Problems of Instrumentation

Resolution of Instrumentation

Problem 1:
A digital thermometer is used to measure the temperature in the range of 35-40 0C. If
the A/D converter equipped in the thermometer provides 8 bits output and the relation
between temperature input to the thermometer and the voltage output before the A/D
converter is linear, find the resolution of this digital thermometer both in terms of
absolute value and percentage of full scale.

Resolution = inverse of sensitivity

Input
=
Output
No of step = 28 -1 = 255 step
40  35
Resolution =  0.0196 0 C  0.02 0 C
255
40  35
% of fs 255 x100%  0.0490%
40

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Problem 2:
The output voltage of a LVDT is 1.5 V at maximum displacement. At a load of 0.5 MΩ,
the deviation from linearity is maximum and it is ± 0.003 V from a straight line through
origin. Find the linearity at the given load.

0.003
Solution: Percentage linearity = ±  100  0.2 %
1.5

Problem 3:
The output of an LVDT is connected to a 5 V voltmeter through an amplifier whose
amplification factor is 250. An output of 2mV appears across the terminals of LVDT
when the core moves through a distance of 0.5 mm. Calculate the sensitivity of the
LVDT and that of the whole set up. The milli-voltmeter scale has 100 divisions.
Calculate the resolution of the instrument in mm.

Solution:
Output voltage 2  10 3
Sensitivity of LVDT =   4  10 3 V/mm = 4 mV/mm
displacement 0.5

Sensitivity of instrument = amplification factor × sensitivity of LVDT

= 4  10 3 ×250 = 1 V/mm = 1000 mV/mm

Minimum voltage that can be read on the voltmeter = (1/5) ×50 = 1 mV

Hence Resolution of instrument = 1 ×(1/1000) = 1× 10-3 mm.
 Pressure & Flow Sensors

Problem 4:
A venturi meter is used to determine gross volume flow rate of an uncompressible liquid
with the mass density of 2000 kg/m3 as shown in the below figure. If the pressure
difference between point 1 and point 2 on the meter is 16000 Pa when the liquid flows
with the rate of 25 m3/s. Determine the pressure at point 2 when the liquid with the flow
rate of 100 m3/s flows1 through this
2
meter and the gage at point 1 indicated 500000Pa.

ρ=2000 kg/m3 flow

Solution:
CVA2 P P 
Q 2 1  g 1 z 1  2  qz 2 
1  (A 2 / A 1 ) 2
   
16000
25  K 2
2000
25  4K
25 2
K m
4

When Q  100m 3 / s and P1  500000Pa

25 500000  P2
100  2
4 2000
P2  244000Pa

Problem 5:
Determine velocity of water align-flowing with a point tube when levels of the two ends
of u-tube manometer are at the same level as shown in the fig. U tube manometer of the
pitot tube is filled with mercury and water with equal volume. Assume there is no
diffusion of liquids through the boundary.

Solution:
Pressure of Hg end Phg = Pj  hg gh..............(i)
Pressure of H2O end PH2O = Pj  H2O gh..............(ii)
where Pj = pressure at junction
(ii) –(i)
Pj  H 2O   Hg  (PHg  PH 2O )gh..............(iii)
Substitute the parameter
PH 2 O  PHg  (13550  1000)9.81(30x10 2 )
 36934.65N / m 2 ......................(iv)
Bernalli equation
P1 V12 P V2
  gh 1  1  1  gh 2 ................(v)
 2  2
Subtitute the parameter
 P  P2 
V2  2 1  ...................(vi)
  
 31934.65 
 2 
 1000 
 8.59Ans

Problem 6:
A U- tube manometer filled with mercury (13550kg/m3) and water (1000kg/m3) and
ethanol (790kg/m3) is used to determine unknown pressure in a volume. Determine
absolute pressure in the volume when levels in the manometer are indicated as shown in
the figure. Assume atmosphere pressure is 101325Pa and gravitational acceleration is
9.8m/s2.

Solution
PU  Patm   mer ghmer   wat ghwat  eth gheth
PU  101325  (13550)(9.8)(0.75)  (1000)(9.8)(0.15)  (790)(9.8)(0.5)
PU  198516.5Pa

Problem 7:
A pitot tube is used to determine the flow of an incompressible frictionless fluid. If the
height difference between two ends of the manometer, which used mercury as the
indicator shows 100 mm. Determine the velocity of this fluid.

Solution:
 2m gh
Vstat  V fluid 
f
2 13550  9.81 0.1

1000
 5.15 m / sec

Problem 8:
A thermistor has a resistance temperature co-efficient of –5% over a temperature range of
25˚C to 50˚C. If the resistance of the thermistor is 100Ω at 25˚C, what is the resistance at
35˚C?

Solution: For a limited range of temperature, the resistance of a thermistor is given by:
R  R 0 [1    0  ]
Resistance at a temperature of 35˚C is:
R35= 100[1-0.05(35-25)]= 50Ω

Problem 9:
A thermistor has a resistance of 3980Ω at the ice point (0˚C) and 794Ω at 50˚C. The
resistance–temperature relationship is given by
RT  aR0 exp(b / T ).
Calculate the constants a and b.
Calculate the range of resistance to be measured in case the temperature varies from 40˚C to
100˚C.

Solution: The resistance at ice point R0=3980Ω

Absolute temperature at ice point= 273˚K.
3980  a  3980  exp(b / 273) or 1  a exp(b / 273)..............(i)
Resistance at 50˚C is RT  794.
Absolute temperature corresponding to 50˚C is T= 273˚K +50˚K=323˚K.
Hence, 794  a  3980  exp(b / 373) or 1  3980 exp(b / 373)..............(ii)
6
Solving (i) and (ii), we have, a  30  10 and b  2843
Absolute temperature at 40˚C = 273+40=313˚K.
 Resistance at 40˚C  30 106  3980  exp(2843 / 313)
Absolute temperature at 100˚C = 273+100=373˚K.
 6
Resistance at 100˚C  30 10  3980  exp(2843 / 373)
Thus the range of resistance is 244Ω to 1051Ω.

Problem 10:
A platinum thermometer has a resistance of 100Ω at 25˚C. (a) Find its resistance at 65˚C if
the platinum has a resistance temperature co-efficient of 0.00392/˚C. (b) If the thermometer
has a resistance of 150Ω, calculate the temperature.
Solution: (a) Using the linear approximation, the resistance at any temperature θ˚C, is

R  R 0 [1    0  ]
 Resistance at 65˚C is R65  100 [1  0.00392 (65  25)] = 115.68Ω

(b) Suppose θ is the unknown temperature,

150  100 [1  0.00392 (  25)]
 θ = 152.55˚C

Problem 11:
A copper resistor at 20˚C is used to indicate the temperature of bearings of a machine. What
resistance should not be exceeded if the maximum bearing temperature is not exceed 150˚C.
The resistance temperature co-efficient of copper is 0.00393/˚C at 20˚C.

Solution: The value of resistance in case the temperature is not to exceed 150˚C can be
calculated as under.
R150  10 [1  0.00392 (150  20)] =15.11Ω.

Problem 12:
A temperature alarm unit with a time constant of 120 s is subjected to a sudden rise of
temperature of 50˚C because of fire. If an increase of 30˚C is required to actuate the
alarm, what will be the delay in sudden temperature increase?

Solution: Assume the thermometer is a first order system; the variation of indicated
temperature θ, to a step input temperature θ0 is,

   0 [1  exp(t /  )]
 30  50 [1  exp(t / 120)]
 t =110 s.
The alarm would be delayed by 110s.

Strain Gages

Problem 13:
A strain gauge bridge is shown in Fig.

R1 Strain gauge
R3

eo

R2 R4

ei
It has two fixed resistors R1 and R2 of 120Ω each. Resistance R3 represents the gauge.
The variable resistance R4 is 120.00Ω at zero strain and has value of 120.63Ω with strain
ε. The gauge factor is 2.04. Determine the strain in the beam at the point where the
strain gauge is attached.
Solution: Change in value of resistance when strain is applied:
∆R4= 120.63-120 = 0.63Ω

Hence Change in resistance of gauge when strained:

∆ R3 = (R1/R2)(∆ R4) = 120  0.63  0.63 Ω
120
R3
Now  Gf 
R3
R3 1 0.63 1
 Strain       2.57  10 3 m
R3 G f 120 2.04

Problem 14:
A strain gauge bridge comprises of two fixed resistors each of value 120Ω, one active
gauge, and an unstrained temperature compensation gauge. The two gauges are of
unstrained resistance 120Ω and gauge factor 2.2. Find the bridge output voltage (with
output open circuited) for a supply voltage of 3 V, when the active gauge is subjected to
600 micro strains.

Solution: The bridge has equal arms when there is no strain. It has only one active gauge.
Therefore, output voltage is:

Gf 2.2  600  10 6  3

∆ e0 = ei =  0.99  10 3 V = 0.99 mV
4 4

Problem 15:
A single strain gauge is mounted to measure the axial strain in a simple tensile member.
If the recorded strain is 380 micro strains, what is the axial stress?

(i) If the member is of steel? (ii) If the member is of aluminium?

The modulus of elasticity of steel is 200 GN/m2 and that of aluminium is 70 GN/m2.

Solution: Stress s   E where  = strain and E = modulus of elasticity.

6
Stress in steel s  380 10  200 10  76 10 N / m  76 MN / m
9 6 2 2
(i)
6
Stress in aluminium s  380 10  70 10  26.6 10 N / m  26.6 MN / m
9 6 2 2
(ii)
 Potentiometer

Problem 16:
A simple slide wire is used for measurement of current in a circuit. The voltage drop
across a standard resistor of 0.1 Ω is balanced at 75 cm. Find the magnitude of the
current if the standard cell e.m.f of 1.45 V is balanced at 50 cm.

Solution: Voltage drop per unit length = 1.45/50=0.029 V/cm.

Voltage drop across 75 cm length = 0.029×75=2.175 V.
Hence Current through resistor, I = 2.175/0.1= 21.75 A.

Problem 17:
A basic slide wire potentiometer has a working battery voltage of 3.0 V with negligible
internal resistance. The resistance of slide wire is 400Ω and its length is 200 cm. A 200
cm scale is placed along the slide wire. The slide wire has 1 mm scale divisions and it is
possible to read upto 1/5 of a division. The instrument is standardized with 1.018 V
standard cell with sliding contact at the 101.8 cm mark on scale. Calculate (a) working
current, (b) the resistance of series rheostat, (c) the measurement range and (d) the
resolution of instrument.

Solution: (a) Since the instrument is standardized with an emf of 1.018 V with sliding
contact at 101.8 cm, it is obvious that a length 101.8 cm represents a voltage of 1.018.

Resistance of 101.8 cm length wire = (101.8/200) × 400= 203.6Ω

Hence working current Im =1.018/203.6 = 0.005 A = 5mA

(b) Total resistance of the battery circuit = resistance of rheostat + resistance of slide wire

Hence resistance of rheostat Rh = total resistance - resistance of slide wire

3
=  400 = 600-400=200Ω
5  10 3
(c) The measurement range is the total voltage across the slide wire.
Range of voltage = ( 5  10 3 )× 400 = 2.0 V.

(d) A length of 200 cm represents 2.0 volt and therefore 1 mm represents a voltage of
(2/200) × (1/10)= 1 mV.

Since it is possible to read 1/5 of 1 mm. Resolution of instrument is (1/5) × 1= 0.2 mV.

Problem 18:
A single range student type potentiometer has a 18 step dial switch where each step
represents 0.1 V. The dial resistors are 10Ω. The slide wire of the potentiometer is
circular and has 11 turns and a resistance of 11Ω each. The slide wire has 100 divisions
and interpolation can be done to one fourth of a division. The working battery has a
voltage of 6.0 V and negligible internal resistance. Calculate (a) the measuring range of
potentiometer (b) the resolution (c) working current and (d) setting of rheostat.
Solution: Total resistance of measuring circuit
Rm= resistance of dial + resistance of slide wire
= 18×10 +11 = 191 Ω
Since each step of 10Ω represents a voltage drop of 0.1 V, range of instrument
= 191× (0.1/10) = 1.91 V.

(b) The slide wire has a resistance of 11Ω and therefore voltage drop across slide wire
= 11× (0.1/10) = 0.11 V.
The slide wire has 11 turns and therefore voltage drop across each turn = ( 0.11/11) = 0.01 V.
Each turn is divided into 100 divisions and therefore each division represents a voltage drop
of 0.01/100 = 0.0001 V.
Since each turn can be interpolated to ¼ of a division.
Hence resolution of instrument = ¼ × 0.0001 V = 0.000025 V= 25 μ V.
(c) The voltage drop across working circuit of potentiometer is 1.91 V and the resistance is
191 Ω.
Hence Working current Im= 1.91/191 = 0.001 A = 10 mA.

(d) Total resistance across battery circuit = 6/ (10×10-3)= 600Ω.

Te resistance of potentiometer working circuit is 191Ω.
Hence Resistance of series rheostat Rh = 600-191=409 Ω.

Problem 19:
A slide wire potentiometer having a length of 200mm is fabricated by winding wire
having a diameter of 0.25mm around a cylindrical insulating core. Determine the
resolution limit of this potentiometer. If the potentiometer has a resistance of 1000 and
can dissipate 4W of power determine the voltage required to maximize the sensitivity.
What voltage change corresponds to the resolution limit?

Solution:
Given l= 200mm = 0.2m
d= 0.25mm = 0.0025m
Rp = 1000
P= 4w
e ex _ max  PR P
200
no of max imum turn   800turns
0.25
V V
resolution  max  max
800  1 799
V2 V2
PT  ;4
RT 100
4000
Re solution  V / step
799
 0.25 V / turn
V / 0.25mm
 Speed Sensors

Problem 20:
A variable reluctance type tachometer has 60 rotor teeth. The counter records 3600
counts per second. Determine the speed in rpm.

pulses per sec ond 3600

Solution: Speed   rps  3600 rpm
number of teeth 60

Problem 21:
A stroboscope is directed at a rotating disc having five equispaced radial lines on it. The
highest flashing frequency at which a true pattern is observed is 200 flashes/minute.
Give two other flashing frequencies, which produce (a) a 5-line pattern and (b) a 10-line
pattern.

Solution: (a) The highest flashing frequency to give a 5-line pattern is 2000 per minute.
The other flashing frequencies which give a 5 line pattern are a sub multiple of the highest
frequency.
These are:
2000/2=1000, 2000/3=6.667, 2000/4=500, 2000/5= 400 or 1000, 666.7, 500, 400
flashes/minute.
(b) The flashing frequencies that give a 10-line pattern are twice in magnitude of those that
give 5 line patterns. These are:
2000×2= 4000, 666.7×2= 1333, 400×2=800 or 4000,1333,800 flashes/minute.

Note: Flashing frequencies of 2000 and 1000/minute are not included in the above list since
they give 5 line patterns.

Problem 22:
While measuring speed of a steam turbine with stroboscope single line images were
observed for stroboscope setting of 3000,4000 and 5230 rpm. Calculate the speed of the
turbine.

Solution: The speed is given by equation

f m f1 (m  1)
n
( f m  f1 )

Now fm=5250 rpm, f1= 3000 rpm and m=3

5250  3000 (3  1)
 Speed of steam turbine  = 14000 rpm.
(5250  3000 )
Problem 23:
A disc mounted on the shaft of a machine has 12 pattern points. The number of flashes
projected on the disc by a stroboscope is 6000 in a minute. (a) Find the speed of the
machine if the disc appears stationary and has single image of 12 points.
(b) If the disc appears to move forward in the direction of rotation at 10 rpm, find the
speed of the disc.
Solution: (a) Speed of machine when patterns appear stationary
f 6000
n   500 rpm
m 12
(b) Now the patterns move in the direction of rotation at speed of 10 rpm.

 The speed of machine in this case is: n= 500 +10 =510 rpm.