SAMACHAR

MANTHAN
MONTHLY CLASS
ON CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
DECEMBER

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Table of Content
Issues#1 Economic Growth in India 1947-2022 an analysis  3
Issue#2 PPP led Investment model  7
Issue#3 SECURITY IN BORDER AREAS  11
17
Issue#4 COMMUNALISM IN INDIA  

2 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

Issues#1 Economic Growth in India 1947-2022 an analysis

Context
• B
 y 2047, India will complete 100 years after Independence.
By that time, India strives to achieve the status of a developed
economy, which means achieving a minimum per capita income
equivalent to $13,000.

Economic growth during the British period

• P oor state of economy: It is not often realized that India’s
economic progress in the first half of the 20th century under
British rule was dismal. According to one estimate, during
the five decades, India’s annual growth rate was just 0.89%.
• Negligible growth in per capita: With the population growing at
0.83%, per capita income grew at 0.06%. It is not surprising
that immediately after Independence, growth became the Statistics of economic growth after 1991
most urgent concern for policymakers. • Rapid economic growth: Between 1992-93 and 2000-01, GDP
at factor cost grew annually by 6.20%. Between 2001-02 and
2012-13, it grew by 7.4% and the growth rate between 2013-
In the early period, India’s strategy of development 14 and 2019-20 was 6.7%.
comprised four elements: • S ustained period of high growth rate: The best performance was
• R  aising the savings and investment rate; between 2005-06 and 2010-11 when GDP grew by 8.8%,
• D  ominance of state intervention; showing clearly what the potential growth rate of India was.
• I mport substitution, and This is the highest growth experienced by India over a sustained
• D omestic manufacture of capital goods. period of five to six years. This was despite the fact that this
• Modest growth till 1970: India’s average growth till the end period included the global crisis year of 2008-09.
of the 1970s remained modest, with the average growth rate • R ising investment rate: There was a corresponding increase in
being 3.6%. With a population growth of 2.2%, the per capita the savings rate. The current account deficit in the Balance of
income growth rate was extremely modest at 1.4%. Payments (BOP) remained low at an average of 1.9%.
• Improvement in social indicators: On certain health and social • Setback to growth after 2011-12: However, the growth story
parameters, such as the literacy rate and life expectancy, there suffered a setback after 2011-12. The growth rate fell to 4.5%
were noticeable improvements. in 2012-13 according to the 2004-05 series. The growth rate
• The success of the green revolution: While India had to rely since then has seen ups and downs. The growth rate touched
on the heavy imports of food grains on a concessional basis, the 3.7% level in 2019-20.
initially, there was a breakthrough in agriculture after the
Green Revolution.
• Industrial base widened: The industrial base expanded with
time. India became capable of producing a wide variety of
goods including steel and machinery.
• Development of economic infrastructure – development of
irrigation projects, hydro electric projects, thermal power
projects and expansion of network of surface transports.

Failures
• U nsustainable fiscal policy: Plan after plan, actual growth was
less than what was projected. The Indian economy did grow
at 5.6% in the 1980s. But it was accompanied by a sharp
deterioration in the fiscal and current account deficits, and
the economy faced its worst crisis in 1991-92. Roadmap for Future Growth
• F ailure to create employment opportunities – India is facing a • K eeping the sustained growth rate: The first and foremost task
problem of underemployment and disguised unemployment. is to raise the growth rate. Calculations show that if India
• Failure to eradicate poverty – more than quarter of the population achieves a 7% rate of growth continuously over the next two
in India was living below poverty line even after four decades decades and more, it will make a substantial change to the
of planning, this speaks about the failure of planning in level of the economy. India may almost touch the status of a
creating ‘growth for all’. developed economy.
• F ailure in undertaking land reforms and other institutional reforms • Maintaining the incremental capital output ratio: If India maintains
in agriculture – productivity of agriculture is dismal. Non the incremental capital output ratio at 4, which is a reflection of
remunerative nature of agriculture. the efficiency with which we use capital, India can comfortably
• Failure in setting up a strong, competitive, diversified industrial achieve a 7% rate of growth.
base – promotion of capital goods industries by the state led
to concentration and inefficiency.

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• Investment must be increased: Raising the investment rate • D eclining growth in developing countries: The external environment
depends on a number of factors. A proper investment climate is not going to be conducive. The Organization for Economic
must be created and sustained. Co-operation and Development reports a secular decline in
• Private investment is crucial: While public investment should also growth in developed countries.
rise, the major component of investment is private investment, • C limate change may affect the growth: Environmental considerations
both corporate and non-corporate. It is this which depends on may also act as a damper on growth. Some adjustment on the
a stable financial and fiscal system. The importance of price composition of growth may become necessary.
stability in this context cannot be ignored.
• N ew technologies must be embraced: India needs to absorb the
new technologies that have emerged, and that will emerge. Conclusion
Its development strategy must be multidimensional. • C
 onsidering India’s population, India has no option but to grow
• S trong Export and manufacturing: India needs a strong export continuously. Government has undertaken major structural
sector. It is a test of efficiency. At the same time, India needs a reform and policy initiatives like GATI-SHAKTI to give fillip to
strong manufacturing sector. The organized segment of this the growth of the economy. These are the steps in the right
sector must also increase. directions and more such liberalizing initiatives need to be
• Strengthened the social safety nets: As output and income increase, encouraged.
India must also strengthen the system of social safety nets.
Growth without equity is not sustainable. Economic growth after Independence

Challenges for India’s growth FYPs – PERIOD & PERFORMANCE

• L ow per capita income: India today is the fifth largest economy.
This is an impressive achievement. However, in relation to
per capita income, it is a different story. In 2020, India’s rank
was 142 out of 197 countries. This only shows the distance
we have to travel.

PLANs DESCRIPTION

First Five Year Plan • Duration – from 1951 to 1956.

• Focus – Agriculture sector including irrigation and power projects.
• Targeted growth rate – 2.1 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 3.6% (more than its target)
• It was based on the Harrod-Domar model.
• About 44.6 percent of the plan outlay went in favour of the public sector undertakings (PSUs).
• Launching of Community Development Programme (2 oct 1952)
• Imperial Bank of India transformed into State Bank Of India (Gorwala Committee recommendations)
• Duration – from 1956 to 1961
Second Five Year • F ocus – rapid industrialisation with a focus on heavy industries and capital goods
Plan • Targeted growth rate – 7.5 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 4.1% (plan was successful )
• It was based on the P.C. Mahalanobis Model.
• Second Industrial Policy, 1955 – divided industries into three schedules.
• Target of achieving “Socialistic pattern of society” in economic policies – failed to achieve
• Duration – from 1961 to 1966.
Third Five Year Plan • This plan is called ‘Gadgil Yojana’.
• Witnessed two wars, one with China in 1961–62 and the other with Pakistan in 1965–66
• Severe famine – 1965 -1966
• T
 he main target of this plan was to make the economy independent and to reach the self-active position
of take-off.
• For the first time, considered the aim of balanced, regional development.
• Established Food Corporation Of India (FCI) in 1965

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Three annual plans • Duration – from 1966 to 1969.
(plan holiday) • R eason – Indo-Pakistan war & failure of the third plan.
(1966-1969)
• Focus – Self reliance
• Green revolution was ushered in this period. (1966-67)
• D
 uring this plan, annual plans were made and equal priority was given to agriculture & its allied sectors
and the industry sector.
• Duration – from 1969 to 1974.
Fourth Five Year • O bjectives – Growth with stability and progressive achievement of self-reliance.
Plan • Targeted growth rate – 5.7 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 3.3% (plan failed to achieve targeted growth rate)
• During this plan, the slogan of “Garibi Hatao” was given during the 1971 elections by Indira Gandhi.
• E
 nactment of Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA 1973), Monopolistic & Restrictive Trade Practices
Act (MRTP 1969)
• Nationalisation of 14 banks in 1969
• Duration – From 1974 to 1979.
Fifth Five Year Plan • Focus – Top priority to agriculture followed by industry & mines
• Focus on poverty alleviation and self-reliance
• Targeted growth rate – 4.4 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 4.8% (plan was successful )
• The draft of this plan was prepared and launched by D.P. Dhar. This plan was terminated in 1978.
• First population policy of india declared in 1976
• Twenty-point Programme (1975)
• Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) launched in 1975-76
Rolling Plan • Duration – From 1978 to 1980.
• “ Rolling Plan” concept was envisaged and coined by Prof. Gunnar Myrdal in “India’s Economic Planning
in its Broader Setting”
• The Food for Work programme was launched.
• Antyodaya scheme
• New lease of life to Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) (i.e., the 2nd Phase of the revival of the PRIs);
Sixth Five Year Plan • Duration – from 1980 to 1985.
• Targeted growth rate – 5.2 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 5.7% (plan was successful)
• Objective – poverty eradication and Employment generation.
• It was based on investment Yojana, infrastructural changing and trend to the growth model.
• Launched – National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) on 2 Oct 1980
• Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP)
• Nationalisation of six banks in 1980 (Second round of nationalisation)
• Establishment of NABARD in 1982 on recommendations of Sivaraman Committee
Seventh Five Year • Duration – from 1985 to 1990.
Plan • O bjectives – emphasised on rapid food grain production, increased employment creation and productivity
in general.
• Targeted growth rate – 5 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 6% (plan was successful)
• Indicative planning started for Sci & Tech.
• Launched Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) in 1989 – first decentralized scheme
• For the first time, the private sector get priority over the public sector.
• T
 he Plan was not laid with a strong financial strategy, which put the economy into a crisis of unsustainable
balance of payments and fiscal deficits
Two Annual Plans • The Eighth Plan (1990–95) could not take off due to the ‘fast- changing political situation at the Centre
1990-91 & 1991-92. • F
 iscal imbalances of the late 1980s were the other important reasons for the delay in the launch of the
Eighth Plan.
• BoP(Balance of Payment) crisis and shortage of FOREX
• Uncontrollable fiscal deficit

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Eighth Five Year • D uration – from 1992 to 1997.
Plan • Targeted growth rate – 5.6 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 6.8% (plan was successful)
• Objective – Development of human resources i.e. employment, education, and public health.
• Adoption of Indicative planning in totality
• Narasimha Rao Govt. launched the New Economic Policies of India
• Rao-Manmohan Model – LPG (Liberalisation, Privatisation, Globalisation)
• Constitution of Disinvestment Commission in 1996
• Launching of – Mid Day Meal Scheme, MPLADS, National Social Asst. Programme
• Constitutional status to Panchayat Raj Institution in 1992 by 73rd and 74th Amendment acts.
• Statutory Status to SEBI (Securities & Exchange Board of India) in 1992

Ninth Five Year Plan • Duration – from 1997 to 2002.

• Targeted growth rate – 7 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 5.6%
• Objective – “growth with justice and equity”.
• It was launched in the 50th year of independence of India.
• P
 lan was launched when there was an all-round ‘slowdown’ in the economy led by the South East Asian
Financial Crisis (1996–97).
• · Launched National Population Policy, National Population fund and Population Stabilization Fund in 2000.
• · Swarna Jayanti Shahari Rojgaar Yojana (SJSRY) and Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarojgaar Yojana (SGSY)
were launched.
• · Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan launched in 2001.

Tenth Five Year Plan • Duration – from 2002 to 2007.

• Objective – aims to double the Per Capita Income of India in the next 10 years.
• Targeted growth rate – 8 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 8.2%
• Plan aims to reduce the poverty ratio by 15% by 2012.
• F or the first time the Plan went to set the ‘monitorable targets’ for eleven select indicators of development
for the Centre as well as for the states
• ‘Governance’ was considered a factor of development
• States’ role in planning to be increased with the greater involvement of the PRIs
• P
 olicy and institutional reforms in each sector – reforms in the PSUs, legal reforms, administrative reforms,
labour reforms, etc
• Agriculture sector was declared as the prime moving force (PMF) of the economy in 2002.
• Increased emphasis on the social sector – About 27% of total outlay.

Eleventh Five Year • Duration – from 2007 to 2012.

Plan • T argeted growth rate – 8.1 percent
• Achieved growth rate of 7.9%
• Objective – “faster and more inclusive growth”
• Plan target of 9-10 per cent GDP growth.
• It was prepared by C. Rangarajan
• Duration – from 2012 to 2017.

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 Twelfth Five Year • O bjective – “Faster, More Inclusive and sustainable growth”
Plan • Growth rate target is 9%.
• Broad Objectives of 12th Five Year Plan
1. To reduce poverty
2. To improve regional equality across states and within states
3. To improve living conditions for SCs, STs, OBCs, Minorities
4. To generate attractive employment opportunities for Indian youth.
5. To eliminate gender gaps.
• Economic Growth
1. Real GDP Growth Rate of 8.0 per cent.
2. Agriculture Growth Rate of 4.0 per cent.
3. Manufacturing Growth Rate of 10 per cent.
4. Every State must have an average growth rate in the Twelfth Plan preferably higher than that achieved
in the Eleventh Plan.
Head-count ratio of consumption poverty to be reduced by 10 percentage points over the preceding
estimates by the end of Twelfth FYP.
Mean Years of Schooling to increase to seven years by the end of Twelfth FYP.
Reduce IMR to 25 and MMR to 1 per 1,000 live births, and improve Child Sex Ratio (0–6 years) to 950 by
the end of the Twelfth FYP.
Reduce Total Fertility Rate to 2.1 by the end of Twelfth FYP.
Increase green cover (as measured by satellite imagery) by 1 million hectare every year during the Twelfth FYP.
Increase investment in infrastructure as a percentage of GDP to 9 per cent by the end of Twelfth FYP
Provide access to banking services to 90 per cent Indian households by the end of Twelfth FYP.

Issue#2 PPP led Investment model

Introduction (2)Private Investment Model:

According to the World Bank, India is one of the leading countries • F or a country to grow and increase its production investment is
in terms of readiness for PPPs. required. Presently tax revenue of India is not adequate to meet
Rapid Urbanisation, increase in per capita income and high this demand so the government requires private investment.
industrial growth led to demand for basic infrastructure such as • Private investment can be sourced from domestic or international
water supply and sanitation, seamless transportation and energy. markets.
• From abroad private investment comes in the form of FDI or FPI.
• Private investment can generate more efficiency by creating
Types of Investment Models more competition, realization of economies of scale and greater
flexibility than is available to the public sector.
(1)Public Investment Model:
• I n this model the Government requires revenue for investment (3) Public-Private Partnership Model:
that mainly comes through taxes. • P
 PP is an arrangement between government and private
• As the world is facing the prospect of an extended period of sector for the provision of public assets and/or public services.
weak economic growth, by enhancing public-sector investment • Public-private partnerships allow large-scale government
large pools of savings can be channelized into productivity. projects, such as roads, bridges, or hospitals, to be completed
• Properly targeted public investment can do much to boost with private funding.
economic performance, generating aggregate demand • In this type of partnership, investments are undertaken by the
quickly, fueling productivity growth by improving human private sector entity, for a specified period of time.
capital, encouraging technological innovation, and spurring • These partnerships work well when private sector technology
private-sector investment by increasing returns. and innovation combine with public sector incentives to
• Though public investment cannot fix a large demand shortfall complete work on time and within budget.
overnight, it can accelerate the recovery and establish more • As PPP involves full retention of responsibility by the government
sustainable growth patterns. for providing the services, it doesn’t amount to privatization.

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• T here is a well defined allocation of risk between the private • O ptimum allocation of resources: PPPs can help in the optimum
sector and the public entity. allocation of public resources for the development of infrastructure.
• Private entity is chosen on the basis of open competitive Though conventional models of public acquisition concentrate
bidding and receives performance linked payments. on accomplishing the most reduced forthright expenses in
• PPP route can be an alternative in developing countries where conveying infrastructural ventures infrastructural projects, PPPs
governments face various constraints on borrowing money concentrate on delivering cost-effectiveness over the duration.
for important projects. • Innovations: Development is another imperative idea that the
• It can also give required expertise in planning or executing private segment can convey to public utilities. As a rule, people
large projects. in the public sector may not be as inventive as the private area.
The private division is constantly hunting down new items
and utilities to expand its aggressive edge and to save costs.
• A id in growth of other sectors: To the government, PPP frees up
fiscal funds for other areas of public service and improves
cash flow management as high upfront capital expenditure
is replaced by periodic service payments and provides cost
certainty in place of uncertain calls for asset maintenance
and replacement.
• T he catalyst for the economy: To the private sector participants, PPP
provides access to public sector markets. If priced accurately and
costs managed effectively, the projects can provide reasonable
profits and investment returns on a long-term basis.
• More employment generation: Development of infrastructure will
need manpower at various levels and hence it will generate
more employment opportunities for the people.
• Improves the image of the country: There will be more development
of better physical infrastructure and services through PPP and
it will create a good impact on tourism and other enthusiast
investors.
• Attract FDI: Scope for investment by the private sector in
infrastructure will also provide the opportunities to foreign
investors to participate and the financial crunch can be meted
out easily.

Need for Public-Private Partnership PPP in India

Advantages of PPP
• I ndia has a significant infrastructure need, as well as a funding
gap. PPPs can help to meet both the need and the funding gap.
PPP projects frequently involve the private sector arranging
and financing.
• This relieves the public sector of the need to meet financing
needs through its own revenues (taxes) or borrowing and it
is advantageous in countries where the public sector’s ability
to raise capital is limited, such as India.
• PPPs can enable more infrastructure investment and increased
access to infrastructure services by shifting financial responsibility
away from the public sector.
• The allocation of risk, as well as the associated performance
rewards and penalties, create incentives in the PPP contract
that encourage the private partner to achieve efficiency at each
stage of the project and to implement efficiency improvements
wherever possible.
• The public sector can limit its own exposure to cost escalation
by shifting risk to private partners.
• PPPs can be structured to create a whole-of-life focus, in which
the private partner designs the project to account for the link
between construction and operation in order to reduce costs
over the life of the project.
• B
 etter infrastructure: It is a fact that most governments face the • The release of information into the public domain, for use
problem that public financing is not enough to bridge the in the media and by interested and concerned individuals,
gap between infrastructure need and available funds. In this NGOs, and private sector participants themselves, is critical
respect, infrastructure development has to rely increasingly to increasing transparency and reducing opportunities for
on private markets to leverage and mobilize capital. corrupt practices.
• Risk sharing: The private sector is considered to be more • A well-designed public-private partnership (PPP) process can
proficient in resource acquisition and utilities deliverance bring procurement out from behind closed doors. The PPP
than the government, and, therefore, it is further bolstering tendering and awarding process should be based on open
government’s good fortune to impart the related risks to the competitive bidding in accordance with international best
private segment. practices.

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Limitations of PPP • DBFO: In this model, the entire responsibility for the design,
• T he PPP project must be well-defined, including risk allocation construction, finance, and operation of the project for the
and a clear statement of the service output requirements. The period of concession lies with the private party.
long-term nature of PPP contracts necessitates more advanced • L DO: In this type of investment model either the government
planning and specification of contingencies. or the public sector entity retains ownership of the newly
• Tendering and negotiating is an expensive process. Typically, created infrastructure facility and receives payments in terms
transaction advisors and legal experts will be required. of a lease agreement with the private promoter.
• PPPs frequently cover a long period of service provision (eg. 15- • I t is mostly followed in the development of airport facilities.
30 years, or the life of the asset). Any agreement that extends
so far into the future is bound to be fraught with uncertainty.
(2) Engineering Procurement Model:
• If the public sponsor’s requirements or the conditions confronting
• U nder this system the entire project is funded by the government.
the private sector change during the life of the PPP, the contract
• The EPC entails the contractor build the project by designing,
may need to be modified to reflect the changes.
installing and procuring necessary labour and land to construct
• This can result in significant costs for the government, and
the infrastructure, either directly or by subcontracting.
the benefit of competitive bidding to determine these costs
• Under EPC model the contractor is legally responsible to complete
is usually not available.
the project under some fixed predetermined timeline and may also
• This issue can be mitigated by selecting relatively stable projects
involve scope for penalty in case of time overrun.
as PPPs and specifying how future contract variations will be
• In EPC as all the clearances, land acquisition and regulatory
handled and priced in the original contract terms.
norms have to be completed by the government itself and the
• Once in the construction and operation phases, the public
private players do not have to get itself involved in these time
success of the PPP will be determined by the sponsor’s ability
taking procedures.
to monitor performance against standards and enforce
contract terms.
• A project should ideally be procured as a PPP based on a clear (3) Hybrid Annuity Model:
demonstration that it provides value for money (VFM) when • I n India, the new HAM is a mix of BOT Annuity and EPC models.
compared to public sector procurement. • As per the design, the government will contribute to 40%
• However, demonstrating value for money in advance is of the project cost in the first five years through annual
difficult due to uncertainties in predicting what will happen payments (annuity). whereas the remaining 60% is raised
over the course of the project and a lack of information about by the developer from equity or loan as variable depending
comparable previous projects. upon the value of assets created.
• Under HAM, Revenue collection would be the responsibility of
the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI).The developer
Models of Public Private Partnership (PPP) doesn’t have the right to collect revenue.

(1) BOT model Advantages:

• C ommonly adopted model of PPPs include Build-Operate-
The brief picture of Risk Allocation can be tabulated as in Table:
Transfer (BOT) ,Build-Own-Operate (BOO), Build-Operate-
Lease-Transfer (BOLT), Design-Build-Operate-Transfer (DBFOT), Type of Risks/ Financing Revenue O&M Risk
Lease-Develop-Operate (LDO), Operate-Maintain-Transfer Models Risk collection
(OMT), etc. Risk
• These models are different on level of investment, ownership BOT Model By Private By Private By Private
control, risk sharing, technical collaboration, duration, Annuity Model By Private By Govt By Private
financing etc.
VGF By Govt By Private By Private
• BOT: It is a conventional PPP model in which a private partner
and Private
is responsible to design, build, operate (during the contracted
period) and transfer back the facility to the public sector. EPC Model By Govt By Govt By Govt
• Private sector partner has to bring the finance for the project HAM By Govt By Govt By Private
and take the responsibility to construct and maintain it. and Private
• Public sector will allow private sector partners to collect revenue
from the users. The national highway projects contracted out by • F inancial burden of private players and even the government
NHAI under PPP mode is a major example for the BOT model. will be reduced.
• BOO: In this model ownership of the newly built facility will • Will reduce dependency on Banks for loans private players can
rest with the private party. raise money from equity. Thus NPAs of banks for long gestation
• On mutually agreed terms and conditions the public sector projects will also decrease. Helps cut the overall debt and
partner agrees to ‘purchase’ the goods and services produced improves project returns.
by the project. • Developers will take ‘traffic risk’ help in expediting project completion.
• BOOT: In this variant of BOT, after the negotiated period of From the government side it does take the traffic risk, it also earns
time, the project is transferred to the government or to the better social returns by way of access and convenience to daily
private operator. commuters.
• B OOT model is used for the development of highways and ports. • W ill speed up stalled projects.
• BOLT: In this approach, the government gives a concession to a
private entity to build a facility (and possibly design it as well), (4) Swiss Challenge
own the facility, lease the facility to the public sector and then • A
 ‘Swiss Challenge model’ is a way to award a public project
at the end of the lease period transfer the ownership of the to a private player on an unsolicited proposal.
facility to the government.

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• W ithout an invitation from the government, a private player • S ince the government authorities might not have complete
with credentials can submit a proposal to the government knowledge of the infrastructural requirements, this model
for the development of an infrastructure project with exclusive might result in wasteful expenditure.
intellectual property rights. • Bureaucrats, who ultimately sign off on such projects, continue
• That proposal will be made online and a second person can to be afraid to take calls that might face an investigation later
give suggestions to improve and beat that proposal.
• An expert committee will accept the best proposal and the
original proposer will get a chance to accept it or reject the What are the successful PPP projects?
proposal. • K arnataka: The major PPP project under implementation in the
• In case the original proposer is not able to match the more State is the ‘Bangalore International Airport’. This is the first
attractive and competing counter-proposal, the project will airport in the country being executed through the PPP route.
be awarded to the counter-proposal. • Andhra Pradesh: The major PPP project in the State is the
‘Hyderabad International Airport’, being executed under
the build own operate (BOO) format. The other such projects
Benefits of Swiss Challenge Method are the Kakinada Deep Water Port, being developed on the
• I t cuts red tape in awarding contracts as the bid is presented operate- maintain- share-and-transfer (OMST) format; the
by the private players. Gangavaram Port, in the build own operate and transfer (BOOT)
• Timelines are shortened as the first step itself which is time- mode; FAB City; Hyderabad Outer Ring Road; Kakinada SEZ.
consuming takes no time which is a project proposal by • Gujarat: The concept of PPP was introduced in the State in the
private players. early 1990s, when the Gujarat Maritime Board commenced
• It fosters innovation and enterprise in the infrastructure sector construction of the Pipavav port. Since then (as per the
by rewarding the private sector for its ideas. available information), twenty-one projects amounting to
• An element of competition can be introduced by modifying Rs 13,672.50 crore have been implemented through private
the model. sector participation.
• B rings cost efficiencies
• O ffering cost reimbursement🡪countries like Chile and South Africa
allow reimbursement of original project proponents for their Kelkar Committee recommendations
project concept or project development cost. Advantages are • C ontracts need to focus more on service delivery instead of
that it maintains private sector interest during the development fiscal benefits.
phase of an infrastructure project and helps to ensure that • Better identification and allocation of risks between stakeholders
the source of ideas isn’t limited to large investors with deep • R enegotiation clause of Concession Agreement
pockets. • I nfrastructure PPP Project Review Committee (“IPRC”) may be
constituted to evaluate and send its recommendations on
any problems of PPP project.
Criticisms of Swiss Challenge Method • Infrastructure PPP Adjudication Tribunal (“IPAT”) chaired by a
• No strong legal framework at the national level (significant Judicial Member (former Judge SC/Chief Justice HC) with a
concessions including land at subsidized rates, real estate space, Technical and/or a Financial member, where benches will be
viability gap funding, etc. are granted by the government) constituted by the Chairperson as per needs of the matter
• The Planning Commission advised state governments to adopt in question.
the Swiss Challenge route as an exception rather than a rule. • Institutionalization of mechanisms like the National Facilitation
• The Central Vigilance Commission had observed that there’s a Committee (NFC)to ensure time bound resolution of issues e.g.
lack of transparency and lack of fair and equal treatment of Clearances.
potential bidders in the method. • U nsolicited Proposals(“Swiss Challenge”)to be discouraged to
• T he Vijay Kelkar panel on “Revisiting and Revitalising the PPP model avoid information asymmetries and lack of transparency.
of infrastructure development” had discouraged the government • P PP structures not to be adopted for very small projects.
from following the model. • Amend the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988 to distinguish between
• Can potentially foster crony capitalism, and allow companies genuine errors in decision-making and acts of corruption.
space to employ dubious means to bag projects. • vBuild up capacity in all stakeholders, including regulators,
• By allowing a bidder to initiate an idea and giving him first authority, consultants, financing agencies, developers.
right of refusal, the method can promote favoritism in the award • Set up an institute of excellence in PPP to inter alia guide
of public projects, opening the doors to corruption. the sector, provide policy input, timely advice and undertake
sustainable capacity building.

10 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

Issue#3 SECURITY IN BORDER AREAS

BORDER MANAGEMENT • U
 se of advanced technology - The advances in surveillance
• India has a land border of over 15,000 kms, which it shares technology, particularly satellite and aerial imagery, can help
with seven countries (Pakistan, China, Bangladesh, Nepal, to maintain a constant vigil along the LAC and make it possible
Myanmar, Bhutan, and Afghanistan). Further, it has a coastline to reduce physical deployment.
of over 7,500 kms. • A
 erial surveillance - The availability of a larger number of
• Almost all states in the country have one or more international helicopter units will enhance the quality of aerial surveillance
borders or a coastline and can be regarded as frontline States and the ability to move troops to quickly occupy defensive
from the point of view of border management. positions when it becomes necessary.
• The Ministry of Home Affairs is responsible for management
of international lands and coastal borders, strengthening of
border guarding and creation of infrastructure such as roads,
Management of Indo-Myanmar border:
• I ndia shares a 1643 km long border with Myanmar. Myanmar
fencing, and lighting of borders.
has common land with Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur
and Mizoram.
The proper management of borders is vitally important for
• Deployment of border guarding force: Assam Rifles has been
national security. Different portions of our extensive borders have
deployed for counter-insurgency and border guarding.
a variety of problems which have to be appropriately addressed.
• Currently, all 15 border guarding battalions are deployed
along the Indo Myanmar border on Company Operating Base
Some of the common problems affecting the (COB) approach, not as per the BOP system. The companies are
management of border security includes: deployed on all routes of entrance/outlet and are checking
• N o proper demarcation: Lack of proper demarcation of our land infiltration, smuggling of arms, ammunition, drugs, and fake
and maritime borders. currency notes.
• Complex and different terrain on all borders makes it difficult to
attain specialization in border management.
What is the Free Movement Regime (FMR)?
• No coordination: Lack of coordination among multiple agencies
• T he tribal communities, particularly Nagas, Singhpos, Kukis,
associated with border security.
Mizos etc. claim that the boundary between India and Myanmar
• No proper infrastructure: Lack of infrastructure with border
is inconsistent with the traditional limits of the region they
forces including shortage both in terms of manpower and
inhabited and they still continue to have trans- border linkages
infrastructure.
with their kiths and kins.
• N o attention to concerns of local people: Inadequate attention
• The FMR is thus an arrangement to alleviate insecurity of
to the concerns of local people in border areas which are
tribals living along India and Myanmar border.
exploited by hostile elements to create a feeling of ill will
• It permits tribes residing along the border to travel 16 km
against the security forces & Government.
across the boundary without visa restrictions.
• No attention to concerns of security forces: Inadequate attention
• While India allows Myanmarese nationals to stay 72 hours
to security forces such as no mobile connectivity leading to
without a visa, Myanmar allows stay of only 24 hours. To resolve
isolation, inadequate medical facilities, disparity in wages and
this, parallel discussions between the two governments have
allowances in comparison with the army.
been going on.

Steps that need to be taken further Need for reviewing FMR

• D ispute resolution- Government should resolve pending border
disputes with the neighbouring countries, as they later become
matters of national-security threat.
• N o diversion of security forces- The border-guarding force should
not be distracted from its principal task and deployed for
other internal security duties. For eg-ITBP, a force specifically
trained for India- China border should not be used in the
naxalite-infested areas.
• I nvolvement of army – It is felt that the responsibility for unsettled
and disputed borders, such as the LoC in J&K and the LAC on
the Indo-Tibetan border, should be that of the Indian Army
while the BSF should be responsible for all settled borders.
• Follow one-force-one-border principle to effectively manage borders
as divided responsibilities never result in effective control.
• Developing Infrastructure-accelerated development of infrastructure
along the border, especially to wean the border population
from illegal activities.

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• I llegal activities in the guise of FMR: Intelligence Agencies have • T he India-Pakistan boundary is categorized under three
raised concerns that FMR is being misused by militants and different heads. The first is the international boundary also known
criminals for infiltration, smuggling of weapons, narcotics etc. as the ‘Radcliffe line’.
• D iffering Protocols between bordering states: • It is 2308 km long and stretches from Gujarat to parts of Jammu
• The bordering states had been following different protocols district in Jammu and Kashmir. The second is the line of control
for FMR which may result in a security threat and thus the (LoC), or the Cease Fire Line, which came into existence after
need was being felt to strengthen border security measures the 1948 and 1971 wars between India and Pakistan.
between the two countries. • This line is 776 km long, and runs along the districts of Jammu
• Recently the government has agreed to devise common (some parts), Rajouri, Poonch, Baramulla, Kupwara, Kargil and
standard operating procedures (SOP) regarding FMR for all some portions of Leh. And the third is the actual ground position
four states bordering Myanmar. line (AGPL), which is 110 km long and extends from NJ 9842
• Safe Havens for militant groups such as the NSCN-K, NSCN-IM, ULFA, to Indira Col in the North (Siachin Glacier).
PLA, (UNLF-M), have thrived in western Burmese hills partly
due to their mobile bases and efficient information network.
• Complicated nature of terrain: Transverse mountains, inhospitable Major Initiatives for effective Border Management:
terrain, surging rivers and dense forest canopy makes movement • Fencing: In order to stop illegal immigration and other anti-
of people and development of the region difficult. Thus FMR national activities from across the border, Government of India
needs to be reviewed to accommodate development of tribals’ has sanctioned erection of fencing along Indo-Pakistan border.
interests without creating a security concern for India. • F loodlighting: Government of India has also taken up floodlighting
• E xodus of Rohingyas: works along the Indo-Pakistan border for close vigil, particularly
• There has been an exodus of Rohingya Muslims in India due in the night hours.
to turmoil in Rakhine province of Myanmar.
• Government panel has also been constituted to examine the CIBMS:
present rules and regulations adopted by Border States for
implementation of the Free movement regime and emerging
security issues.

Management of India-Pakistan border

• I ndia has command land of 3,323 Km (including Line of Control
in Jammu & Kashmir sector) with Pakistan.
• This border is attached with the States of Gujarat, Rajasthan,
Punjab and Jammu & Kashmir.
• Border Security Force (BSF) is the Border Guarding Force at
Indo-Pakistan Border.

• I t is a robust and integrated system that is capable of addressing

the gaps in the present system of border security by seamlessly
integrating human resources, weapons, and high-tech
surveillance equipment.
• I t has three main components:
• N ew high-tech surveillance devices such as sensors, detectors,
cameras, etc. as well as existing equipment for round-the-clock
surveillance of the international border.
• An efficient and dedicated communication network including
fiber optic cables and satellite communication for transmitting
data gathered; and
• A command and control centre to which the data will be transmitted
providing a composite picture of the international border.

12 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

Management of India-Bangladesh border Pakistan and Indo-Bangladesh borders, the Government has
undertaken the work of construction of fencing, floodlighting
and roads along these borders.
• I ntegrated Check Posts: There are several designated entry
and exit points on the international borders of the country
through which cross border movement of persons, goods
and traffic takes place. Conventional infrastructure for
discharge of various sovereign functions at these points is
neither adequate or integrated nor coordinated and no single
agency is responsible for coordination of various Government
functions and services at these points. These functions include
those of security, immigration, customs, human, plant and animal
quarantine etc., as also the provision of support facilities for
both the Government personnel and the immigrants such as
warehousing, parking etc.

Management of Indo-Nepal border:

• T
 he vigorous nature of the problems about border management
is brought out by the manner in which the sensitivity of the
India shares a 4096- km land border with Bangladesh. It is India’s India-Nepal border has changed over a period of time.
longest border with any country and it is among the states of • This border, which has been an open one, was once nonviolent
Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, Meghalaya, and Mizoram. Even and trouble-free. Nonetheless, with the increasing activities of
after a successful land boundary agreement issues continue to Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) in Nepal, the nature
persist on this border. of the border has changed absolutely.

Challenges in India Bangladesh Border Arrangements

• I llegal Immigration: According to an estimate by the Ministry • In order to check anti-national activities on the India-Nepal
of Home Affairs in 2014 there are about 25 million illegal border which is the open and absorbent border and to improve
immigrants in India from this border and they are increasing the security along this border, 25 battalions of Sashastra Seema
at the rate of 3 lakhs/ month. Bal (SSB) have been deployed as the Border Guarding Force
• Smuggling of cattle is a very unique problem of this particular (BGF) on this border.
border. • All the 450 Border Out Posts (BOPs) have been established on
• Other activities like arms smuggling, human and narcotics the Indo-Nepal border.
trafficking, circulation of fake Indian currency notes(FICN) • Bilateral mechanisms in the form of Home Secretary-level talks
etc. are also widely prevalent. and Joint Working Group at the level of Joint Secretaries exist
• Anti-India forces like Bodoland front, ULFA etc. try to operate between the two countries.
in the border area. • Additionally, there is a mechanism of Border District Coordination
• C hallenge of radicalization: The JeM( Jamaat e- Islami) etc have Committee Meetings between the district officials of the two
started radicalizing youth for money carrying anti-India activities. nations.
• G eographical:The entire stretch includes plain, riverine, hilly/ • These mechanisms serve as platforms for discussing issues of
jungle and with hardly any natural problems. The area is mutual concern like containing cross-border crimes, smuggling,
densely populated, and the cultivation is carried out till the and situations arising out of terrorist activities, at national and
last inch of the border at many stretches. regional/local levels correspondingly.

Major steps taken by government for Effective Indo-Nepal Border dispute

Border Management: Recently, Nepal has released a new political map that claims Kalapani,
• F encing and Roads: To avert illegal immigration and other anti- Limpiyadhura and Lipulekh of Uttarakhand as part of Nepal’s territory.
national actions from across the border, Government of India The area of Susta (West Champaran district, Bihar) can also be noted
has sanctioned erection of fencing/roads in two phases, along in the new map.
IndoBangladesh border.
• B order out posts: BSF is presently manning 802 existing Border
out Posts on Indo-Bangladesh border. In pursuance of Group of Key Points
Ministers recommendations to reduce the inter-BOP distance • India rejected the new map of Nepal saying that Nepal’s new map
to 3.5 Km, the Government has approved construction of involves artificial enlargement of territories, which is not based
additional BOPs on this border. on historical facts and evidence.
• Border Trade: Along the India-Bangladesh border, there are 32 • Nepal’s act is an unilateral act and is contrary to the bilateral
land custom stations spread over the states of West Bengal, understanding to resolve the outstanding boundary issues
Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura and Mizoram. Petrapole in West through diplomatic dialogue.
Bengal is one of the most important land customs stations • India has urged the Government of Nepal to refrain from such
with Bangladesh. an unjustified cartographic assertion and respect India’s sovereignty
• F loodlighting: These are important constituents of maintaining and territorial integrity.
vigilance along the borders. In order to curb infiltration, • I ndia has also asked Nepal to return to dialogue.
smuggling and other anti-national activities from across Indo- • Nepal’s move came after India’ Defence Minister recently
inaugurated a motorable link road that connects India and China,
significantly reducing the time of Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.

www.civilsdaily.com 13
• T he road passes through territory at the Lipulekh pass that • L ipulekh was deleted from the country’s map by the kings to
Nepal claims as its own territory. get favours from India.
• Earlier, Nepal had protested strongly against India, when India • T he territory of Kalapani was offered to India by King Mahendra
published a new map which showed the region of Kalapani as part after the 1962 India-China war who wanted to help India’s
of the Indian territory. security concerns due to perceived lingering Chinese threats.
• Nepal had also expressed displeasure on the 2015 agreement • Kalapani was not a part of Nepal-India dispute. It was Nepal’s
between India and China for using the Lipulekh pass for trade, territory that the king had allowed India to use temporarily
without consulting Nepal. • The new map is in fact a document that was in circulation in
Nepal till the 1950s.

Border Dispute Between India and Nepal

• C
 urrently, India and Nepal have border disputes over Kalapani India’s Stand:
- Limpiyadhura - Lipulekh trijunction between India-Nepal and China • K
 ali river originates in springs well below the Lipu-lekh pass,
and Susta area (West Champaran district, Bihar). and the Sugauli Treaty does not demarcate the area north of these
streams.
• The administrative and revenue records of the nineteenth century
Kalapani Region: also show that Kalapani was on the Indian side, and counted as
• K alapani is a valley that is administered by India as a part of part of Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand.
the Pithoragarh district of Uttarakhand. It is situated on the
Kailash Mansarovar route.
• Kalapani is advantageously located at a height of over 20,000 Efforts to Solve Border Dispute:
ft and serves as an observation post for that area. • In the 1980s, the two sides set up the Joint Technical
• The Kali River in the Kalapani region demarcates the border Level Boundary Working Group to delineate the boundary.
between India and Nepal. • The group demarcated everything except Kalapani and
• The Treaty of Sugauli signed by the Kingdom of Nepal and British Susta area.
India(after Anglo-Nepalese War) in 1816 located the Kali River • Officially, Nepal brought the issue of Kalapani before India in
as Nepal’s western boundary with India. 1998. Both sides agreed to demarcate the outstanding areas
• The discrepancy in locating the source of the Kali river led to (including Kalpani) by 2002 at the prime ministerial level talk
boundary disputes between India and Nepal, with each country held in 2000. But that has not happened yet.
producing maps supporting their own claims.

Management of Indo-Bhutan border:

• I ndia shares a 699 Km long border with Bhutan along Sikkim,
West Bengal, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Jointly Manned by the Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB), the Border
Security force (BSF) and the Royal Bhutanese army this border
has remained relatively quiet and peaceful after the flushing
out of ULFA terrorists through operation All- Clear by the
joint forces.

Arrangements
• D eployment of border guarding force: To increase the security
environment along this border, 12 battalions of Sashastra
Seema Bal (SSB) have been deployed as the Border Guarding
Force on this border.
• Indo-Bhutan group on border management and security: A Two-
Susta Region: sided mechanism in the shape of an India-Bhutan Group on
• T he change of course by the Gandak river is the main reason for Border Management and Security has been regularly meeting.
disputes in the Susta area. • This mechanism is useful in assessing threat perception to the
• S usta is located on the bank of the Gandak river. two countries from groups attempting to take advantage of
• I t is called Narayani river in Nepal. this open border and in discussing ways to improve the security
• It joins Ganga near Patna, Bihar. environment in the border area.

COASTAL SECURITY
India’s coasts are characterized by a diverse range of topography
such as creeks, small bays, back waters, rivulets, lagoons, swamps,
beaches, small islands (inhabited as well as uninhabited) etc. India’s
long coastline presents a variety of security concerns that include
• S muggling: Landing of arms and explosives at isolated spots
on the coast.
• Infiltration: Infiltration/ exfiltration of anti-national elements
as happened in 2008 Mumbai attacks.
• M aritime terrorism: Use of the sea and off-shore islands for
Nepal’s Stand: criminal activities.
• Kali river originates from a stream at Limpiyadhura, north-west of Lipu • Piracy and armed robbery: Smuggling of consumer and intermediate
Lekh.Thus Kalapani, and Limpiyadhura, and Lipu Lekh, fall to goods through sea routes.
the east of the river and are part of Nepal’s Dharchula district.

14 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

 • S etting up of Joint operations centres by the Indian Navy as
Absence of physical barriers on the coast and presence of vital command and control hubs for coastal security at Mumbai,
industrial and defence installations on it enhances the vulnerability Visakhapatnam, Kochi and Port Blair.
of the coasts to illegal cross border activities. Various coastal • S etting up of Marine Police Training Institutes (MPTIs) to improve
borders of India are close to politically volatile, economically shortage of Technical Manpower and lack of training facilities
depressed and unfriendly countries such as Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, • Registration of Vessels/Boats under Merchant Shipping Act, 1958.
Pakistan and Gulf countries making it even more vulnerable. • C onstitution of State Maritime Boards (SMBs) to facilitate
development of the Maritime Sector in the States and give a
major fillip to non-major ports.
Institutional Setup for Coastal Security • S teering Committee at the level of Secretary (Border Management)
• N ational Committee for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal to oversee the implementation of the coastal security scheme
Security (NCSMCS): At the apex level the NCSMCS coordinates and ensure better coordination among various stakeholders.
all matters related to Maritime and Coastal Security and
periodically reviews coastal security against threats from the
sea with all stakeholders. Concerns Related to Scheme
• India has a three tier security system made of Indian Navy, • M
 issing target: Majority of the projects are far behind schedule
Indian Coast Guard and Marine Police. and less than half of the allocated funds have been used.
• Procedural Delay:
• Inadequate Vigilance at strategic location due to delay in
procurement of surveillance vessel and other critical components.
• Only one out of the 10 planned MOCs could be operationalised.
• A CAG report found that sites for 10 planned jetties were yet
to be finalised and work on upgradation of 20 coastal police
stations was yet to commence.
• All scheme components of the coastal scheme phase II were
lagging behind the original scheme targets without any
financial constraint

Steps taken by government for coastal security

• Indian Maritime Security Strategy (IMSS) 2015 of Indian Navy: It
envisages greater coordination between different maritime
agencies; securing Indian Ocean sea lines of communication
(SLOCs); Maritime Security Operations for contemporary
assessments of maritime terrorism, piracy etc.; multilateral
maritime engagement, local capacity building, technical
cooperation etc.
• Coastal Security Scheme (CSS) to strengthen security infrastructure
of Marine Police Force in coastal states/UTs.
• C entral Marine Police Force (CMPF): Recently, the Union Home
• T
 he Indian navy is responsible for protecting the outermost minister approved a proposal to set up a Central Marine Police
areas of India’s territorial waters beyond 200 nautical miles. Force to protect sea, coasts, ports and vital institutions and
• Indian Coast Guard safeguards the intermediate layer investigate crimes committed in the coastal water.
(between coast and 12 nautical miles of territorial waters to • C oastal Surveillance network project - to provide near gapless
200 nautical miles. electronic surveillance of the entire coastline and prevent the
• Marine police safeguards the shallow coastlines and inland intrusion of undetected vessels. At any given time, the entire
waters within 12 nautical miles. This three tier arrangement west coast is under continuous surveillance.
works under the comprehensive and integrated Coastal • Involving fishermen in surveillance & intelligence gathering: Fishermen
Security Scheme. groups, referred to as the ‘ears and eyes’ of coastal security,
• T he police forces of the respective coastal states and Union territories are created comprising of trained volunteers who monitor
have jurisdiction of up to 12 nautical miles from the coast. the seas and coastal waters.
• Enhance Maritime Domain Awareness: through National Command
Control Communication and Intelligence Network (NC3I),
Features of Coastal security scheme an overarching coastal security network which collates and
• Phase-I of the CSS was implemented in nine coastal States and disseminates data about all ships, dhows, fishing boats and
four coastal Union Territories during the period from 2005- all other vessels operating near our coast.
2011 and Phase-II of CSS duration is 2010 to 2020. • Capacity building-The Navy and Coast Guard have also provided
• P atrolling by setting up Coastal Police Stations (CPSs), coastal periodic maritime training to marine police in all coastal states.
check posts, Marine Operation centres and Jetties for berthing • Indian Ocean Naval Symposium to provide an open and inclusive
and maintenance of boats/interceptor boats at strategic forum for discussion of regionally relevant maritime issues.
locations. • Sagar Prahari Bal: The Indian navy is also required to raise a
• Surveillance through Modern technical measures such as specialised force called the Sagar Prahari Bal for protecting its
Automatic Identification System (AIS) receivers and a chain bases and adjacent vulnerable areas and vulnerable points.
of overlapping coastal radars.

www.civilsdaily.com 15
Issues in coastal security • A dhoc coordination despite best efforts of the National Committee
for Strengthening Maritime and Coastal Security (NCSMCS).
Unfortunately, the coastal security bill with a proposal to form
a National Maritime Authority (NMA) has been caught in red
tape since 2013
• Lack of a cooperative mechanism- Many agencies like Navy, Coast
Guard, Marine Police and other authorities are tasked with
coastal security. Hence information sharing and coordination
is a major problem.
• P ort security has emerged as one of the most neglected areas
in littoral security architecture. A recent IB audit noted that
few out of 227 minor ports in India had proper security cover.
• B elow par state-level monitoring mechanisms and Non-existent
of maintenance and operational mechanisms for existing
naval assets.
• Issue with CMPF: Substituting state-controlled marine police
with a central force ignores structural impediments, such as
the lack of local intelligence and regional language skills as
well as turf wars between the two.

Way forward
• Stronger involvement of coastal police. Instead of setting up a
coastal border security force with no legal powers, state police
agencies may be integrated in the detection and capture of
criminals at sea leveraging their unique access to fishermen
and local communities, facilitating the flow of vital human
intelligence.
• Need for a legislative framework. Comprehensive legislations must
• Shortfall in patrolling: A cumulative shortfall (over 90 percent) in
be enacted to place systems and processes for the protection
the patrolling efforts, especially at night and decline in physical
of India’s maritime infrastructure, covering both the shipping
checks on fishing vessels by the Coastal Police.
and port sectors.
• D elays in land acquisition and support infrastructure such as
• Strengthening of the Coast Guard (CG). The CG must be strengthened
barracks and staff quarters, were yet to be constructed at
by removing all ambiguities from the Coast Guard Act. There
several locations.
should be a clear command chain and defined standard operating
• Shortage of manpower: The marine police stations are not
procedures with reference to coastal security.
functioning effectively due to shortage of manpower and
• N ational Commercial Maritime Security Policy Document. The
lack of interceptor boats.
government must promulgate a National Commercial Maritime
• Inadequate training for marine police: Though marine police is
Security Policy Document, to articulate its strategic vision for
tasked with overall coastal security but they are not trained
Commercial maritime security.
for counterterrorism.

Issue#4 COMMUNALISM IN INDIA

INTRODUCTION
• India is a land of multiple faiths and religions leading often
to violence and hatred among the people. Those who fan this
religious violence do not consider religion as a moral order
but use it as a means and weapon to pursue their political
ambitions.
• Communalism, in a broad sense, means a strong attachment
to one’s own community. In popular discourse in India, it is
understood as an unhealthy attachment to one’s own religion.
• Communalism, in the Indian context, is most commonly
perceived-form as the phenomenon of religious differences
between groups that often leads to tension and even rioting
between them.
• In it’s not so violent manifestation, communalism amounts
to discrimination against a religious group in matters such as
employment or education.

16 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

• In India, communalism arises when religion is used as a CAUSES OF COMMUNALISM IN INDIA
marker to highlight socio-economic disequilibrium between
communities and as a force multiplier to demand concessions.
• Communalism as “political trade in religion”. It is an ideology Historical factors
on which communal politics is based. And communal violence • B
 ritish historians projected ancient India as being ruled by
are conjectural consequences of communal ideology. Hindus and the Medieval period as the period of Muslim rule
• Communalism essentially leads to violence as it is based on when Hindus were exploited and threatened. Some influential
mutual religious hatred. This phenomenon leads to a distinction Indians too supported this projection.
between a communal organization and a religious organization.
• The report of the National Commission for Religious and
Political Factors
Linguistic Minorities, headed by former Chief Justice of India
• C ommunalism has flourished in India because the communalist
Rangnath Mishra, says that 10% should be reserved for Muslims
leaders of both Hindu and Muslim communities desire to
and 5% for other minorities in central and state government
flourish in the interest of their communities.
jobs in all cadre and grades.
• The demand for a separate electorate and the organization
• Communalism is an ideology that, in order to unify the
of the Muslim League was the practical manifestations of this
community, suppresses distinctions within the community
line of thought.
and emphasizes the essential unity of the community against
• The British policy of divide and rule used religion to divide
other communities.
India by giving separate electorates for Muslims and later it
• In this way, it promotes belief in orthodox tenets and principles,
was given to Sikhs and Anglo Indians. Other political factors
intolerance, and hatredof other religions and thus, divides
include religion-based politics, the partiality of political leaders
the society.
towards their communities, etc.
• In western countries, it refers to a feeling of ‘community’.
• U ltimately, the partition of the country provided
Whereas in India, it is understood in a negative sense i.e. a
further antagonistic feelings towards each other.
community is put against one or more communities.
In India, the politics of opportunism is the biggest cause of
• There are both positive as well as negative aspects of communalism.
communalism driven by the middle/ upper class for secular
It disintegrates social fabric and disturbs peace and integrity.
gains and trusted by the lower sections that identify with
To speak in its positive sense, a community for the other
the cause.
community, have a feeling of unity, to achieve the objective.
In other words, it may be called “the group solidarity”
• A communalised atmosphere is the one where there exists Economic Factors
a deep-seated animosity and suspicion among communities • D ue to educational backwardness, people have not been
represented sufficiently in the public service, industry, and
trade, etc. This causes the feeling of relative deprivation and
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNALISM such feelings contain the seeds of communalism.
• C ommunalism or communal ideology consists of three basic
• Non-expansion of the economy, competitive market, and
elements or stages in following the other:
non-absorption of workers are contributing factors.
• Mild Stage: It is the belief that people who follow the same
• A prominent reason why ‘divide and rule’ policy became
religion have common secular interests i.e. common political,
prominent was that the Muslim middle class had lagged behind
social, and cultural interests.
the Hindus in terms of education, which contributed to their
• Moderate Stage: In a multi-religious society like India, the secular
low representation in government jobs. Due to the lack of
interests of followers of one religion are dissimilar and divergent
enough economic opportunities at that time, a government
from the interests of the followers of another religion.
job was highly coveted by the middle classes.
• Extreme Stage: Interests of different religious communities are
• The demand for a separate nation of Pakistan got the favor
seen to be mutually incompatible, antagonistic, and hostile.
due to marked inequalities in socio–economic indicators
including representation in the seats of power.
FEATURES OF COMMUNALISM • The Mappila Rebellion, the first so-called communal clash,
• I t is a multifaceted process based on orthodoxy and intolerance. was also more of a proletarian strike against the landed
• I t also propagates intense dislike of other religions. gentry than a communal riot. It so happened that the
• It provides fertile ground for the emergence of mutual distrust landed gentry were Hindus and the peasants were Muslims.
and disharmony amongst the communities Ghettoization and the refugee problem are the other dimensions
• It stands for the elimination of other religions and their values. of communalism induced violence.
• It adopts extremist tactics including the use of violence against
other people.
Social Factors
• Communalism leads to abuse of power. It seeks to emphasize
• I ssues like beef consumption, Hindi/Urdu imposition, conversion
the social and religious norms of the community on the other
efforts by religious groups, etc., further created a wedge
communities by including force, fraud, economic and other
between the Hindus and Muslims.
allurements, and even assistance from foreign powers.
• Social institutions, customs, and practices of Hindus and
• It is exclusive in outlook; a communalist considers his own
Muslims are so divergent that they think themselves to be two
religion to be superior to other religions.
distinct communities that further aids communism in India.
• Communalism treats some citizens not as citizens but as a
member of some specific religious community.

www.civilsdaily.com 17
Psychological Factors MEDIEVAL PERIOD:
• T
 he lack of interpersonal trust and mutual understanding • In the Medieval period, there are examples such as- Akbar,
between two communities often result in the perception of who was the epitome of secular practices and believed in
threat, harassment, fear, and danger in one community against propagating such values by abolishing the Jizya tax and
the members of the other community, which in turn leads to starting of Din-I- ilahi and Ibadat Khana.
fighting, hatred, and anger-phobia. • However, barring few sectarian rulers like Aurangzeb, who
was least tolerant for other religious practices and performed
practices like- imposing taxes on religious practices of other
Role of Media community, destructing temples, forced conversions, killing of
• I t is often accused of sensationalism and disseminates rumours Sikh guru, etc. were instrumental in deepening and establishing
as “news” which sometimes resulted in further tension and the feeling of communal differences in India.
riots between two rival religious groups. • But these incidents were not common, as a huge majority of
• Lots of movies have been pictured on the above-mentioned Indians were rural and were aloof from such influences and so
communal violence, which can give us understanding about people coexisted peacefully. Overall, the Hindus and Muslims
the damages and harm done by these violence- “Bombay” & in those days had common economic and political interests.
“Black Friday” based on 1992 attacks. “Train to Pakistan” based
on the novel of Khuswant singh about partition of India, 1947.
“Gandhi” is a portrayal of Direct Action Day and partition of India. MODERN PERIOD:
“Hawayein” based of Sikh riots (1984) and “Machis” about Communal ideology in a person, party, or movement went
Punjab terrorism. through the mentioned three stages and two phases (Liberal and
• It has also emerged as a powerful medium to spread messages Extremist) during the Indian National Movement and ultimately
relating to communal tension or riot in any part of the country. resulted in the bifurcation of India and creation of Pakistan.

CONSEQUENCES OF COMMUNALISM POST-INDEPENDENCE:

Voters generally vote on communal lines. After getting elected, the • C olonialism is perceived as the prominent factor for the
representatives try to safeguard the interests of their community emergence of communalism in India. However, overthrowing
and ignore national interests. These conditions hinder the progress colonial rule proved to be only a necessary condition for
of democracy in the country. fighting communalism, not sufficient.
• It is also a threat to Indian constitutional values, which promotes • Even post-independence, communalism persisted and has
secularism and religious tolerance. In that case, citizens don’t been the biggest threat to the secular fabric of our nation.
fulfill their fundamental duties towards the nation. • Most communal riots prior to 1947 were rooted in the policy
• It becomes a threat to the unity and integrity of the nation as of British colonial rulers. But after the partition, a section of the
a whole. It promotes only the feeling of hatred in all directions, Indian elite of both sections are also blamed for the problem.
dividing society into communal lines. • Communal problems post-independence has been caused
• Communal activities occurring frequently do harm the human many factors, some of which are:
resource and economy of the country and act as a barrier in • The class division of society and the backwardness of our
the development of the nation. economy resulted in an unequal and unbalanced economy.
• The investment attitude towards the country from foreign • It is the upper classes of the less developed communities that
investors would be cautious; they tend to avoid the countries have enjoyed the fruits of limited growth and have hence
with a highly communal country, for not take the risk of end enjoyed the political power.
up losing their investment. • In order to draw support from their own communities, these
• The flow of labor from productive activities is diverted to leaders have always encouraged communal feelings to
unproductive activities; there is massive destruction of public strengthen their political support.
properties to spread the ideology.
• It causes hatred among different religious sections in society
and disrupts the peaceful social fabric of our society. COMMUNAL VIOLENCE IN INDIA
• A sudden increase in violence against any particular community
causes mass exodus and stampede which in turn kills any 1.Partition of India, 1947:
number of people. For example, this was seen in the case of • T he manifestations of communal killings and disturbances
Bangalore in 2012, with respect to people from North-eastern resulted in the Calcutta killings (1946) in which thousands lost
states, which was stimulated by a rumour. their lives within a span of five days, the butchery of Hindus
• With mass killings, the real sufferers are the poor, who lose their at Noakhali in Bengal and Muslims in Bihar, the carnage of
house, their near and dear ones, their lives, their livelihood, etc. partition riots in various parts of India and the assassination
It violates human rights from all directions. Sometimes children of Gandhiji by a Hindu fanatic.
lose their parents and will become orphans for a lifetime. • Communalism also resulted in the division of India and the
creation of Pakistan.
HISTORICAL VIEWPOINT • After partition, millions of the population were forced to move
from both sides of the border. Hindus in Pakistan and Muslims
in India were killed in masses, women were raped, and many
ANCIENT INDIA: children lost their parents. There was hatred everywhere,
• A
 ncient India was united and no such communal feelings violence didn’t see anything except bloodshed.
were there. People lived peacefully together; there • Later, it turned into the problem of refugees and their
was acceptance for each other’s culture and tradition. rehabilitation became one of the biggest challenges for
For example, Ashoka followed religious tolerance and focused independent India.
mainly on Dhamma.

18 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

2.Anti-Sikh riots, 1984: • T
 he riot has been described as “the worst violence in Uttar
• T
 his is one of the bloodsheds in India, where Sikhs in large Pradesh in recent history”, with the army being deployed in
numbers were massacred by the anti- Sikh mob. the state for the first time in the last 20 years.
• This massacre took place in response to the assassination of • International Religious Freedom Report 2013 (USA) has slammed
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi by his own Sikh bodyguard in the Uttar Pradesh government for not taking effective steps
response to her actions authorizing the military operation. to control communal violence and intolerance.
• Uttar Pradesh has seen the frequent occurrences of communal
riots. For Example, The Muzaffarnagar riots of 2013
3.Operation Blue Star:
• It is a code name given to an Indian Military Operation to
remove the separatists who were hidden inside the Golden CURRENT ISSUES REGARDING COMMUNALISM
Temple at Amritsar on 5th June 1984. Currently, a manifestation of communalism in India can be
• The operation was ordered by the then Prime Minister Indira witnessed in several forms. These include:
Gandhi, primarily to take control of the Harmandir Sahib
Complex in Amritsar (popularly known as the Golden Temple).
1.Haridwar hate speeches
• The Indian military entered into the premises of the temple
In December 2021, a dharma sansad (religious assembly) of
to drive out the Sikh extremist religious leader, Jarnail Singh
Hindu ascetics was held at Haridwar in Uttarakhand, India, where
Bhindranwale and his armed followers.
hate speeches were delivered in which the speakers called for
genocide against Muslims in the name of protecting Hinduism.
4.Issue of Kashmiri Hindu pandits (1989): The government’s apathy in the face of the hate event has been
• K
 ashmir is known as the heaven of India and was known for condemned by a wide cross-section of Indian society, including
its Kashmiryat, i.e. the reflection of love, peace and harmony retired military leaders, civil society activists, students, academics,
through brotherhood and unity of Hindu, Muslims and other and retired judges
communities living together.
• Spread of Islamic fundamentalism and terrorism in Kashmir
2.Hadiya case 2017:
valley led to mass killing and a large-scale exodus of Kashmiri
• A 24-year-old Hindu woman, Akhila, who converted to Islam
pandits during 1989- 90. The region continues to be threatened
and took a new name, Hadiya was at the center of the ‘love
by communal violence.
jihad’ controversy.
• While she alleged that she converted to Islam and chose to
5.Babri masjid demolition in Ayodhya, 1992: marry her husband out of choice, her father filed a Habeas
• I n December 1992, a large crowd of Hindu Kar Sevaks demolished Corpus petition and claimed that she was forced to convert
the 16th-century Babri masjid (mosque) in Ayodhya, Uttar to Islam and was targeted as a recruit of ISIS.
Pradesh claiming the site to be Ram Janma-bhoomi (birthplace • The Kerala High Court annulled her marriage, sent her to
of Ram). her parents’ home, and observed that “she was a weak and
• This led to months of inter-communal rioting between the vulnerable girl capable of being exploited.”
Hindus and Muslims resulting in the deaths of hundreds of • However, the Supreme Court protected her freedom to choose
people. her religion and freedom of movement and asked her to return
to college to continue her studies.

6.Godhra Riots 2002:

• T
 he Gujarat riot was caused by a fire incident in a train in which 3.Beef consumption and ensuing deaths:
58 Hindus were killed while they were returning from Ayodhya. • T
 he issue of beef consumption and transportation has been
• According to official figures, the riots resulted in the deaths a contentious issue in India and has triggered communal
of 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus. There were instances of rape, outbreaks in various parts of the country.
children being burned alive, and widespread looting and • Muslims were the target of 51% of violence cantered on bovine
destruction of property. issues over nearly eight years (2010 to 2017) and comprised
86% of 28 Indians killed in 63 incidents, according to India-
Spend content analysis.
7.Assam violence (2012):
• T
 here were frequent clashes between the Bodos and Bengali
speaking Muslims due to increased competition for livelihood, 4.Ghar Wapsi programs:
land, and political power. • It is a series of religious conversion activities, facilitated by
• In 2012, one such outbreak escalated into a riot in Kokrajhar, Indian Hindu organizations such as the Vishva Hindu Parishad
when unidentified miscreants killed four Bodo youths at Joypur. (VHP) and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), to facilitate
• This was followed by retaliatory attacks on local Muslims the conversion of non-Hindus to Hinduism.
killing two and injuring several of them. Almost 80 people • While the organizing groups claimed that people voluntarily
were killed, most of whom were Bengali Muslims and some came forward to convert to Hinduism, some participants
Bodos. Approximately, 400,000 people were displaced to claimed that they were forced to do so.
makeshift camps.
5.Religious fundamentalism among youth:
8.Muzaffarnagar Riots (2013): • It has been deemed as a major challenge among the youth.
• T
 he clashes between the Hindu Jats and Muslim communities There is an on-going threat of radicalization among Kashmiri
in Muzaffarnagar, UP resulted in at least 62 deaths, injured youth, which can give an impetus to already existing separatist
93 people, and left more than 50,000 displaced. tendencies.

www.civilsdaily.com 19
• F urther, the youth have fallen prey to fundamentalist tendencies REMEDIAL MEASURES
of terrorist groups like ISIS as much Indian radicalized youth • T he problem of communalism in India is grave and can have
have joined the group. far-reaching consequences. Thus, persuasive as well as punitive
• The Minister of Home Affairs (MHA) estimates that 75 Indians measures are required to curb its spread.
have joined ISIS. • Building solidarity and assimilation of various religious groups
• However, the reach of the terrorist organization is spreading at different levels in society- workplace, neighbourhood etc.
in India, especially through the medium of social media. by fostering a secular culture eg. celebrating each other’s
religious festivals.
• Emphasis on value-oriented education with a focus on the
6.Hijab issue:
values of peace, non-violence, compassion, secularism, and
• K
 arnataka is witnessing a huge uproar over the insistence of
humanism as well as developing scientific temper (enshrined
some Muslim girls to wear hijab in schools and colleges. The
as a fundamental duty) and rationalism as core values in
controversy erupted after a college in Udupi refused permission
children both in schools and colleges/universities, can prove
to Muslim girls for wearing hijab in classrooms citing the
vital in preventing communal feelings.
dress code that was in effect for students. After a five-day
• Swift and prompt response to radicalization by a militant group
break to cool tensions over the hijab ban controversy, high
on social media through police action, counselling sessions
schools reopened in Karnataka. As a precautionary measure,
for those radicalized especially adolescents etc.
the police in Udupi and Mangaluru has imposed prohibitory
• There is a need to reform in the present criminal justice system
orders near campuses for six days till Saturday.
(Mall math Committee recommended), speedy trials and
adequate compensation to the victims may act as a deterrent.
7.Delhi riot 2020 or North East Delhi riots: • Ensuring that political parties refrain from using religion,
• N
 ew Delhi witnessed one of the worst communal violence in religious ideologies in order to garner votes through strict
the history of the national capital. vigilance by institutional mechanisms such as the Election
• The premise of the New Delhi 2020 riots is based on growing Commission, media, civil society, etc.
animosity and destabilisation of communal harmony in the • Instances of an inter-religious marriage of two consenting
background of the Citizenship (Amendment) Act and the adults should not be construed as “love jihad issue” and
National Register of Citizens (NRC). highlighted in the media. Thus, media persons should be
sensitized regarding the issue.
• The pluralistic settlement where members of different
STEPS TO CHECK THE GROWTH OF COMMUNALISM communities live together should be encouraged by removing
existing barriers as religious segregation strengthens communal
1.Political: identities and reinforces negative stereotypes of other religious
• P olitical communism should be avoided as directed by the groups.
Supreme Court’s directives. • Sachar Committee report on the status of Indian Muslims
• Identification and mapping of riot prone areas. For Example, recommended the creation of an Equal Opportunities Commission
the Delhi police used drones to monitor to maintain vigil to deal with complaints of intolerance and exclusion.
during communal festivals. • The government should criminalize the act of mob violence.
• Media, movies, and other cultural platforms can be influential Manipur became the first to pass a remarkable law against
in promoting peace and harmony. lynching, late last year. The precedent should be followed
• Social Media should be monitored for violent and repulsive in other states too. Mobs leading communal riots should be
content and taken off immediately. controlled and strict action should be taken against them as
a combative measure.
• Stern law should be framed by the Parliament against communal
2.Social: violence. The weaknesses of laws resulted in the escape of
• R
 eligious leaders and preachers should promote rational and politicians and other influential persons openly indulged in
practical things through religion promoting peace and security. inciting communal violence.
• Children in schools must be taught through textbooks and • The CBI or a special investigative body should investigate
pamphlets to maintain brotherhood and respect for all religions. communal riots within a stipulated time frame.
• Creating awareness in the society about the ill effects of • Further, special courts should hear such cases for quick delivery
communism through mass media. of justice to victims. There is a need for minority welfare
schemes to be launched and implemented efficiently by the
administration to address the challenges and various forms of
3.Economic: discrimination faced by them in jobs, housing, and daily life.
• P overty is one of the major factors for communal violence.
• Increase in the representation of minority communities and
Poverty alleviation measures are thus important for promoting
weaker sections in all wings of law-enforcement, training of
communal harmony.
forces in human rights, especially in the use of firearms in
• Eradicating the problem of unemployment among the youths,
accordance with the UN code of conduct.
illiteracy, and poverty and that too with honesty and without
• Uniform Civil Code should be formulated and implemented
any discrimination. There is a great need to work towards
with the consensus of all religious communities so that there
eradicating the problem of unemployment among the youths,
is uniformity in personal laws.
illiteracy and poverty and that too with honesty and without
• Secular education should be taught in all educational
any discrimination
institutions, which will lead to the development of harmony
• Reducing the educational and economic backwardness of
and co-operation among members of different communities.
minorities like Muslims. This can uplift their socio-economic
• History education should be de-communalized as the present
status and reduce their deprivation compared to Hindus
categorization of Indian history into ancient, medieval, and
modern has contributed to communal thinking as it has

20 SAMACHAR MANTHAN | MONTHLY CLASS

 effectively divided history into the Hindu period, Muslim • T
 he government should not ban minority practices to appease
period, and Christian period respectively. This has given rise the majority group. E.g. the state should not show a preference
to notions that India was a Hindu country which was ‘invaded’ for vegetarianism.
by Muslims and Christians. • M edia, movies, and other influences should be
• Increased employment opportunities for minorities used in promoting religious harmony and peace.
can lead to a decrease in communal discord. The solution of such problems cannot be one or two steps by
Religious heads can play an important role in the dissemination the government. Apart from legislative support, administrative
of ideas of the diversity of religion, ideas, etc. which can help efficiency and alertness with the help of modern tools and
in spreading peace among different communities. technology, the major onus lies on the citizens themselves
by avoiding communal violence.

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