Example of Test Problems

(Solution)

CHME 445-Desalination
Fall 2020
Dr. Dong Suk Han

1. What factors can worsen water security globally?

The increase in population increases the demand for water for domestic use as well as
water needed for food production.
The need for industrial water due to growing economies and more production facilities.
2. What types of water resources can be considered for water security in Qatar?
The only water source that can be considered in Qatar is from seawater desalination.
Since groundwater resources are very limited, there are no freshwater sources and
precipitation is very little.
3. What is salinity? Why is this significant when dealing with water desalination? Please
answer technically.
Salinity is the concentration of salts in water. It is significant when dealing with water
desalination for the determination of the amount of energy needed to produce water with
the desired quality. For example, in reverse osmosis operations, it is necessary to find the
osmotic pressure, which is a function of salinity as follows:
−3
π=0.7 × 10 ∗C
Where C is the concentration of salt in the water.
4. Name the desalination technology in the figures below.

Reverse Osmosis (RO) Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) Forward Osmosis (FO)
5. What is osmotic pressure (bar) of general seawater (salinity=35,000 g/L)?
Π=25 bar
6. Why is it necessary to consider the size of elements before and after hydration in the
membrane-based desalination process?
It is important to consider the size of elements since this affects if the particle can pass
through the membrane or not. Bigger particles do not pass through the membrane;
however, this depends on the size of the pores of the membrane.
7. What is the difference between diffusion and osmosis?
Osmosis is the movement of solvent across a semi-permeable membrane from low
concentration to high concentration of solute. While diffusion is the movement of solute
from high concentration to low concentration.
8. Qatar is highly dependent on seawater desalination for Qatar’s water security. What
factors could threaten Qatar’s water security?
Environmental factors that affect the quality of the seawater can have an impact on the water
security of Qatar (since it is highly reliant on seawater) include algae bloom and oil spills.

9. There are several factors driving the global trend toward RO-based membrane systems by
lowering RO capital costs with inexpensive construction materials. So, Qatar adopts a
hybrid method of thermo-based evaporation (MSF) system and membrane-based (RO)
system. Why has Qatar decided to use a hybrid system instead of a single RO operation
for water production?
Qatar decided to use a hybrid system based on the following criteria:
 Thermal plants using MSF technologies can be operated since fossil fuels (natural
gas) is readily available in Qatar.
 Membrane based plants are used since they are cost effective and require less
energy.
 In Qatar, the seawater quality is poor (high salinity), which means that the
recovery using RO technology is limited.
 High temperatures of water also contribute to fouling, which requires the need to
have a backup operation.
10. What is the difference between dead-end flow and crossflow filtration?
Dead end filtration means that the feed water flows perpendicular to the membrane
placing, this means that the membrane acts as a coffee filter, letting the permeate passing
and leaving behind the salts accumulated on the surface. Usually, this type of filtration is
used to determine the capacity of separation since it has low permeate rate.
Crossflow filtration means that the feed water flows over the membrane surface in a
tangential direction. This type of filtration has high permeate rate.
11. Flux in membrane-based desalination systems consists of key terms of “net driving force
(NDP)”. Please use appropriate factor to complete the NDP. With the NPD, how can you
explain reverse osmosis (RO) operation?

1 dV
J= ∙ =(NDP)∙ K w
A dt

The net driving force is the pressure difference: NDP=∆ P−∆ π

In order for the reverse osmosis operation to take place, the pressure applied should be
higher than the osmotic pressure of the fluid.
12. In a seawater RO plant, the feed pressure equals 25 bar. Assuming that the salinity of
seawater is 35,000 mg/L and the RO recovery is 40% under normal conditions. What is
the production at 25 bar?
Comparing the osmotic pressure with the feed pressure:
π=35∗0.7=24.5 ¯¿
Feed pressure = 25 bar
NDP=∆ P−∆ π =25−24.5=0.5
The NDP is very small (almost zero), therefore, there is no production.
13. When will salt rejection increase in the membrane-based desalination? Please mark (↑ or
↓ ) in ( ).
(1) Ionic charge (Increase)
(2) Degree of dissociation (Increase)
(3) Molecular weight (Increase)
(4) Polarity (Decrease)
(5) Degree of hydration (Increase)
(6) Degree of molecular branching (Increase)
14. Please insert the appropriate numbers into the blank boxes for concentrate concentration
in the RO system according to the specified designed RO recovery rates. What can we
expect If the actual RO recovery exceeds the designed recovery? Also please explain
appropriately in the reverse case as well.

If the RO recovery exceeds the designed recovery, speeds up the fouling and scaling of
the membranes, however, generates less brine and with a lower purity in the permeate.
For the reverse case, more brine (concentrate) is generated but with higher permeate
purity.
15. To improve RO recovery rate, what technological/operational approach is required.
(please consider pretreatment and membrane separation sections).
To improve the RO recovery rate, different methods in pretreatment and membrane
separation units are done:
 Pretreatment section: Removing as much large particles as possible (using
filtration techniques such as ultrafiltration) as well as using anti-scaling
agents/chemicals, which results in less possibility of scaling/fouling of membrane
surfaces.
 Membrane Separation: Using improved membranes and treating brine effectively.
16. What is concentration polarization (CP) in the membrane-based desalination system?
What are the negative effects of the CP on the performance of the RO system? How can
we control the CP effect (consider concentration polarization factor: Cm/Cb = exp(J/k))?
Concentration Polarization (CP) is the accumulation of salts at the surface of the
membrane.
The negative effects of CP on the RO system include:
 Lower NDF (Net Driving Force) since concentration of salt on the surface is
greater than in the bulk. Higher feed pressure is required to maintain the same
flux.
 Lower salt rejection since high concentration at the membrane surface and
increased salt transport (higher salt passage).
 Precipitation of salt on the surface of the membrane cause scaling and fouling.
 Reduced water transport (permeate rate).
 We can control the CP effect by two methods:
 Decreasing the flux (J): Increasing the flux will increase the permeate flow
and therefore higher transport of ions will increase the CP.
 Increasing the mass transfer coefficient (k): Done by increasing the velocity of
the feed. As velocity across membrane increases, some salt is eroded due to
water flow and accumulation of salts/ CP is reduced.
17. What is membrane fouling? How does the membrane fouling affect RO membrane
operation? How can we measure the fouling potential of source feed water?
Membrane fouling is the deposition of suspended solids on the surface of the membrane
and it typically occurs on the concentrate side.
Membrane fouling creates an additional layer that causes lower driving force and a higher
pressure drop, this also means lower flux.
We can measure the fouling potential of the water using Silt Density Index (SDI):

SD I n=
1−
() t0
tn
n
Where t0 is the time to collect 500 ml of influent water (at t=0), tn is the time to collect
500 ml of water at t=n mins, n is the total run time.
18. What is membrane scaling? What are the key elements that can occur the scaling? How
can we measure the scaling potential of source feed water?
Membrane scaling is the result of precipitation of saturated salts on the membrane
surface.
We can measure the scaling potential of the source feedwater either by comparing the ion
product with the solubility constant or using LSI (Langelier Saturation Index). If LSI is
greater than 0, the feed water is more likely to form scaling on membrane surface.

19. What is specific energy consumption in the RO desalination process?

Specific energy consumption is the amount of energy required to produce unit volume of
water by desalination.
20. Recently RO membrane cost is cheaper than before. If so, why is RO membrane
development still addressed?
There are three main issues that are still persistent in RO membranes and that are mainly
addressed: high energy requirement, low recovery rates and fouling.

21. What is membrane? To separate ions through the membrane, what the driving forces can
be applied?
A membrane is a selective barrier that allows separation of components in a mixture.
22. What is a big difference between “MF/UF” and “NF/RO” process?
The main difference between MF/UF and NF/RO is the mechanism of separation and the
type of membrane used. For the MF/UF porous membranes are used, and it is operated
using sieving mechanism, while for the NF/RO which requires non-porous membranes,
operates using solution diffusion mechanism.
23. What is “phase inversion” in membrane formation? And what are the techniques mainly
used for phase inversion.
Phase inversion is the process by which a polymer solution inverts into a 3D
macromolecular network/gel. In other words, the substance transforms from having 1
phase to 2 phases.
24. Please explain the wet process of the phase inversion.
 The polymer is dissolved using an appropriate solvent with concentration of 10-
30% by weight polymer.
 The polymer solution is then cast on a glass surface with a thickness of 100-500
µm
 Place the glass into the water (after solvent is evaporated), the two phases will be
formed.

25. Please explain the structure of thin-film composite (TFC) polyamide (PA) RO membrane.
The Thin Film Composite PA membrane has 3 main layers: polyamide layer, polysulfone
layer and the backing layer.
 Polyamide layer is on the top, it is a very thin layer not thicker than 0.3 µm.
 Polysulfone layer is a porous layer that is used as support. It has good chlorine
resistance and it is porous to help transport particles.
 Backing layer is used to support the 2 layers and for mechanical stability of the
membrane.
26. What are the strong points of PA over Cellulose Acetate membranes?
PA has high salt and silica rejection as well as operating at a wide pH range, as well as
high temperature tolerance compared to CA membranes.

27. Please fill in the blank boxes with the appropriate name for the scheme of the spiral
wound RO module.
28. The below diagram is 2-stage RO array. Please fill in the empty boxes with the
appropriate number for TDS concentration and flowrate. Also, please evaluate 2-stage
RO array in terms of water recovery with the obtained flowrate in the last stage.

The overall recovery of the RO 2-stage process is 75%. While the overall system
rejection is 99.7% (although each individual membrane rejection is 98%).

29. What is the big difference between 2-stage RO array and 2-pass RO array? Also, please
explain why does Qatar’s UHP SWRO adopt 2-pass RO system.
In a 2-stage RO array, high concentration of brine is generated, sometimes 2-stage RO
arrays are used for brine treatment. In a 2-pass RO array, you run the permeate in another
2-stage RO configuration. 2-pass RO array is normally used to improve the quality of
water produces while minimizing the amount of brine generated.
Qatar adopts a 2-pass RO system for the removal of boron (which is toxic) in product
water.
30. Energy consumption of SWRO is highly reduced by 50-60% after employing the energy
recovery device (ERD). What mechanism is involved in the ERD system?
The ERD employed is the pressure exchanger.
The pressure exchanger exchanges pressure across a membrane according to pressure
difference.
31. Why is water quality studied intensively for the SWRO process?
It is important to study the water quality for the SWRO process since the performance of
the RO system depends on the feed quality of the water to determine the pretreatment
methods that should be put in place to avoid problems such as scaling, fouling and
membrane damage.
32. Microbial fouling will lower membrane productivity, increase operating pressure, and
increase pressure drop. To minimize the microbial fouling, Qatar’s UHP SWRO apply
chlorination into seawater intake. However, chlorine can degrade the PA RO membrane,
so it should be treated before feeding to the RO system.
(1) How can we control chlorine in RO feed water?
 Neutralize it with sodium sulfide solution, carbon bed or a combination of
both
 Apply chlorine “off-line” to the pretreatment section
 (2) Why does the PA RO membrane still experience microbial fouling even though the
microbes in seawater were already killed by chlorine?
Because the bacteria/microbes will grow anywhere as long as the conditions are
favorable (temperature, pH, etc.)
33. Color in RO source water is originated from natural organic matter such as humic
substances. How can we reduce the color from RO source water? If there is problematic
issue in your selected technique, please also describe.
We can reduce the color in the water by operating at high pH levels (>9) or coagulation
using OH- flocculants, however, this can cause CaCO3 scaling.
34. Why do we our best to remove metal ions (Fe, Mn, etc.) from RO source water?
We try to remove metals such as Fe and Mn from feed water since these metals can
catalyze the reactions of oxidation with the RO membrane which causes the membrane to
become damaged.
35. Why could the presence of hydrogen sulfide in well water be serious in the RO system?
Yes, the presence of hydrogen sulfide can cause 2 main issues:
 Formation of elemental sulfur, which is formed by dissociation of H2S in water,
which can deposit on membrane surface and cause a decrease in water flux as
well as an increase in salt passage due to scale formation.
 Metal salts can react with H2S to produce metal sulfide which forms sticky and
often insoluble substances on the membrane surface.
36. Describe the basic chemistry and problems of silica that may affect SWRO operation.
Issues that affect the SWRO operation due to silica:
 Deposition of silicates
 Polymerization of silicic acid to amorphous silica
 Accumulation of amorphous colloidal particles on the surface.

37. Why is calcium carbonate more serious than other calcium compounds (calcium sulfate,
calcium fluoride, etc.) in the SWRO process?
Calcium carbonate is a serious issue since it can cause scaling and a possible exception of
biofouling. This can cause a lower productivity and salt rejection.
38. Please complete the diagram of Qatar’s UHP SWRO process by filling in the empty
boxes with the appropriate word.
39. Qatar’s UHP SWRO desalination process adopts dissolved air floatation (DAF)? Please
describe DAF system and why is the DAF system being applied to the UHP SWRO
process?
DAF (Dissolved Air Floatation) technology is used to remove floating particulates such
algae, oil and grease that cannot be removed by filtration.
DAF uses small size air bubbles to make the small particulates float, then they are
collected at the top where they are skimmed off and disposed.
DAF is applied to UHP SWRO process since it has a high rate in removing floating
particulates and it has a high OBP.
40. What is coagulation and flocculation? What coagulant/flocculant are suitable for seawater
desalination (< 10 NTU)?
Coagulation is using cationic compound to change neutralize the net negative charge of
suspended particles in water.
Flocculation is the agglomeration of charge-neutralized particles into larger particles.
For (<10 NTU): Inorganic or combination of inorganic and organic coagulant/flocculant
used.
41. UV irradiation is sometimes used for pretreatment of the desalination process. What
advantage and disadvantage of this method have as compared to other methods?
Advantages for using UV radiation for pretreatment:
 Easy to install
 Effective in pretreatment
 Oxidizes organic matter
Disadvantages of using UV radiation for pretreatment:
 Can have scaling
42. Chlorine (or free chlorine) is widely used as a disinfection method in seawater RO
desalination plant. What advantage/disadvantage of using chorine method in SWRO
process?

43. What is a big difference between chorine (free chlorine) and chloramines (combined
chlorine) in distinction method?

44. What is advantage/disadvantage of using chlorine dioxide (ClO2) as a disinfection

method?

45. How can control chlorine in the RO feed water to prevent RO membrane degradation?
For this, what factors would be important?

46. What factors of the membrane should we consider to control membrane biofouling? What
are the effects of membrane biofouling? What techniques can be used to reduce the
biofouling?