all normal activities such as hobbies.
🢝 Lack of sleep or sleeping too much.
Anxiety  Feelings of tension and nervousness.
 Increased heartrate.
 Profuse sweating and trembling.
 Feeling weak or tired.
 Lack of concentration due to worry about impending danger.
Post-traumatic Nightmares or flashbacks of the traumatic event.
stress Lack of sleep.
Lack of concentration.
Severe anger and irritation.
Feeling guilty or shame.

How to prevent mental illness and disorders.

 Eating well.
 Being active.
 Having support system.
 Asking for help.
 Having quality sleep.
 Self-acceptance.
 Spiritual care.
 Avoid negative peer pressure.
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Ways of promoting positive mental health.
 Talk about your feelings to friends, teachers and family members.
 Participate in healthy leisure activities during your free time.
 Observe healthy eating habits.
 Set realistic goals and deal positively with unmet goals.
 Rest and sleep well.
 Accept yourself the way you are and work towards becoming a better person.
 Practice forgiveness and other religious teachings.
 Keep in touch with family and friends.
 Establish and maintain healthy relationships with other people.

Mental Health in the Community.

Factors affecting mental health in the community.

 Poverty.
 Abuse.
 Isolation.
 Trauma.
 Stress.
These factors are divided into three groups
 Psychological.
 Social
 Environmental.

Psychological factors that affect mental well-being.

Psychological factors affect emotions.

They make us feel sad, angry or frustrated.
They include;
a.) Stress- this can be caused by:
• Too much pressure in school, at home or at work.
• Too much responsibilities that one cannot cope with.
• Family breakups due to disagreements.
• Times of uncertainty when we do not know what will happen in future.
b.) Post-traumatic disorder. This occurs when major changes happen in our lives such as
loss of a loved one.
c.) Isolation; psychological isolation occurs when we feel like we do not belong to a
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given group of people or society. Isolated people keep a lot to themselves and this can
lead to serious negative effects on their mental well-being.

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 d.) Low self-image. Having low self-image makes us think negatively about ourselves, bad
thoughts affect our mental well-being.
Social factors that affect mental well-being.

The term social is used to explain how people relate and live together with one another in the
society.
People who like being around others are social.
They way people live and relate with one another can affect their mental health either positively
or negatively.
Social factors that affects mental health include the following:

 Poverty-lack of basic needs may cause sadness, frustration and stress. This affects our
mental well-being negatively.
 Abuse-it happens when a person is treated with cruelty and violence at home, schools or
locality. Abused people may live in fear due to trauma from those experiences and this
leads to negative mental well-being.
 Discrimination -this is the unfair treatment of a person based on certain characteristics
such as tribe, colour, gender, religion, nationality among others. Such people may end up
isolating themselves for feeling rejected.
 Isolation -when we are physically separated from others it creates a feeling of
loneliness. Foe example, during a pandemic like Covid-19, quarantine isolates people
from their loved ones. Sick people are also isolated to prevent the spread of certain
infectious diseases.
Environmental factors that affect mental well-being.

 Environmental factors affecting mental well-being can be caused by man or may occur
naturally.
 Natural factors include:
 Floods.
 Drought.
 Famine.
 Wildfires.
 Natural factors are beyond our control.
 They cause a lot of disasters.
 They destroy infrastructure and lead to death of people and animals.
 Disasters may leave people feeling sad, helpless and anxious due to uncertainty and
major losses.
 Pollution is a major disaster that can occur naturally or by human activities.
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 It can lead to diseases and physical distress.

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 Lifestyle that minimize Mental illness and disorders.
🢖 Engage in physical exercises regularly and participate in games and sports.
🢖 Avoiding drug abuse and substance use.
🢖 Eat healthy foods.
🢖 Get enough and quality sleep.
Strategies that promote positive mental well-being.

i. Always take care of yourself. This is called self-love.

ii. Engage in activities that reduce stress like games and sports or reading storybooks.
iii. Stay busy by joining associations like school clubs and societies or organized youth
groups in churches and the community.
iv. Adopt journaling by writing down your experience, thoughts and feelings to understand
them better.
v. Strengthen your family ties. You should obey and respect parents, spend time with your
family members and other relatives.
vi. Seek help and support from parents, friends, teachers, religious leaders and other people
that you trust.
vii. Attend guidance and counselling sessions.
viii. Learn to always be a positive thinker.
ix. Lean life skills such as decision making to help you cope with challenges in life.

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USE OF MEDICINE
Safe use of medicine
Distinguishing between Prescribed and Unprescribed medicine.

 Prescribed medicine is medicine that is advised or recommended for a person by

a doctor or a qualified and authorized healthcare professional.
 Unprescribed medicine is the medicine bought from the shop or pharmacy without
the doctor’s advice. Such medicines are also called Over-the counter (OTC) acquired
medicine.

Interpreting instructions on a prescription.

🢒 The instructions give guidance on the following:

 Name of the medicine, for example, paracetamol.
 Dosage and time for taking medicine. For example:
a. TDS means the medicine should be taken three times a day at an interval of
8 hours.
b. BD means the medicine should be taken twice a day at an interval of 12 hours.
c. OD means the medicine should be taken once a day
d. 5/7 means the medicine should be taken for five consecutive days.
e. 3/7 means the medicine should be taken for three consecutive days.
f. 1/52 means the medicine should be taken once a day for one complete week.
 Conditions for taking medicine, for example, take after meals, take before meals or take
with a lot of water.
 Mode of administration, for example, ointment should be used on the external parts if the
body (skin) only.

Dangers of Using Unprescribed medicine to human health.

 Medicines can be dangerous if they are not taken according to the prescription.
 Using unprescribed medicine is highly discouraged because of the following reasons.
🢩 The medicine may provide temporary relief but mask (hide) sever diseases.
🢩 The medicine may complicate an underlying medical condition such as diabetes.
🢩 The medicine may delay the right treatment and worsen the condition.
🢩 They medicine may have the potential of causing addiction.
🢩 You may be allergic to the medicine.
🢩 Due to similarity in names, you may buy different medicine from the one
intended for example, sertraline and cetirizine.
🢩 The dosage of the medicine may be wrong for a person of your age or weight.
🢩 You may not know the mode by which the medicine should be administered.
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🢩 The medicine may have serious short term or even long lasting effects that you
are unaware of.

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Common side effects of medicine in the body.

 Tiredness or fatigue.
 Headache or shivering.
 Fever.
 Rashes.
 Vomiting.
 Nausea among others.
Correct use of medicine.
🢝 The following are correct ways of using medicine.
 Read all labels on packages or containers with medicine before use.
 Use the right amount. Do not take extra medicine than prescribed thinking you will
recover faster.
 Keep medicine out of reach of children.
 Take medicine at the right time and intervals.
 Report any side effects after taking medicine.
 Finish your does unless advised otherwise by the doctor.
 Do not take expired medicine.
 Do not share medicine or take medicine prescribed for another person.
 If you do not feel better after completing the dose, inform your doctor.

Proper ways of storing medicine.

⮑ Medicine should be stored in well closed containers that are air tight. This helps to prevent
contamination.
⮑ Containers with medicine should be placed on shelves out of reach of children.
⮑ Medicine should be sorted and stored according to expiry dates. This ensure that medicines
that are about to expire are used first.
⮑ Medicine should be stores in a cool and dry place. Some medicine should be protected from
light.
⮑ Some medicine require special conditions such as refrigeration and should be stored in
refrigerators or improvised home-made coolers.
⮑ Shelves, cupboards and other storage areas should be properly cleaned before they are used
for storing medicine.
⮑ Do not store medicine in bottles meant for soft drinks.

Importance of proper use of medicine.

⭢ It helps in management of long term diseases such as HIV and AIDs, cancer, diabetes or
hypertension.
⭢ It is helps to recover well and prevent the occurrence of severe complications.
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FIRST AID AND BASIC LIFE SUPPORT.
 First Aid.

 It is the help given to a sick or injured person before medical treatment is available.
 Contents of a first Aid Kit.
 A first aid kit has the following items:
 A pair of scissors.
 Bandages.
 Safety pins.
 Surgical gloves.
 Cotton wool.
 Pain killers.
 Sterile gauzes.
 An antiseptic cream or solution.
Functions of the items found in the First aid kit.

ITEM PHOTOGRAPH FUNCTION

1 Bandages.  Hold dressing in place to
help control bleeding and
protect against infection.

2 Cotton wool.  It is used for

cleaning and
protecting the
wound.

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3 Surgical  Cover our hands and
gloves. prevent transmission of
diseases.

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4 Safety pins.  Are used to secure wraps
and bandages

5 Antiseptic  It is used to clean injuries

solution or wounds before
dressing.

6 Tweezers.  They are used to remove

dirt and other solid
materials from the
wound.

7 Sterile gauze.  It is used for absorbing

fluids from a wound or
cleaning around the wound.
 It can also be used for
dressing the
wound after
cleaning.

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 8 scissors  Used for cutting
bandages and tapes.

9 Sling  Used to support the lower

arm hand in position over
the chest.

Safety precautions to observe while offering first aid.

It is very important to observe safety precautions when performing first aid to prevent
contamination and infection.
The following are some of the precautions that we should observe while offering first aid
to an injured person.
 Ensure you and the injured person are in a safe place away from the cause of injury.
 Wash your hands and wear gloves before administering first aid.
 Do not touch open wounds with bare hands. If you do not have gloves you can use
a clean piece of cloth when touching an open wound.
 Handle sharp objects like pair of scissors, safety pins or tweezers carefully.
 Wear a face mask and protective glasses where necessary.
 Wash your hands with clean water and soap after performing first aid.
 Whenever possible, seek help from an adult.

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 Safe disposal of used first aid materials.
 Different first aid materials are disposed separately depending on how dangerous they
can be.
 Sorting the waste materials makes it easy to group those that can be recycled and those
for immediate disposal.
 The following are different ways in which used First aid materials should be disposed.
 Gloves that are not soiled with body fluids should be disposed of in a general
waste container.
 Pieces of cotton wool and gloves soiled with body fluids should be wrapped in a
waterproof paper before disposing them in a dustbin. Alternatively, soiled cotton
and gloves can be disposed in a pit latrine.
 Empty plastic bottles or antiseptic containers can be recycled. If they cannot be
recycled, they should be disposed off in the waste bib.
 Expired tablets should be disposed off in a pit latrine.

Importance of First aid in saving lives.

🢝 To provide relief from pain.
🢝 To preserve life and minimize threats of death, for example, in drowning.
🢝 To prevent further injury.
🢝 To promote quick recovery.
🢝 To prevent severe bleeding.

First Aid for common accidents and injuries.

An accident is an event that happens unexpectedly and without intention.
Most accidents result in injuries.
An injury refers to the damage that occurs on the body.
Some accidents and injuries may require First Aid before taking the injured person to
hospital.

Common types of accidents and injuries in our daily life.

Cuts.
Scalds.
Burns.
Sprains.
Falls.
Chocking.
Drowning.
Fractures. Page 45 of 55
Page 46 of 55
Cuts.
A cut is a tear or an opening on the skin due to an external injury.
Cuts can be deep or minor.
A deep cut into the skin leads to bleeding.
Minor cuts may not bleed.
Cuts also lead to pain and sometimes swelling of the injured area.
Causes of Cuts.
 Sharp cutting tools such as knives, machetes, jembes, razor blades or pairs of scissors.
 Sharp objects in the environment such as stones, broken bones, thorns. Tree stumps
and broken glassware.
First aid for cuts.
 Wash your hands thoroughly with soap and water.
 Wear gloves.
 Apply pressure using a piece of gauze to stop the bleeding.
 Raise the injured part to stop further bleeding.
 Clean the wound with a piece of cotton wool or c clean piece of cloth dipped in an
antiseptic.
 Cover the wound with a piece of cloth or bandage.
 Seek further medical attention for deep cuts.
Safety measures for prevention of cuts.
 Collecting and disposing sharp objects like bones, sticks, thorns and nails properly.
 Being careful while using cutting tools like knives, pangas, hoes, axes and razor blades.
 Keeping cutting tools and equipment out of reach of children.
 Using a sharpener to sharpen pencils instead of using a razor blade or a knife.
 Washing knives separately when washing utensils.
 Using a chopping board when cutting vegetables and meat.
 Using cutting tools for their intended purposes.
 Wearing personal protective gear like helmet, gloves and safety shoes while
performing tasks like cycling.
Burn and scalds.
A burn refers to a damage on the skin caused by dry heat from open fire or hot objects.
We can get burns when we touch hot charcoal, hot metallic items and hot cooking
utensils such as sufuria and pans.
A scald refers to a damage on the skin caused by moist heat like hot fluids or steam. The
steam can be from cooking food or boiling liquids.
Spills from hot liquids like tea, milk, water and porridge can also cause scalds.
Burns and scalds may lead to pain, formation of blisters, change in skin colour and
peeling of the skin.

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 First aid for burns and scalds.
 Wash your hands.
 Wear gloves.
 Move the injured person from the source of heat.
 Cool the burn or scald by pouring cold water on it for about 10 minutes.
 Remove jewellery or clothing around the wound. Do not try to remove the clothing it is is
stuck to the skin.
 Cover the wound with a loosely hanging piece of cloth.
 Seek further medical assistance for serious burns and scalds.
Safety precautions to prevent burns and scalds.
 Wear kitchen gloves or use a piece of cloth to hold hot kitchen utensils.
 Keep hot liquids out of reach of children.
 Do not leave children unattended around fires or near hot surfaces.
 Avoid wearing loosely hanging clothes near fires.
 Always direct steam away from your body when opening lids while cooking food.
Sprains.
A sprain is an injury on a ligament.
A ligament is the tissue that joins the bones at a joint.
A sprain occurs when ligaments are overstretched or torn.
The affected part becomes swollen, red and painful.
A sprain occur on the ankle, knee, wrist or thumb.
Causes of a sprain.

Body part Cause of sprain

Ankle. Walking, running or exercising on an uneven surface.
Landing unsteadily from a jump.
Knee Overstretching during an athletic activity.
Wrist Landing on an outstretched hand during a fall.
thumb Hitting your thumb on a hard surface.
First aid for a sprain.
 Restrict-restrict movement by resting the injured part.
 Ice-apply ice on the affected area to reduce swelling.
 Compress-put on an elastic bandage to prevent.
 Elevate-raise the injured part.
Safety precautions to prevent sprains.
 Walk or run carefully.
 Wear appropriate shoes for different activities.
 Follow instructions when participating in sporting activities.

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 Fractures.
 A fracture refers to a crack or complete breakage of a bone.
 It is accompanied by severe pain, swelling, tenderness and inability to move the
injured part.

 The following are causes of fractures:

 Walking on slippery or wet floors which can lead to sliding and falling.
 Poorly arranged equipment that can lead to falls causing fractures.
 Careless walking on staircase leading to falls and then fractures.
 Walking in poorly lit rooms which may cause falls leading to fractures.
 Road accidents.
 Playing games like football without following the rules of the game.

First aid for fractures.

 Let the injured person rest on a flat surface to prevent further injury.
 Place ice packs over the fractured area to reduce swelling and relieve pain.
 Pad the injured part or tie with cotton for extra support. Use a sling to support
arm fractures.
 Tie the injured part to a splint to keep it straight and prevent movement.
 Make the injured person comfortable. You can provide a warm blanket to manage shock.
 Seek medical assistance.
Safety measures for prevention of fractures.
 Scrub bathroom floors to get rid of the upper slippery layer.
 Ensure house are well lit.
 Dispose of waste such as fruit peels and bottles appropriately.
 Wipe spills on floor immediately/
 Follow the rule of the game when playing.
 Wear seat belts in moving vehicles.

 Falls.

 A fall is a sudden landing on the floor or ground from a higher surface.

 It can lead to fractures, bruises, sprains and cuts.
 The following are causes of falls:
⭢ Walking on slippery or wet surfaces.
⭢ Climbing trees or walls.
⭢ Obstacles and poorly arranged equipment.
⭢ Falling from beds, building or other raises places.
⭢ Walking carelessly on staircases leading to missing of steps.
⭢ Walking in poorly lit rooms.
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First aid for falls.
 Talk to the injured person to determine how the accident occurred.
 Try to find out whether there is any injury for example a fracture, a sprain or a cut.
 Provide first aid for the injuries like cuts, fractures and sprains.
 If they show signs of shock, lie them on the back, raise their legs and cover them with a
warm blanket.
 Seek medical attention.
Safety precautions to prevent falls.
 Dispose litter and other waste that can cause falls appropriately.
 Scrub bathroom floors to remove scum.
 Arrange furniture and other household equipment in an organized way to prevent
tripping.
 Keep houses and work places well lit.
 Draw and fix warnings signs in hazardous places. You can also place barrier to restrict
movement to the places.
 Elderly people can use walking sticks for support to prevent falls when walking.
 Clear spills on floors immediately to keep the floors dry.
 Hold infants and babies carefully.
 Drowning.
 Drowning refers to the suffocation or inability to breathe that occurs in water.
 A drowning person develops difficulties in breathing and eventually becomes
unconscious due to lack of oxygen.
 The person may die if he or she does not get immediate help.
Drowning can happen if we:
 Accidentally fall when crossing overflowing or flooded rivers.
 Swim without observing safety precautions.
 Fall in uncovered wells, water-filled ditches, rivers or swimming pools.
 Leave children unattended near water stored in buckets, basins or drums.
First aid on a drowning person.
 Get the person out of the water with the help of a lifeguard.
 Lie the person in the back.
 Check if the person is breathing and responsive. Look at the chest to see it is moving it
place your ears close to the person’s mouth and nose to feel if they are breathing.
 If they are breathing, call for emergency help and perform chest compressions.
a. Kneel by the causality’s side. Put the heel of your hand in at centre of their
chest. Put the other hand on top of the first hand and keep your elbows straight.
b. Press down hard before releasing the pressure, allowing the chest to spring back
to its original position.
c. Perform at least 30 chest compressions as you check if the person shows signs
of breathing normally.
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 d. Put your palm on the person’s forehead and gently tilt the head back. Lift the
chin with other hand. This helps to open the airways.
Safety precautions to prevent drowning.
 Covering all the water storage containers in the house.
 Covering water holding ditches in the homestead.
 Avoid playing near water bodies such as rivers, wells, dams etc.
 Swimming with lifeguards on and life jackets.
 Chocking.
 It is the blockage or obstruction of the airway by a liquid or solid object.
 It can occur to people of all ages.
 Chocking can be caused by the following:
 Swallowing large portions of food.
 Eating or drinking too quickly.
 Swallowing objects like bones, stones, marbles and parts of toys.
First aid on a choking baby.
⭢ Hold the baby facing down on your things.
⭢ Support the head and the neck.
⭢ Using the heel of your hand, give five sharp blows directly between the shoulder blades.
⭢ Check the mouth to see if the obstruction sold has come out.
⭢ If the solid has not come out, lay the baby facing up, support the neck and give five chest
thrusts.
⭢ If it does not, call for emergency help.
First aid for older children and adults.
⭢ Ask them to cough out the obstructing particle.
⭢ If unable to cough it out, ask the person to bend forward and give five sharp blows
between the shoulders using the heel of your hand.
⭢ If the solid does not come out, stand behind the person and give five abdominal thrusts.
⭢ If it does not help, call for emergency.
Safety precautions to prevent choking.
 Mash solid food into smaller pieces before giving it to babies.
 Give children large play items that cannot fit in the mouth.
 Keep small objects like coins, seeds, marbles and beads away from babies.
 Children should be observed to ensure they do not swallow foreign objects.
 Observe the following table etiquette:
a) Do not talk with food in the mouth.
b) Sit upright when eating.
c) Do not put too much food in the mouth.

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 Importance of preventing accidents and injuries.
⭢ It helps to avoid hospitalization.
⭢ Reduces or prevents spending on unnecessary medication.
⭢ Avoid accidents and injures helps one to avoid permanent disability or deaths.
⭢ One is able to do daily activities normally.

Road Safety.

 Road safety refers to the methods and measures used to protect road users from accidents
and injuries.
 A passenger is a person who is travelling in a car, bus or motor vehicle but he or she is
not the driver.
 A pedestrian is a person travelling on foot either on the road or the footpath.

Factors that contribute to road accidents.

 Failure to observe road safety signs and signals by drivers, passengers and pedestrians.
 Speeding of vehicles and motorbikes.
 Failure of pedestrians to use designated crossing areas like foot bridges and
pedestrian’s crossing.
 Use of mobile phones, earphones and other electronic gadgets while driving or crossing
the road.
 Driving under the influence of alcohol and drugs.
 Use of medicines that may cause drowsiness.
 Overtaking carelessly.
 Driving too close behind another vehicle.
 Being distracted while using the road. For example, reading billboards, talking or being
in deep thoughts.
 Unroadworthy vehicles.
 Driving at night with poor eyesight.
 Bad weather which affects visibility.

Measures pedestrians can observe to be safe when using roads to avoid accidents.

 Use a footpath while walking along the road.

 Wear reflective jackets at night.
 Children should walk in the company of an adult.
 Walk in organized groups when crossing a road.
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 Cross only when the road is safe and clear.
 Do not run while crossing the road.
 Use the pedestrian crossing or footbridges where the pedestrian’s crossing light is on.
 Walk on the right hand of the road to see oncoming vehicles.

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Road Safety Signs and signals.
 Drives, traffic police officers, passengers and pedestrians need to know the meaning of
road safety signals in order to maintain road safety.
Some of the road safety signs and signals and their meaning.

Danger ahead

Animal crossing

Cyclist only

Pedestrian crossing.

Children crossing.

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Practising Road safety.
🢩 Road safety rules guide us to be safe when using the roads.
🢩 When we adhere to the road safety rules:
 We reduce the number of accidents occurring on our roads thus saving lives.
 We save time which would have been used to solve disputes that occur on the road
due to road accidents.
🢩 We can promote adherence to road safety rules by educating people on the use of the road
safety rules.
🢩 We should ensure that those who break road safety rules are arrested and prosecuted in
court.

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ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
Environmental Health.

 Environment consists of all the living and non-living things making up our surrounding.
 Health is a state of complete well-being physically, socially and psychologically.
Our health is determined by the environment we live in.
 Environmental health is a branch of public health which focuses on the relationship
between people and their surroundings.
 a healthy environment is clean and free of pollutants and contaminants.
 Sanitation is the process of maintaining a clean and healthy environment.
 It involves the following:
 Provision of clean and safe drinking water.
 Proper disposal of human waste.
 Proper waste collection, disposal and management.
Importance of Environmental Health.

i. A healthy environment ensures we are free from diseases that are caused by various
environmental factors.
ii. Maintaining a healthy environment ensures that we have safe outdoor spaces to live in.
iii. A healthy environment ensures availability of clean air.
iv. A healthy environment ensures availability of safe and adequate water.
v. A healthy environment ensures improved personal and community health.
vi. Environmental Health ensures protection from pollutants and contaminants.

Environmental factors that affect Human Health.

Environmental factor Meaning.

Waste disposal 🢒 This includes collection and disposal of waste appropriately.
🢒 It also entails reducing, recycling or reusing waste.
Poisonous gas 🢒 These are gases produced by processing industries, moving
emissions motor vehicles or burning fuels like charcoal.
Infrastructure 🢒 These are physical structure and facilities built by the
community or the government.
🢒 Examples include buildings, roads, bridges, airports and sea
ports.
Climate change 🢒 Long term changes in weather patterns and temperature in a
particular area.

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Effluent discharge 🢒 This is liquid waste produced and discharged to the
environment by industries and commercial premises such as
slaughter houses and food processing industries.

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Measures for control of environmental factors affecting human
The following are some of the measures that we can apply to control environmental factors
affecting human health.
 Keep the environment clean at all times.
 Plant trees to improve the quality of air, increase rainfall and reduce soil erosion.
 Ensure waste is collected properly in designated waste bins and disposed
off appropriately.
 Build paved roads and plant grass on road sides to reduce dust.
 Plan infrastructure properly to avoid crowding.
 Build enough latrines downhill and away from sources of water like wells or
boreholes, this prevents contamination through underground water.
 Ensure sewage and drainage systems are properly constructed and kept clean.
 Sewage and industrial effluent should be properly treated before being discharged
into the environment.

Environmental Contaminants.

 Contaminants are substances or living organisms that make something unsuitable for
human use.
 Environmental contaminants are therefore chemical substances or living organisms
that make the environment harmful to human health.

Types of Environmental contaminants that affect human health.

🢒 Environmental contaminants that affect human health are classified into:
 Biological contaminants.
 Chemical contaminants.
 Gases.
 Heavy metals.

 Biological contaminants.
🢒 They are living organisms or substances from living organisms which have
negative effects in the environment.
🢒 Examples of biological contaminants are:
 Bacteria.
 Viruses.
 Fungi.
 Dust mites.
 Pollen from flowering plants.
 Animal dander (tiny pieces of fur, hair, feathers or skin)
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  Chemical contaminants.
🢒 Chemical contaminants are introduced into the environment through human activities
such as:
 Use of fertilizers.
 Use of pesticides.
 Use of herbicides.
 Use of disinfectants and cosmetics.
🢒 Chemical contaminants can also be introduced to the environment through
industrial effluents.

 Gases.
🢒 Dangerous gases contaminate the environment and when inhaled or come in contact
with they cause harm to our health.
🢒 An example is carbon (II) oxide which is released from motor vehicles and burning of
fuels such as kerosene and charcoal.
🢒 Other gaseous contaminants include tiny suspended particles in the air such as dust, soot
and smoke.

 Heavy metals.
🢒 Examples of heavy metals that contaminate the environment are lead and mercury.
🢒 When these metals are introduced into the environment, they can contaminate food
and water.
Effects of biological contaminants to human health.

 Allergies like pollen, animal fur and dust mites cause allergies and at times severe
allergic reactions like asthma.
 Bacteria cause waterborne diseases like cholera, typhoid and dysentery.
 Viruses in the environment can cause diseases like common colds, and Corona Virus
Diseases (Covid-19).
 Fungi like moulds and mildew can cause serious allergic reactions.
 Some fungi produce aflatoxins which cause food poisoning.

Effects of chemical contaminants to human health.

Cause burning, irritation of the skin and skin rashes.
Cause immediate poisoning or death if ingested.
Increase the risk of developing cancer.
Cause birth defects.

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Effects of gaseous contaminants to human health.
🢩 Cause respiratory diseases.
🢩 Cause headache, nausea and dizziness.
🢩 Cause allergic reactions such as asthma.
🢩 Cause lung cancer.
Effects of heavy metals to human health.
 Increase the risk of developing cancer.
 Lead to kidney dysfunction or failure.
 Cause skin infections.
 Lead to deformity of unborn babies.
Control of Environmental contamination for a healthy environment.
Preventing and controlling chemical contamination.

 Apply agricultural chemicals like pesticides and herbicides in controlled amounts or

use manure instead of fertiliser.
 Monitor storage and transportation of food to avoid contamination.
 Factories should treat their effluents before discharging it into the environment.
 Take care when using skin care products. Use products without harmful chemicals.
 The government should enforce measures to regulate the amount of preservatives used in
food processing through agencies like Kenya Bureau of Standards (KEBS).
Preventing and controlling biological contamination.

 Always wash your hands after visiting the toilet.

 Avoid draining raw sewage into water bodies.
 Build enough latrines away from water bodies.
 If allergic to pollen, avoid flowering plants in your immediate environment.
 Avoid keeping pets in your home if you are allergic to their fur.
 Keep household surfaces clean, dry and free from dust. In addition, wash bedding
thoroughly to kill dust mites.
Preventing and controlling air pollution in the environment.

 Factories should install gas filters in their chimneys to convert toxic gases into less toxic
gases before releasing them to the environment.
 Reduce the use of motor vehicles and motor bikes and instead encourage walking,
cycling and use of trains.
 Build tarmac roads and well paved roads to reduce dust. We can also plant grass by the
roadside to reduce dust.
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 Plant more trees to help in absorbing carbon (IV) oxide from the environment.
 Encourage use of renewable and clean energy like biogas, solar energy and hydroelectric
power.

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Preventing and controlling pollution from heavy metals.
 Strictly control the discharge of industrial waste into the environment.
 Use clean fuels like unleaded petroleum to control lead poisoning.
 Avoid cleaning motor vehicles in or near water bodies.
Infections prevention and control.

The meaning of infection prevention and control

 There are diseases that are easily transmitted from one person to another. People at risk of
contracting the disease are those who interact with the infected person. These people
include health workers, patients, visitors and other workers within health facilities.
 Infection prevention and control are measures that we take to prevent the
occurrence and transmission of diseases and infections from one person to another.
 The abbreviation of infection prevention and control is IPC.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPEs)

 Personal protective equipment are worn to:
 Minimise the risk of coming into contact with disease causing microorganisms.
 Prevent us from coming into contact with hazardous gases or toxic chemicals.
 Personal protective equipment includes:
 Gloves.
 Face masks.
 Dust coats.
 Gowns.
 Full body suits.
 Head coverings.
 Googles.
 Face shields.
 Gumboots.
 Shoe coverings.
Marking personal protective equipment.

 Some personal protective equipment should be made using waterproof materials to

prevent penetration of fluids and microorganisms. For example, gloves, gumboots and
shoe coverings.
 Others such as googles and face shields should be made from clear, firm and
transparent materials.
 Head coverings, face masks, dust coats and overalls can be made from cotton. Cotton is
preferred because it is durable, washable and resistance to damage by high
temperatures, disinfectants and bleaches.

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 Things do avoid when using facemasks.
 Do not touch the inner lining.
 Do not pull the mask to your chin.
 Do not re-use disposable face masks.
 Do not share face masks.

The following are general guidelines on how to use personal protective equipment.

o Masks should cover the mouth and nose.

o Head gear should completely cover the head.
o Goggles should cover the eyes completely.
o Face shields should ensure that splashes do not get to the face of the person wearing.
o Gowns should cover the body and should be properly attached to the gloves.
o A full body gown is required when dealing with serious outbreaks or infections.

Difference between cleaning and disinfecting.

 Cleaning is the process of physically removing visible dirt, dust and other impurities
from surfaces and equipment.
 It is done using water and soap or detergent.
 It removes dirt from surfaces.
 It also removes pathogens from surface but does not kill them.

 Disinfecting is done to kill or inactivate disease causing microorganisms on surfaces.

 Disinfectants are products approved to kill disease causing microorganisms.
 Disinfectants not only clean surfaces but also kill disease-causing microorganisms from
the surface.
 Cleaning should be done to remove visible dirt before disinfecting is done.

Infection prevention and control measures for promotion of health.

 Proper wearing of personal protective equipment.

 Observing hand hygiene.
 Cleaning and disinfecting of surfaces.
 Safe handling and disposal of waste.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Pubertal growth and development.
Changes occurring in boys and girls at puberty.

 Changes that can be seen during puberty are called physical changes.
 However, at puberty there are also emotional and social changes that occur but unlike
the physical changes, they cannot be seen.
Physical changes during puberty.

Physical changes in Boys Physical changes in girls.

1 Increase in weight and height 1 Increase in weight and height.
2 Chest and shoulders broaden. 2 The hip region broadens.
3 Growth of hair on the face or 3 Breasts enlarge.
chin(beards)
4 They experience wet dreams. 4 Hair grows under the armpits and around
the pubic area.
5 Growth of hair on the chest, under the 5 Pimples may appear on the face.
armpits and around the pubic area.
6 Pimples may appear on the face. 6 Menstruation begins.
7 Breaking of voice. The voice becomes 7
deeper.

Emotional changes in puberty.

 The physical changes that take place at puberty may in turn lead to emotional changes.
 Emotional changes mainly affect the feelings and behaviour of adolescents.
 The following are emotional changes experienced by boys and girls:
 Identity crisis.
 Feeling shy.
 Mood swings.
 Attraction to the opposite sex.

a) Mood swings-adolescents may experience hormonal changes which may make them
feel angry, aggressive, anxious or easily offended. Most of them are happy for a while
but easily get irritated and sad over little issues.
b) Feeling shy-adolescents may feel shy about the changes in their bodies. Girls may feel
shy about enlargement of breasts. Some may wear heavy clothes to hide their breasts.
Boys may feel shy to speak because of their deep voice. They may also feel
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embarrassed because of wet dreams.

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 c) Attraction to the opposite sex-adolescent boys get attracted to girls whereas girls
get attracted to boys.
d) Identity crisis-this is a state where adolescents may not be sure of whether they are
children or adults. They may also want to be recognised by everybody. Adolescents
may not want to be guided on what to do because they think they are adults.
Social changes in Boys and Girls in puberty.

• Physical and emotional changes may affect how adolescents relate with those
around them.
i. Peer pressure-adolescent boys and girls always feel like they should have a sense of
belonging. This leads them to creating small groups called peer groups. Positive peer
groups lead to development of good habits. Negative peer groups may lead to bad
behavior such as drug abuse.
ii. Seeking for independence-adolescents may want more freedom to make their own
decisions and choose what they want.
iii. Risk taking-adolescents always want to try new experiences without minding the
consequences.
iv. Forming new social groups-adolescents may choose friends with whom they share
common interests.
Personal Hygiene needs during puberty.

 During puberty, adolescents may sweat and this may lead to bad odour.
 It is important to observe general personal hygiene.
 Good personal hygiene reduces risk of illness.
 When we observe personal hygiene, we feel good and look presentable.
Different personal hygiene needs during puberty.

Part of the body Personal hygiene needed or required.

Overall body Bathe with clean water and soap.
Wear clean clothes.
Armpit  Shave hair under the armpits.
 Wash your armpits thoroughly.
 If possible, use deodorants on the armpits after a bath or
shower.
Pubic area Shave hair around the pubic area.
Wear clean underwear.
Use tissue paper; wet wipes or clean water to clean the pubic
area after visiting the toilet.
Girls should change sanitary towels after 3 to 4 hours.

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Feet Dry your feet completely before wearing socks and shoes.
Wear clean socks and well-fitting shoes.
Hair Wash the hair regularly.

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 Comb the hair neatly or cut it short.
Shave or trim beard to manageable size.
Nails Keep them short and clean.
Mouth Brush teeth at least twice a day.
Measures for management of menstrual hygiene for personal health.
 During menstruation, girls can use re-usable pads, disposable pads, tampons or
menstrual cups.
 Water is also important when cleaning the body, underwear, re-usable pads and menstrual
cups.
Reusable pads Disposable pads. Tampons Menstrual cup

 Maintaining menstrual hygiene helps to prevent infections.

 It also boosts one self-esteem and prevents period shame.
 The following are measures of management of menstrual hygiene.
 On the onset (start) pf menstruation, girls are advised to bathe properly and regularly
to avoid infections in the reproductive system.
 Pack enough sanitary towels in your bag if you are leaving the house.
 Change sanitary towels frequently to avoid infections and soaking of the towel
which may stain clothes.
 Wrap disposable sanitary towels properly after use. Dispose them correctly in pit
latrines or in sanitary pad bins.
 Reusable sanitary towels must be washed properly and dried in the sunlight. The
sun’s heat dries the towels and naturally sterilizes them. The materials should be
stored in a clean and dry place to avoid contamination.

Myths and Misconceptions on menstrual experience in the community.

 A myth is a commonly held but false belief.

 A misconception is a view or opinion that is incorrect.
 Myths and misconceptions about menstruation revolve around managing and
interacting with menstruating women.

 The following are examples of myths and misconceptions about menstrual experience:
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 a. Some cultural beliefs consider menstruation as dirty and disgusting hence women are
not supposed to attend social gatherings or worship places during menstruation.
b. In some communities, girls and woman are not supposed to cook or do some household
chores during menstruation.
c. In some communities, menstruating women are not allowed to eat certain foods.
d. Some cultures believe that if a menstrual cloth or sanitary towel is seen, the owner of
the cloth may be cursed.
e. In some cultures, menstruating women and girls should not touch a domestic animal
(or it will become infertile) or touch a plant (or it will die)
Identifying Intersex Persons.

 Intersex persons are people with both male and female physical characteristics.
 They cannot be classified as either male or female.
 Intersex is a natural condition that people are born with.
 The condition can be detected at birth, puberty or adulthood.
 We should accept and respect intersex people in the community.
Stages of identifying intersex persons.
 At birth.
 Intersex babies may show the following at birth.
 Baby’s private parts are not well differentiated. Therefore, one cannot tell
whether it is a boy or a girl.
 The baby has both male and female sex organs.
 A testicle that has not moved into the scrotum.
 Absence of vaginal opening.

 At puberty.
 As boys and girls undergo numerous physical changes during puberty, some male
or female characteristics become more visible as explained earlier.
Person raised as female
 If the intersex person was raised as a female, at puberty they may have an external penis-
like structure which is not fully developed.
 The person produces more of male reproductive hormones preventing the production
of female reproductive hormones.
 They person may grow thick facial hair (beards) and body hair which is a common
characteristic for males.
 They could also develop an Adam’s apple and may break voice.
 The person may be attracted to girls

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 Person raised as male.
 If the intersex was raised as a male, at puberty they could begin developing breasts
and having a curvy feminine body.
 The person produces more of female reproductive hormones preventing the production
of male reproductive hormones.
 Some girls’ pubertal characteristics develops such as menstrual muscles cramps but
the menstrual blood does not flow out because the vagina is closed.
 The person may be attracted to boys.

 In adulthood.
 Most characteristics of intersex can be identified at birth and puberty,
 In adulthood, these characteristics become fully visible.
 Some intersex persons who were brought up as males may have a more feminine
appearance while others raised as females may have a more masculine
appearance.
 Some may not be attracted to the opposite sex.
 Some intersex persons may not be able to have children.
Human Reproductive Health.

Importance of reproductive health in the community.

 It enables members of the community to protect themselves against sexually
transmitted infections (STIs) and get treatment if they have been affected.
 It creates awareness among members of the community about the dangers of harmful
reproductive practices such as female genital mutilation.
 Reproductive health awareness helps to prevent early and unplanned pregnancies.
 It enables members of the community to be healthier and make the best decision for
themselves and their families.

Practices that enhance Reproductive Health.

The following practices improve reproductive health in the community.

 Exposure to age appropriate reproductive health education.
 Peer discussions on gender and good reproductive health practices.
 Abstinence from sex before marriage.
 Good relationship with parents, guardians and the school community.
 Cultivating good morals.
 Regular medical check-ups on reproductive organs.
 Regular physical exercises.

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Practices that negatively affect Reproductive health.
 Early marriages.
 Irresponsible sexual behavior.
 Female genital mutilation.

a.) Early marriages.

🢩 In Kenya the law allows marriage for people who are 18 years and above.
🢩 Any marriage involving people below 18 yrs of age is an early marriage.
🢩 Some parents force their children to get married in order to get wealth through dowry in
form of money, cattle, goats, camels and other material things.
🢩 Early marriages may lead to early pregnancies which leads to complications because of
the girl’s immature bodies. These complications lead to premature birth or death.

b.) Female genital mutilation

🢩 Female genital mutilation is the cutting or removal of some or all external parts of
female genital organs.
🢩 The practice is considered as a rite of passage for some communities, marking the
transition from childhood to adulthood.
🢩 It is painful and leaves a permanent scar on the female genital organs which may affect
reproductive function in future.

c.) Irresponsible Sexual behavior.

🢩 Irresponsible sexual behaviour may lead to early pregnancies and transmission of sexual
transmitted infections.
🢩 Young people should abstain from sexual intercourse.

Effects of harmful practices on reproductive Health.

• Transmission of diseases and infections such as HIV and AIDs.

• Excessive bleeding which may lead to death.
• Practices such as FGM causes a lot of pain.
• Early pregnancies.
• School dropout.
Myths and misconceptions about reproductive health in the community.
 Female genital mutilation prepares a girl for marriage. It means once a girl undergoes
the practice, she is ready for marriage.
 FGM safeguards girls from engaging in sex before marriage thus protecting their
virginity.
 Girls who have not undergone FGM are unclean, experience bad luck and are likely to
be less fertile.
 People who experience wet dreams have bad thoughts.
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Facts associated with reproductive health.
~ FGM does not protect a girl’s virginity. Virginity is only protected by abstaining from
sex.
~ FGM does not prepare a girl for marriage. Only mature people should get married.
~ Irresponsible sexual behaviour may lead to transmission of sexually transmitted diseases.
~ Girls can become successful and still get married without having to undergo FGMs.
~ Sex before marriage is wrong. Engaging in sex does not cleanse a boy after initiation.
~ Wet dreams occur naturally and not as a result of bad thoughts.

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