Data Input

UNIT 7 DATA INPUT

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives

7.2 What is Data Input?

7.3 Methods of Geospatial Data Input
Methods of Raster Data Input
Methods of Vector Data Input
Map Digitisation
Level of Input

7.4 Capturing Attribute Data and Metadata

Capturing Attribute Data
Linking External Databases
Metadata

7.5 Reference Frameworks

7.6 Georeferencing
Geocoding
Geotagging
Rubbersheeting

7.7 Activity
7.8 Summary
7.9 Unit End Questions
7.10 References
7.11 Further/Suggested Reading
7.12 Answers

7.1 INTRODUCTION
You have been introduced to the concepts of GIS, data, data models and data
structures in Block 2, Fundamentals of Geographic Information System of
MGY-003. Now we will introduce you to the methods of data input. You have
already learnt that data is the basic requirement to perform any analysis in GIS
platform. In this unit, we will discuss the methods, processes and devices of data
input and reference frameworks alongwith a short introduction to linking external
database.
Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• define data input;
• list sources of data;
• describe data input devices;
• illustrate digitisation process; 5
GIS Database Creation • discuss level of input;
• link external databases and metadata; and
• explain reference frameworks and georeferencing.

7.2 WHAT IS DATA INPUT?

Data input is a method of selecting, acquiring and converting data into a digital
format that can be stored and analysed in computers. It is also known as data
encoding. There are number of steps involved in the process of data input in a
The first step in developing GIS platform. A sequence of data input process is shown in Fig. 7.1. Database
the database for a GIS is to creation is the fundamental, expensive and time-consuming part of a GIS project.
acquire the data and to Data input involves a number of techniques to enter data into a GIS which are
place them into the system.
collected from various sources. There are many sources of data but following are
the commonly used data sources:
• hard copy maps
• aerial photographs
• remotely sensed images
• ground survey with GPS
• reports and publications, and
• existing digital data files.

Data
Plan and Georeference conversion Construct Enter
organise → Data → Edit → projection → vector/raster → database → attributes
entry
topology

Fig. 7.1: Chain of data input process in GIS (source: modified after Davis, 2001)

Data collected both in the analog and digital format is required to be

encoded to make it compatible with GIS. Analog data is normally in the
form of hard copy such as paper maps, statistical tables or hard copy of
satellite images. All these data are required to be converted into digital
form before using in a GIS project. On the other hand, digital data is
already in computer readable format e.g., digital map data, digital remote
sensing images, data obtained from GPS receivers and other digital
databases. Even digital data collected from different sources might not be
compatible to a GIS project. Therefore, different GIS software packages
are required to convert data from one form to other. It involves a range of
methods to convert data into GIS, e.g., maps which come in the digital or
analog format may be entered into GIS by digitising, scanning or by
transferring the file directly. On the other hand, aerial photographs may be
scanned and put into GIS and satellite images can be downloaded from
digital media procured directly from remote sensing.
There are different methods of data input out of which keyboard entry,
6 manual digitisation, automatic digitisation and scanning are most commonly
used. Many different types of devices are also used for inputting data into Data Input
a computer. Let us discuss these devices in detail.

7.3 METHODS OF GEOSPATIAL DATA INPUT

You have learnt that geospatial data can be in the form of vector or raster You have already learnt
data and so it is worthwhile to discuss here data input methods for both the basics of raster and
these data forms. vector data in Unit 5,
Data types and Sources
7.3.1 Methods of Raster Data Input of Block 2, Concept of
Geospatial Data of
Aerial photographs and satellite imagery are the examples of raster data in MGY-001.
digital format. However, analog maps, aerial photographic film or hard
copy print out of satellite images can also be converted into digital form by
scanners.
Scanner
Scanners are used to convert images from analog maps or photographs Scanning is the most
into digital image data in raster format, which is then converted to vector commonly used
method of automatic
format through digital tracing or digitisation. This process of tracing is also
digitising.
called vectorisation. Scanning converts the map into binary file in raster
format, with pixel having a value of either ‘1’ representing the map feature
or ‘0’ representing the background (Chang, 2010). Map features are
shown as raster lines i.e. a series of connected pixels on the scanned file
(as shown in Fig. 5.8 of MGY-001).
A scanner has a light source, a background for source document and a
lens. There are three different types of scanners:
In general, the quality of
• Flat-bed scanners a scanned image can be
improved by changing
• Drum scanners the brightness and
contrast levels by using
• Large-format feed scanners gamma correction (a
method that draws
Flat-bed Scanners as shown in Fig. 7.2(a) have a flat surface on which histogram of the image
the map is placed. It has a mat or hinged cover which is kept on the top and places points
of map. An optical train emitting light is then passed over the map, and the strategically along the
light reflected back from the map is sensed. Flat-bed scanners are very histogram to isolate data
small and not so accurate. types) and filtering
method (to remove
Drum Scanners as shown in Fig. 7.2(b) differ from flat-bed scanners as noise from the scanned
they employ a rotating cylinder. A map is fixed onto the surface of this document).
cylinder which is then set to rotate at a uniform velocity. They also use
optical detection of reflected light to sense map elements. Drum scanners
are too slow and expensive. Both drum scanners and flat-bed scanners can
give monochromatic or colour output. For obtaining colour output each of
the three primary colours is scanned either individually and then
recombined, depending on the technology used.
Large-format Feed Scanners as shown in Fig. 7.2(c) are most suitable
of all scanners mentioned above as they are very accurate and inexpensive.
It uses contact image sensor technology: red, green and blue light-emitting
diodes that produce white light. Contact Image Sensors (CIS) use sensors
and mirrors in combinations with a cold cathode ray fluorescent lamp to
7
GIS Database Creation scan documents. However, large-format scanner would not be ideal to
scan artful compositions of objects with more depth than a thick piece of
paper.

(a)
(b) (c)

Fig. 7.2: Different types of scanners; (a) flat-bed, (b) rotating drum and (c) large-
format feed scanners (sources: www.techfuels.com/scanner/1579-flatbed-
scanners.html (a), http://postcardprinters.us/drum-scanner (b) and
www.chinasystem.com.hk/en/main.htm (c)

After scanning, the raster image needs to be first corrected for errors caused by
scanning. This requires some level of image processing about which we have
already read in Block 4, Processing and Classification of Remotely Sensed
Images of MGY-002.

Image distortions are corrected by despeckling, greyscaling, adjusting

brightness or contrast, thresholding, etc. We will be discussing georeferencing
and related topics later in this unit. However, let us get familiar with a few
terms related to the processes that improve image quality.

• Despeckling: It removes speckles or stray pixels that appear in an image

when we scan a dirty or wrinkled image.

• Greyscaling: It converts a colour image into greyscale which is obtained by

adding the values of red, green and blue (RGB) channels in an image and
dividing the value by three.

• Brightness and Contrast: It can be adjusted in a colour or greyscale

image. Increasing the contrast enhances the distinction between dark and
light areas whereas increasing the brightness lightens the image so as to
enhance even the shadow areas.

• Thresholding: It segregates the image grey values into two distinct values
(that is 0 for black and 255 for white) by a threshold value.

7.3.2 Methods of Vector Data Input

Vector data is usually captured or digitised from a hardcopy print out or a digital
raster image. With the advancement of technology methods of data input for
vector data have also improved and a number of input devices are in use for
map digitisation. Let us start with vector input devices. Some of the commonly
8 used devices for vector data input are listed below:
• Digitising Table Data Input

• Mouse

• Keyboard

Digitising Table

A digitising table as shown in Fig. 7.3 is the most common device used for hard
copy digitisation. It has an in-built electronic mesh, which can sense the
position of a cursor. Cursor is a mouse like device (also called puck ) which
contains a cross hair encased in a glass or transparent plastic that allows the
operator to place the cursor accurately over the map elements. Cursor also has
buttons to indicate the start and end of line or polygon or define left and right
polygons. A map document is fixed to the center of digitising table with a sticky
tape. Digitising table uses a local rectilinear coordinate system. Map and the
digitiser must be registered so that vector data can be captured in real-world
coordinates. This is achieved by digitising a series of four or more control points Tics are ground-control
also called reference points or ‘tics’ along the four corners so that it is well points for a vector data,
spread out and then their real-world values are entered. Digitiser control software which represent known
geographic locations and
calculates the transformation matrix and then automatically applies this to any
are used to register maps
future coordinates that are captured. mounted on a digitiser
table.

Fig. 7.3: Digitising table and puck (source: http://proceedings.esri.com/library/

userconf/proc01/professional/papers/pap894/p894.html)

Digitising tables can range from small paper sized formats to large formats. Large
sized tables also have adjustable stands to alter the elevation of the digitiser as
per convenience of the operator. Modern digitisers provide good resolution of
about 0.001" and an accuracy of about 0.003". A good digitiser should have the
properties of stability, repeatability, linearity, resolution and skew (DeMers,
2009). Let us discuss about these properties in detail.

• Stability: It deals with the tendency of the digitiser not to change as its
temperature rises.

• Repeatability: It is a measure of the precision of the digitiser. Suppose, if

the operator is able to place the cursor at the same location twice and the
difference between the first and the second readings is of the order of
0.001", the digitiser is said to have good repeatability. 9
GIS Database Creation
• Linearity: It is a measure of the ability of the digitiser to be within a
specified distance of the correct value as the cursor is moving over large
distances.
• Resolution: It deals with the ability of the digitiser to handle even smaller
units of measures with precision.
• Skew: It represents squareness of results on a digitising table, which
deteriorates as the table becomes old and withered along the edges, thus
reducing the ability to digitise the entire table.
Mouse
Mouse is the simplest and the most accurate type of digitiser device. Fig. 7.4(a-
c) shows different varieties of mouse. Mouse has sensors that respond to the
motion of a rubber ball found inside it. This type of digitisation is popular now-a-
days and is used for on-screen digitisation or heads-up digitisation as
shown in Fig. 7.4(d). In this, the analog map after being converted into digital
raster data is input into the GIS software, which displays it on the computer
screen or monitor. Then it is digitised with the help of a mouse or digitiser. It
provides greater accuracy in digitisation due to inbuilt facilities of zoom, pan, etc.
in the GIS software package. The roller ball mouse has gradually been phased
out over the past ten years, replaced by the optical mouse and more recently by
the laser mouse.

(b)

(a)

(c) (d)

Fig. 7.4: Mouse and digitisation; (a) roller ball, (b) optical, (c) laser mouse, and (d) on-screen
10 digitisation with the help of mouse
Keyboard Data Input

Keyboard is the simplest device to input data into a computer (Fig. 7.5). The
process is also known as key coding. This technique is mostly used to input
attribute data into a GIS. These attributes can be linked to map features in a
spatial database using identification codes. The coordinates of special features
like points, lines and polygons can also be encoded with the help of keyboard.

Fig. 7.5: Keyboard

7.3.3 Map Digitisation

It is the process of converting features on a paper map or simply tracing a paper
map into digital format. Manual digitising is the most common type of encoding
spatial features. Manual digitisation, is of two types: on-screen digitisation and
hard copy map digitisation, which we have already discussed. The features to be
digitised can be point, line or polygon (as shown in Fig. 5.8, MGY-001).
Let us now discuss how to digitise these features.
l Digitising Point Feature: A point has a zero dimension and each point is
just clicked once to record its location. Thus, point features are recorded as
single digitised points, for example, spot heights, location of railway station,
bus station, telephone exchange, etc. A unique code or identifier is added to
each point feature so that the attribute information may be attached to it.
l Digitising Line Feature: Line features such as roads or streams are
digitised as a series of points which are connected together with straight line
segments with the help of software. Lines are also referred to as arcs and
its starting and ending points are called nodes. A unique code is also added
to a line feature to which attributes can be added.
l Digitising Polygon Feature: Area or polygon features are digitised as the
series of points linked together by line segments in the same way as line
features. In a polygon feature, the start and end points are joined or closed
to form a complete area. A centroid is created for each polygon with the
help of GIS software. A unique identifier can also be added to polygon
centroid to which attributes can be added. For example, a polygon
representing a district can have attributes like district name, male and female
population, sex ratio, literacy rate, etc.
While digitising line features one can follow either point mode or stream mode.
In point mode digitisation (Fig. 7.6a), the person carrying out the digitisation task
decides the number of points to be placed and the distance between the points.
If the line is curved or bent at places then more points are required and the
points should be close to each other. If the line is more or less straight then
fewer points can be placed. In stream mode digitisation, points or vertices are
added at a preset interval, also known as stream tolerance (Fig. 7.6b). Hence,
stream digitisation partially automates the digitisation process. It instructs the 11
GIS Database Creation digitiser control software to automatically collect vertices every time a preset
distance or time threshold is crossed.

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.6: Two types of digitisation; (a) point mode and (b) stream mode

There are a number of digitisation errors related to vector data. This requires
quality checking and cleaning of vector data. After cleaning the vector data,
topology is created. Topology is the relationship between entities (point, line and
polygon) in a vector dataset.

7.3.4 Level of Input

GIS database should have relevant, authentic and optimum amount of
information. It is important to follow certain rules while inputting data into a GIS
project. Too much data input could confuse the user, while two little data could
leave certain problems unanswered. DeMers (2009) has listed out some rules or
guidelines for inputting data into a GIS database which are given below:
• determine the real need for building a GIS database
• limit the level of input to coverage or layers that are used
• define the goals that specify the objectives of the project
• avoid exotic sources when conventional sources are available
• use the best and most accurate data needed for the project
• decide the level of accuracy of the available data
• import relevant features from the maps one by one as different layers into
GIS, and
• avoid extraneous data in a given coverage and make it as specific as possible.
Spend Check Your Progress I
5 mins
1) List the names of devices used in inputting geospatial data.
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2) What are the different modes of digitisation? Data Input

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7.4 CAPTURING ATTRIBUTE DATA AND

METADATA
You have learnt about methods of spatial data input. Now, let us learn how to
capture attribute data, metadata and link external database.
You have been
7.4.1 Capturing Attribute Data introduced to attribute
data and metadata in
Attribute data are non-spatial properties of a spatial entity. For example, a road Unit 4, Introduction,
of Block 2 Concept of
may be captured as a line entity and represented as a spatial component in GIS
Geospatial data of
by a certain colour, symbol or a particular location. However, information related MGY-001.
to the road i.e. its length, width, type of surface, traffic conditions and estimated
number of vehicles per hour, etc. are important and required to be entered into a
GIS database. These attribute values can either be stored separately from spatial
information or attached to spatial database in the form of object data. Attribute
data may come from different sources like paper records, existing databases,
spreadsheets, etc. In a GIS database, attributes are managed in tables based on
series of simple yet essential relational data concepts. Attribute information in a
GIS are typically entered, analysed and reported using a Database Management
System (DBMS).

7.4.2 Linking External Databases

A GIS database needs to be updated time and again as the attributes and the
spatial characteristics change in course of time. For this, there has to be an
external source of GIS database which can be collected in due course of time
and integrated with the master GIS database. This would in fact bring changes in
the master database. It is important to note that the new GIS data should be
reliable and the format should be compatible with master database as well as
GIS software. Now-a-days many governmental agencies, private companies and
non-governmental organisations are vendors of GIS database. We should be
aware of the quality control procedures followed by the vendor. We should also
go through the metadata to ensure that the data source is valid and it is worth
entering into the master GIS database. While linking external databases, one has
to remove data redundancy or duplicacy as it is time-consuming and affects unit
cost of data input.

7.4.3 Metadata
Metadata in simple words is known as data about data. In other words,
metadata is a summary document providing content, type, creation, quality and
spatial information about a data set. In geoinformatics, it is the information about
geospatial data. Metadata provides some basic information as to when the data
was created, by whom it was created, why it was created, where it was
created, etc. Metadata summarises, indexes, abstracts and describes the quality 13
GIS Database Creation and material of the data. Thus, metadata is an integral part of a GIS project and
is usually prepared during the data production process. A metadata is usually
presented as an XML (Extensible Markup Language) document (Fig 7.7). XML
HTML (Hyper Text is a markup language similar to HTML. In a metadata XML document, a title
Markup Language) may be stored as follows: <title>My Document</title>.
is used for
displaying web
pages.

Fig. 7.7: A simple metadata record in XML

a) Metadata Standards
Now we will learn about metadata standards. A metadata standard is a
document that contains rules or guidelines for standardising the content of
metadata. These standards can be created specifically for use within a particular
organisation and also allow to develop tools that can be used to create and
modify metadata that meets the standard. In fact, it is the way of verifying the
content of metadata in compliance with the standard. Metadata standards contain
rules or guidelines for the content, format, creation and update policies, and
conformance rules.
The following are some of the suitable standards that are followed while
representing metadata:
l Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has developed the
content standards for metadata. It lays down specifications for both spatial
as well as non-spatial data.
l International Standards Organisation Technical Committee (ISO/TC
211) develops standards related to geographic information. Recently ISO
has developed an international metadata standard ISO 19115. It attempts to
satisfy the requirements of all well-known metadata standards.
l Dublin Core Metadata is specifically intended to support resource
discovery which involves searching, locating and retrieving of information
resources on computer-based networks in response to user queries.
b) Metadata Formats
Metadata can be interpreted or valued differently by different users inspite of
following a particular standard. Some common metadata formats are listed below:
14
• unstructured notes or log files Data Input

• plain text (ASCII) file

• HTML file format

• summary formats

• formats used for the purpose of indexing or searching but not for viewing

• some new formats being used specific to GIS software which enables to
view, create and manage metadata and

• some customisable metadata formats that are becoming popular with XML,
etc.

Till 1999, the most common format of metadata used to be Outline Format.
Soon FAQ (Frequently Asked Question) format was popularised as it was easier
to read. This format could be easily understood even by non-technical or non-
GIS users.

c) Essential Questions for Metadata Creation

We have already discussed in the beginning that metadata provides information

about a number of questions related to the data. A general form of metadata has
been given in interview approach by U.S. Geological Survey to understand the
questions to be answered to create metadata. Some important questions that
need to be answered in a metadata are as follows:

• what does the dataset describe?

• who produced the dataset?

• why was the dataset created?

• what was the original source of dataset and techniques of its collection?

• what is the reliability of data?

• what is the availability of data? and

• what is metadata modification?

7.5 REFERENCE FRAMEWORKS

A map is the representation of Earth’s pattern as a whole or a part of it, on a You have already read
plane surface, with conventional signs, drawn to a scale and projection and about maps in Unit 9
every point on it corresponds to actual terrestrial position. Thus, maps are Basic of Mapping of
MGY-001.
representations of three-dimensional reference globe projected onto a flat
surface. You know that the process of transforming three-dimensional surface
of globe or a part of it on a two-dimensional or flat surface is called map
projection.

Digitising helps us to reduce sophisticated information of map projection to a

set of Cartesian coordinates in case of digitiser. Prior to digitisation, we need
to provide information regarding the type of projection used, information about
grid system, zones of origin, etc. to GIS software. This helps us in
15
GIS Database Creation transforming the map to its original projection after it's input. GIS produces a
number of transformations so as to project from Cartesian coordinates on the
digitiser to a two-dimensional map projection coordinates and then through a
process called inverse map projection to three-dimensional latitude and
The basic geometric longitude coordinates. This process eventually needs to be repeated to
transformations of
translation, rotation and
produce Cartesian coordinates for output devices.
scale change are essential
requirements for computer GIS software has to perform a number of graphical manipulations that result into
visualisation and different types of projections. It is important to mention here three primary
manipulation of map data. processes that often occur simultaneously (DeMers, 2009). They are as follows:
Combinations of all these
basic transformations are
referred to as affine • translation
transformations.
• scale change and

• rotation

Translation: It sets the distance to move the objects contained in the track, in
the x, y and z directions. In translation, objects slide to the new position without
being rotated. This is done by adding or subtracting the coordinate values
necessary for X and Y coordinates of the object as shown in Fig. 7.8. The new
X-coordinate say X’ would be equal to the original X-coordinate plus some
value Tx. Similarly, the new Y coordinate Y’ for each graphic object would be
equal to Y coordinate plus some value Ty.

X’ = X+ Tx

Y’ = Y+ Ty

where, the values of Tx and Ty can either be positive or negative.

Y Direction (n units)

Y Y

X X

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.8: Schematics showing the process of translation; (a) before translation, and
(b) after translation. Note displacement of the same object in Y-direction after
16 translation
Scale Change: It sets the x, y and z scale factors to make objects in the track Data Input
larger or smaller as shown in Fig. 7.9. This is also useful in comparing differently
scaled maps. Even the output can be represented in different scales. This is done
by multiplying the overall X-coordinate extent by a scale factor sx, and each set
of Y-coordinates by a scale factor sy.
X’ = X sx
Y’ = Y sy
where, sx and sy represent the amount or percentage of scale change.

Y Y

X X
Scale: 1 cm = 200 m Scale: 1 cm = 400 m
(a) (b)

Fig. 7.9: Schematics showing the process of scale change; (a) original object and
(b) after scale change. Note that the same object has become smaller after scale
change

Rotation: It sets the x, y and z rotation angles around a fixed point (the
origin) for objects contained within the track as you can see in Fig. 7.10.
Rotation around the x-axis is the roll, or yaw angle. Rotation around the
y-axis is the inclination, or pitch angle. Rotation around the z-axis is
the azimuth, or heading angle. It is used frequently during the process
of projection and inverse projection and uses the basic trigonometry. For
X- coordinate locations, the new location X’ would be found by multiplying
the original X location by the cosine of the new angle (è) and then adding
that value to the original Y- coordinate multiplied by the sine of the theta
(sin è). The new Y- coordinate location Y’ is found by multiplying the
negative of the original X value by the sine of the angle and again adding
that to the product of Y coordinate and sin è.
X’ = X cos è + Y sin è,
and
Y’ = − X sin è + Y sin è
where, è is the angular displacement needed. 17
GIS Database Creation

Y
Y

X X

(a) (b)

Fig. 7.10: Schematics showing the process of rotation; (a) object before rotation and
(b) same object after rotation by angle è

These are the basic three types of graphical manipulations which help in all
necessary transformations.
Spend Check Your Progress II
5 mins
1) What is meant by scale change?
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7.6 GEOREFERENCING
Georegistration is Georeferencing is the process of locating any entity in real-world coordinates.
another term which is
Raster data is commonly obtained by scanning maps, topographical maps or
used alternatively with
georeferencing. collecting aerial photographs and satellite images. Scanned maps normally do not
contain spatial reference information. However, sometimes they might have
coordinate information marked along it with the help of which it can be
georeferenced (Fig. 7.11a). If there is no coordinate information, we can
georeference it by adjusting the map or image to the geographic location of a
“known good” reference image or map. The image or map being used as a
reference is called reference component and the image or map being adjusted is
18 called target component (Fig. 7.11b & c).
 Data Input

(a)

(b) (c)

Fig. 7.11: Georeferenced images; (a) georeferencing by adding control points, (b) and
(c) georeferencing of map/image by using a reference image (b) and target image (c)
(source: www.georeference.org/doc/georegistration.html)

Georeferencing involves the following steps:

Step 1: raster dataset needs to be opened up in GIS software
Step 2: add control points in the raster dataset that links it to known positions in Control Points are
map coordinates as shown in Fig. 7.11(a). The control points are used to build a locations that are more
polynomial transformation that will convert the raster dataset from its existing or less permanent
features on the Earth
location to the spatially correct location. and can be accurately
identified on the raster
Step 3: raster dataset should be transformed permanently or rectified.
dataset and in real
Transformation uses a set of control points and transformation equations to world coordinates e.g.,
register a digitised image, a satellite image or an aerial photograph. Map to map intersections of road,
or image to image transformation uses a set of control points to establish a street corners, etc. They
mathematical model that relates the map coordinates of one system to another. are also called GCPs
(Ground Control Points).
An example of this has been shown in Fig. 7.10(b). The Root Mean Square
Error (RMSE) is a quantitative measure that can determine the quality of
geometric transformation. It measures the displacement between the actual and
estimated locations of control points. Resampling fills in each pixel of the
19
GIS Database Creation transformed image with a value that is derived from original image. The
georeferenced image can be saved in different formats like IMG, TIFF, BMP,
GIF, JPEG, etc.
Now let us get acquainted with some commonly used terms such as geocoding,
geotagging and rubbersheeting, etc.
7.6.1 Geocoding
It is the process of converting the street addresses to latitude and longitude or to
some universal coordinate system (Longely et al., 2011). So if a database has
addresses mentioned in the form of house number, street name, zip code, etc. it
can be mapped and entered into GIS. This process is also called address
interpolation, which starts with a textual description of a location and translates
that into the x, y coordinate that can be plotted on a map.
Another method of geocoding is generating points from a table in which at least
two fields contain latitudinal and longitudinal coordinates. The Table 7.1 and
associated figure is shown in Fig. 7.12.
Table 7.1: x and y coordinates of places
FID Shape Id Place name Latitude (y) Longitude (x)
0 Point A1 Modi Rubber Ltd 29.062 77.705
1 Point A2 Dayawati Modi Academy 29.05 77.707
2 Point A3 Central Potato Research Institute 29.068 77.708
3 Point A4 University of Agriculture and
Technology (SVPUA&T) 29.075 77.709

Fig. 7.12: Geocoding with the help of coordinate information of places given in table 7.1

Reverse geocoding can also be done by finding the street address with the help
of associated geographical coordinates.
7.6.2 Geotagging
Geotagging enables the user to find location of a particular media. It is the process of
adding location specific information or geographical identifiers to photographs, films,
videos, websites, etc. This is also called geospatial metadata and usually consists
of coordinate information in the form of latitude-longitude along with information
20 related to altitude, bearing, distance, place names, etc. (Fig. 7.13).
 Data Input

Fig. 7.13: Geotagging (source: www.web-strategist.com/blog/category/geo-tagging/)

7.6.3 Rubbersheeting
Rubbersheeting is a non-uniform adjustment of a dataset based on the movement
of known control points to new locations. It is a process that corrects flaws in
source map or vector drawing through geometric adjustment of coordinates with
the help of a more accurate target layer (Fig. 7.14). Errors may be due to
imperfect image registration, scanning, inaccurate flight alignment or camera
inaccuracies in case of aerial photographs, etc. Thus, inaccurate data can be
stretched or rubbersheeted over the accurate data using control points and place
marks common to both data sets.

Reference point 2
Reference point 2

Target map
Input point 2 Target map
(accurate)
(accurate)
Input point 2

Y
Reference point 1
(b)

(a) Input point 1 Reference point 1

Input point 1

X
Fig. 7.14: Illustration of rubbersheeting; (a) vector drawing which is more
accurately adjusted to the target drawing (b)

7.7 ACTIVITY
1) Scan a paper map which has coordinate information at the corners.
2) Georeference the map using a suitable coordinate and projection system
with the help of GIS software. Then input the rectified or georeferenced
map into the GIS software and digitise it (on-screen digitisation). Digitise
different features like roads, rivers, lakes, forests, etc. and input them as
different layers in the GIS database. Now add attributes to your digitised
features so as to represent their names, location and other attributes. 21
GIS Database Creation 3) Now you have learnt the basics of data inputting. After finishing this you can
scan topographical maps of a place and continue doing the same process as
mentioned above. If the topographical maps are in continuity then digitised
features can also be edge-matched once the georeferenced toposheets open
up side-by-side.
Note: For scanning of topographical maps prior permission from the
concerned authorities is needed.

7.8 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt that:
• Data input is a method of getting data into a computer.
• There are different types of devices like digitising table, mouse, scanner and
keyboard which are used for data input.
• Map digitisation is the process of converting features on a paper map or
simply tracing a paper map into digital format with the help of digitising table
or on-screen digitisation by displaying raster maps on a computer screen
with the help of a GIS software. Digitised features can be in the form of
points, lines or polygons.
• Metadata is the data about data and is prepared mostly in the form of
XML during the time of data production. It forms the most integral part of a
GIS and reveals basic information about data as to when it was created, by
whom it was created, why it was created, where it was created, etc.
• A metadata standard is a document that contains rules or guidelines for
standardising the content of metadata.
• Before digitisation, it is important to georeference map using a suitable
projection system. Georeferencing is the process of locating any entity in
real-world coordinates. Some other processes related to georeferencing are
geocoding (adding coordinates to street locations), geotagging (adding
geographical information to photographs, films, etc.) and rubbersheeting
(geometric adjustment of coordinates with the help of a more accurate
map). GIS software has to perform a number of graphical manipulations that
results into different types of projections. They are translation, scale change
and rotation.
Spend
30 mins 7.9 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1) What do you understand by map digitisation?
2) Briefly describe different methods of raster and vector data input.
3) Give a brief discussion of metadata in GIS.
4) Explain the concept of georeferencing.

7.10 REFERENCES
• Chang, K.-t. (2010), Introduction to Geographic Information Systems,
Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
22
• Davis, B.E. (2001), GIS: A Visual Approach, Onword Press, Canada. Data Input

• DeMers, M.N. (2009), Fundamentals of Geographic Information

Systems, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.
• Longely, P.A., Goodchild, M.F., Maguire, D.V., Rhine, D.W. (2011),
Geographic Information Systems and Science, John Wiley and Sons,
New York.
• http://postcardprinters.us/drum-scannerstem.com
• http://proceedings.esri.com/library/userconf/proc01/professional/papers/
pap894/p894.htm
• www.chinasystem.com.hk/en/main.htm
• www.georeference.org/doc/georegistration.htm
• www.techfuels.com/scanner/1579-flatbed-scanners.html
• www.web-strategist.com/blog/category/geo-tagging/
The data from all the above web pages was retrieved between 10th March,
2012 and 20th March, 2012.

7.11 FURTHER/SUGGESTED READING

• Anjireddy, M. (2008): Textbook of Remote Sensing and Geographical
Information Systems, BS Publications, Hyderabad.

7.12 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress I
1) The names of different devices used for inputting geographical data are,
mouse, digitising table and puck/cursor, scanners, keyboard, etc.
2) The different modes of digitisation are point mode and stream mode
digitisation.
Check Your Progress II
1) Scale change sets the x, y and z scale factors to make objects in the track
larger or smaller. This is done by multiplying the overall X- coordinate
extent by a scale factor sx, and each set of Y coordinates by a Y scale
factor sy.
Unit End Questions
1) Refer to section 7.3.
2) Refer to section 7.3.3
3) Refer to section 7.4.3
4) Refer to section 7.6.

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