HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

FIRST TOUCH
STUDENT HANDOUT
PREP BY PROF. SALIM MAFANYA.

WELCOME STUDENT

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Table Of Contents
About Author……………………………….…………………………………….. 3
Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………... 3
Introduction……………...………….…………………………………………….. 4

Module Sessions
Session 1. Basic Concepts of Human Body Functions…………………………… 4
Session 2. Functioning of Blood and Its Constituents …………………………… 9
Session 3. Functioning of the Circulatory System ………………………………. 20
Session 4. Functioning of the Respiratory System ………………………………. 29
Session 5. Functioning of the Gastrointestinal.………………………………….
Session 6. Functions of Endocrine and Reproductive Systems ………………….
Session 7. Functioning of Body Fluids and Kidneys ……………………………
Session 8. Functioning of the Nervous System…………………………………

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 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

SALIM MAFANYA is a medical student at kibaha clinical officers training Centre (COTC) who has
a Gifted talent in writing potential summaries of important and solutions of most challenging questions
of different modules since he was at Kigamboni city collage of health and aligned science KiCCoHAS
(Private institution) for over a year. He provides ghost writing, coaching and ghost editing services.

His educational background in medicine started at KiCCoHAS in 2021/22 has given him a broad base
from which to approach many topics of Medicine.

His writing skills may be confirmed independently on his website [Link]

Email salimmafanya@[Link] He especially enjoys preparing potential summaries for individual

or self-study.

Contrast this to SALIM MAFANYA who is now a very well-known author, but still leaves quite a bit
out of his bio that would help many colleagues understand who he is and why they should care even

Salim Mafanya is not famous enough to assume people know him. If you would like to contact

Salim Mafanya for more articles like this, he would love to hear from you 0769422166.

Special thanks goes to my family Mr. Maulid Mafanya and Rahma Kapene The father and mother of
mine respectively, Hassan Mafanya – Accountant at IFM, the brother of mine. Hajra A. Hassan my
colleague Dr. Muruo Steven.

Finally, I appreciate very much the contribution of my tutors and content experts representing me in
various hospitals, universities, and other health training institution together we made this possible

Dr. Salim Mafanya.

……………….

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 Session 1. Title: HUMAN BODY FUNCTION

1: Describe Basic Concepts of Human Body Functions in diagnosing diseases

Related Tasks
 Define the term physiology
 Explain homeostasis and homeostatic control systems
 Describe the structure and functioning of a cell
 Describe transport of substances across cell membranes

1. Define the following terms

(i) Physiology
(ii) Feedback mechanism
(iii) Positive feedback loop
(iv) Negative feedback loop
(v) Feed forward mechanism

Answer:

 Physiology: is the scientific study of normal mechanisms, and their interactions, which
operate within a living system

 Homeostasis: Is maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment.

 Feedback mechanism: is a process that uses the conditions of one component to regulate the
function of the other (it accelerates or slow down the condition).

 Positive feedback loops: stimulus produces a response which increases the stimulus
(hormones are produced to increase the effect e.g. oxytocin)

 Negative feedback loop: stimulus produces a response to the effectors that decreases the effect
of normal stimulus(hormones produced to decrease the effect e.g. insulin)

 Feed forward mechanism: are mechanisms or signals generated from sensory nerve that tend
to accelerate or slow down the process.

 Receptors: which receives information about a change in the environment (sense for stimuli)
e.g. baroreceptors

 Control center/ Integrating center: which receives and processes information from the
receptor e.g. Hypothalamus, Brain

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  Effector: which responds to signals from the control center by either opposing or enhancing
the stimulus e.g. muscles

2. Mention three (3) types of homeostatic responses in the body?

Answers:
 Positive feedback mechanism
 Negative feedback mechanism
 Feed forward mechanism

3. Outline five (5) components of homeostatic control

Answers:
 Stimuli/ physiological variables
 Receptor
 Afferent Pathway
 Integrating or control center
 Efferent Pathway
 Effector

4. Mention five (5) examples of positive feedback mechanisms?

Answers:
 Blood clotting
 High blood glucose level; stimulates pancreas to release more insulin
 Release of oxytocin during labour.; during childbirth the cervix stretches, nerves in the cervix
send message to the pituitary gland to release more oxytocin resulting to uterine contractions
causing even more stretching of the cervix
 Lactation; baby sucking nipple impulse are sent to hypothalamus, stimulates pituitary gland to
release more oxytocin that stimulate milk ejection
 Hypotension
 Ovulation
 Generation of nerve signals
 Hormone control e.g. oxytocin
 Protein digestions

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5. Mention five (5) examples of negative feedback mechanisms?

Answers:
 Regulation of body temperature
 Low blood glucose level; stimulate the pancreas to stop releasing insulin
 Sweating in response to hyperthermia
 Shivering in response to hypothermia
 Conditions e.g. Diabetes mellitus, Diabetes inspidus
 Hormonal control e.g. Insulin
 Squinting of the eyes in bright sunlight
 Regulation of O 2 & CO2 Concentration In extracellular fluid
 Regulation of Arterial Blood Pressure
 Regulation of hydrogen, sodium, potassium, phosphate, and other ions in extracellular fluid
by kidney

6. Mention five (5) homeostatic control systems?

Answers:
 Endocrine system
 Respiratory system
 Urinary system
 Gastrointestinal system
 Nervous system

7. Mention five (5) common feedback systems that take part in homeostasis.

Answers:
 Water regulation in the body
 O2 and CO regulation
 pH regulation
 Blood glucose regulation
 Blood pressure regulation
 Temperature regulation
 Temperature regulations
 Electrolytes regulation

8. Name two (2) hormone that cats through positive feedback mechanism
Answers:
 Oxytocin
 Luteinizing Hormone

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9. Name one (1) hormone that acts through negative feedback mechanism.

Answers:
 Insulin
 Thyroxine
 Follicle stimulating Hormone.

10. Mention five (5) Examples of physiological variables in the body?

Answers:
 Temperature
 Water and electrolyte concentrations
 pH (acidity or alkalinity of body fluids)
 Blood glucose levels
 Blood and tissue oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
 Blood pressure

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 ESSAY SAMPLE QUESTIONS

11. Explain homeostatic control in different systems

 Respiratory system: blood picks O2 in lungs and CO2 is released from blood into lung alveoli
and removed
 Gastrointestinal system: in GIT walls there are number of blood vessels that absorb digested
food nutrients e.g. Fatty acid, amino acids
 Urinary system: when blood passes in kidney removes plasma, unwanted substances, and
excess water forming urine
 Nervous system: autonomic NS operate and control many f(x) of internal organs including
secretion of glands, pumping blood action
 Endocrine system: endocrine glands secretes hormones that are transported by extracellular
fluid to all parts of the body to regulate cellular function
 Musculoskeletal system: provide motility for protection against adverse surroundings

12. Explain the positive feedback mechanism in regulation and control of hormones in the body?
Example; Labour mechanism
 During labour, contractions of the uterus are stimulated by the hormone oxytocin. These force
the baby's head into the cervix of the uterus stimulating stretch receptors there.
 In response to this, more of the hormone oxytocin is released, further strengthening the
contractions and maintaining labour.
 After the baby is born the stimulus (stretching of the cervix) is no longer present and the release
of oxytocin stops

13. Explain mechanism of insulin on negative feedback mechanism?

Answer;
Insulin- is the hormone produced by pancreas in response to high blood glucose level.
Mechanism of insulin
 In case high blood glucose level; pancreas release insulin into the blood
 Then insulin goes through the whole body and tells the cells to take glucose out of blood
 Cells uses glucose as energy which cause glucose level drop down
 Then pancreas see it and stop releasing insulin in response to lowered glucose level in blood
 When pancreas stop producing insulin then cells stop taking extra glucose from blood
 Thus negative feedback works to keep blood glucose level to the normal.

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14. Define the following related terminologies
i. Cell
ii. Endoplasmic reticulum
iii. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
iv. Ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Answers

 Cell: is the smallest functional unit of an organism that is classified as living, and is often
called the building block of life.
 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): is the transport network for molecules targeted for certain
modifications and specific destinations, as compared to molecules that will float freely in the
cytoplasm.
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in
the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses.
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA): is also used for information transport (e.g. mRNA) and enzymatic
functions (e.g. ribosomal RNA) in organisms that use DNA for the genetic code itself.

15. Mention five (5) cytoplasmic organelles and their function

Answers:
 Mitochondria –it generates power(generates energy in form of ATP)
 Ribosomes- for protein production
 Nucleus – it contain genetic materials
 Endoplasmic reticulum- secretion of protein
 Golgi apparatus- processing macromolecules like protein and lipids
 Lysosome - Suicide bag
 Centromere

16. Mention five (5) levels of structural organization of a human body

Answers:
 Chemical level
 Cell level
 Tissue level
 Organ level
 Organ system level
 Organism level

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17. Mention five (5) life essential characteristics

Answers:
 Organization
 Metabolism
 Responsiveness
 Growth
 Development
 Reproduction

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 Session 2. Title: FUNCTION OF BLOOD AND ITS CONSTITUENTS

2. Utilize knowledge on the Functioning of Blood and Its Constituents in in diagnosing diseases
Related Tasks
 Mention constituents of blood
 Classify blood cells
 Outline sites for synthesis of blood cells
 Describe requirement for production of blood cells
 Describe functions of blood cells
 Describe metabolism of haemoglobin
 Describe blood typing and transfusion
 Describe mechanisms of blood coagulation (Haemostasis)

 Define the following terms

i. Blood
ii. Haemolysis
iii. Haemostasis
iv. Erythropoiesis
v. Erythropoietin
vi. Neutropenia
vii. Thrombocytopenia
viii. Leukemia
ix. Chemoreceptors
x. Blood groups

Answers;

 Blood: is the specialized connective tissue containing formed elements(cellular comp) and
intercellular matters(liquid comp)

 Plasma: is a fluid portion in the blood containing an immense number of ions, inorganic
molecules, and organic molecules that are in transit to various parts of the body or aid in the
transport of other substances.

 Hemolysis: is the premature destruction of erythrocytes

 Hemostasis: means prevention of blood loss(blood clotting)

 Anemia: is the deficiency of hemoglobin in blood that is either due to few RBC or too little
hemoglobin in the cell.

 Hypochromic: cells appear pale in colour

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  Microcytes: cell appear smaller than the normal erythrocytes

 Macrocytes: cells appear bigger than the normal erythrocytes

 Poikilocytes: is the irregular shape of erythrocytes

 Erythropoietin (EPO): is a glycoprotein (protein-sugar conjugate) that serves as the primary

regulator of red blood cells (erythrocytes). It’s a hormone produced mainly in kidneys and liver

 Erythropoiesis: is the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced. Usually
take place in bone marrows, liver, spleen in adults and mesodermal cells of the yolk sac in early
fetus

 Erythrocytes: also known as red blood cells in adults it’s produced in bone marrows it takes
about 7 days for erythrocytes to mature and live a total of about 120 days.

 Pluripotent Haematopoietic stem cell: Are cells found in bone marrows which are capable of
giving rise to all blood cell types.

 Leukocytes /White blood cells: are cells of the immune system defending the body against
both infectious disease and foreign materials.

 Platelets /Thrombocytes: are roughly disk-shaped cells consisting of a small amount of

cytoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane. The life expectancy of platelets is about 5 - 9
days.

 Hematopoiesis: Active process to maintain normal number of circulating blood cells

 Neutropenia: low production of neutrophils

 Thrombocytopenia: low production of platelets.

 Leukopenia: means low number of leukocytes in the blood. The normal range is between 4×109
and 11×109 white blood cells in a litre of blood,

 Leukemia: is the cancer of blood forming tissues e.g. liver spleen, bone marrow

 Spleen: is the dark red to blue organ which is slightly oval in shape (its second lymphoid organ)
in the left hypochondrium directly below the diaphragm, above the left kidney and descending
colon, and behind the fundus of the stomach.

 Chemo receptors: are receptors responsible for detection of CO2 and O2 concentration

 Blood group: A classification of blood based on the presence or absence of inherited antigenic
substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).

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  The ABO system: is the most important blood group system in human blood transfusion.

 Universal donor: is an individual who can donate blood to individual of any ABO blood group.
E.g. a group O individual can receive blood only from a group O individual, but can donate
blood to individuals of any ABO blood group (i.e. A, B, O or AB)

 Universal recipient: an individual who can receive blood from any ABO blood group. E.g. AB
blood group can receive blood from any group (with AB being preferable), but can donate blood
only to another group AB individual.

 Rhesus (Rh) blood group system: refers to the 5 main Rhesus antigens (C, c, D, E and e) as
well as the many other less frequent Rhesus antigens.

 Rhesus positive: means presence of the RhD antigen irrespective of the presence or absence of
the other antigens of the Rhesus system.

 Rhesus negative: means absence of the RhD antigen irrespective of the presence or absence of
the other antigens of the Rhesus system.

 Mention five (5) constituents of blood?

Answers:
 Plasma
 Erythrocytes
 Leukocytes
 Thrombocytes

 Mention five (5) Constituents of plasma.

Answers:
 Plasma proteins e.g. Albumins, globulins (including antibodies), fibrinogen, clotting factors
 Amino acids e.g. Essential and Non-essential amino acids
 Fats e.g. triglycerides, cholesterol
 Carbohydrates e.g. Glucose
 Antibodies
 Non protein nitrogenous substances e.g. Ammonia, creatine, urea
 Inorganic salts (mineral salts) –Sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, potassium,
magnesium, phosphate, iron, calcium, copper, iodine, cobalt
 Organic waste materials e.g. Urea, uric acid, creatinine
 Hormones
 Enzymes e.g. amylase, creatine
 Gases e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen

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 Mention Cellular component (formed elements) of blood

Answers:
 Red blood cells(erythrocytes)
 White blood cells(leukocytes)
 Platelet’s (thrombocytes)

 Mention five (5) major types of leukocytes (white blood cells)

Answers:
 Neutrophils
 Eosinophils
 Basophils
 Monocytes
 Lymphocytes

 Outline four (4) functions of red blood cells.

Answers:
 Oxygen gas transportation
 CO2 transportation
 Help in blood glucose determination
 Has buffering function in blood

 Mention function of the following blood cells?

Answers:
 Neutrophils – deals with bacterial infections
 Eosinophils – deals with parasitic infections
 Basophils – deals with allergic reaction
 Monocytes – deals with infectious agents
 Lymphocytes – fight against viral infections
 Platelets – prevent blood loss
 Thrombocytes – involved in clotting mechanism
 Erythrocytes – carries oxygen

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 Mention five (5) function of plasma.

Answers:
 Transportation
 Blood clotting
 Defense
 Regulation of pH
 Regulation of oncotic pressure
 Fibrosis

 Mention five (5) function of plasma protein.

Answers:
 Essential for coagulation
 Transportation of various substances e.g. alpha-globulin
 Defense (immune system)
 Maintenance of blood osmotic pressure
 Provide viscosity of blood
 Regulates acid-base balance
 Help to determine ESR level
 Maintainance of stability of the red blood cells
 Production of trephine substances

 Mention five (5) function of serum protein.

Answers:
 Act as enzyme
 Immune system (by globulins)
 Transportation of lipids, vitamins
 Regulation of body pressure
 Blood clotting (by fibrinogen)

 Outline five (5) sites for synthesis of blood cells

Answers:
 Yolk sac in early fetus
 Liver
 Spleen
 Lymph nodes
 Bone marrow

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 Mention other blood forming organs?

Answers:
 Lymph nodes
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Tonsils
 Peyers patches

 Enumerate five (5) developmental stages of the monoblast?

Answers:
 Pluripotential Hemopoietic Stem Cell or hemocytoblast
 Monoblast
 Promonocyte
 Monocyte
 Macrophage

 Mention four (4) factors influencing erythropoiesis.

Answers:
 Erythropoietin
 Thyroxin
 Vitamins
 Haematopoietic growth factor

 Enumerate six (6) stages of erythropoiesis.

Answers:
 Proerythroblast
 Early normoblasts
 Intermediate normoblast
 Late normoblast
 Reticulocyte
 Matured erythrocytes

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 Mention one function of each of three types of lymphocytes.

Answers:
 B cells; which make antibodies that bind to pathogens to enable their destruction.

 T cells; these include CD4+ (helper) T cells co-ordinate the immune response (they are
what become defective in an HIV infection).
 CD8+ (cytotoxic) are able to kill virus-infected and tumor cells
 Natural killer cells are able to kill cells of the body that are infected by a virus or have
become cancerous

 Mention five (5) Causes of raised neutrophils in the blood?

Answers:
 Microbial infection
 Tissue damage, e.g. Inflammation, myocardial infarction, burns, crush injuries
 Metabolic disorders, e.g. Diabetic ketoacidosis, acute gout
 Leukemia
 Heavy smoking
 Use of oral contraceptives

 Mention (5) Monocyte/macrophage found in different system

Answers:
 Histiocytes in connective tissues
 Microglia in the brain
 Kupffer cells in the liver
 Alveolar macrophages in the lungs
 Sinus-lining macrophages (reticularcells) in the spleen, lymph nodes and thymus gland
 Mesangial cells in the glomerulus of nephrons in the kidney
 Osteoclasts in bone

 Mention five (5) Vitamin K –DEPENDANT clotting factor?

Answers:
 Factor II- prothrombin
 Factor VII
 Factor IX- plasma thromboplastin component
 Factor X- Stuart power factor
 Factor III – Thromboplastin
 Factor IV- Calcium
 Factor XI- Hageman factor
 Factor XII- Hageman factor, glass factor

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 Mention the four (4) steps of haemostasis (blood clotting)

Answers:
 Vasoconstriction
 Platelet plug formation
 Coagulation
 Fibrinolysis

 Outline five (5) function of blood

Answers:
 Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to haemoglobin which is carried in red cells
 Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or
bound to plasma proteins (e.g. blood lipids)
 Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid
 Immunological functions, including circulation of white cells, and detection of foreign
material by antibodies
 Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
 Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue
damage
 Regulation of body pH (the normal pH of blood is in the range of 7.35 - 7.45)
 Regulation of core body temperature
 Regulation of water balance
 Storage of substances like proteins, glucose

 Mention four (4) groups of blood?

Answers:
 Blood group O (UNIVERSAL DONOR)
 Blood group A
 Blood group B
 Blood group AB (UNIVERSAL RECEPIENT)

 Mention Types of Agglutinogens(ANTIGENS)

Answers:
 Antigen A(Type A Agglutinogenes)
 Antigen B(Type B Agglutinogens)

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 ESSAY SAMPLE QUESTIONS

 Briefly describe the main functions of blood

Definition:
 Blood is a specialized bodily fluid that delivers necessary substances to the body's cells
such as nutrients, oxygen and transports waste products away from those same cells and
accounts for 7% of the human body weight
Functions

 Supply of oxygen to tissues (bound to hemoglobin which is carried in red cells)

 Supply of nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids (dissolved in the blood or
bound to plasma proteins (e.g. blood lipids)
 Removal of waste such as carbon dioxide, urea and lactic acid
 Immunological functions, including circulation of white cells, and detection of foreign
material by antibodies
 Coagulation, which is one part of the body's self-repair mechanism
 Messenger functions, including the transport of hormones and the signaling of tissue
damage
 Regulation of body pH
 Regulation of core body temperature

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 Explain different types of blood groups?

 Blood group O (UNIVERSAL DONOR)

-Neither A nor B Agglutinogens is present
-Blood group O individuals do not have either A or B antigens on the surface of their RBCs,
but their blood serum contain IgM anti-A antibodies and anti-B antibodies against the A and
B blood group antigens

 Blood group AB (UNIVERSAL RECEPIENT)

-Contain both A and B Agglutinogens but no Agglutinins (Ants -)
-Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and
their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen.

 Blood group A
-Contain type A Agglutinogens and Ant-B Agglutinins
-Blood group A individuals have the A antigen on the surface of their RBCs, and blood
serum containing IgM antibodies against the B antigen.

 Blood group B
-Contain type B Agglutinogens and Ant-A Agglutinins

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 Explain mechanism of blood coagulation haemostasis?
Introduction:
 Haemostasis- refers to all events take place when blood vessels is damaged and blood loss is
stopped and healing take place

Events
 Vascular constriction
When platelets come into contact with the damaged vessel release serotonin which narrow the
vessel causing reduction of blood flow

 Platelets plug formation

Formation of temporary seal (platelet plug) where platelets crump together

 Coagulation (blood clotting)

As result of formation of an insoluble threads of fibrin which trap blood cells causing
prothrombin activation resulting platelets adhering

 Fibrinolysis
Healing process of the damaged vessel by formation of fibrous tissue

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 Explain the fate/Metabolism of bilirubin
 Senile erythrocytes are destroyed in reticuloendothelial system and hemoglobin is released
from them
 Hemoglobin is broken into globin and heme
 Heme is split into iron and the pigment Biliverdin
 Iron goes to iron pool and is reused
 First formed pigment Biliverdin is reduced to bilirubin
 Bilirubin is released into blood from the reticuloendothelial cells
 In blood, the bilirubin is transported by the plasma protein, albumin. Bilirubin circulating in
the blood is called free bilirubin or unconjugated bilirubin
 Within few hours after entering the circulation, the free bilirubin is taken up by the liver
cells
 In the liver, it is conjugated with glucuronic acid to form conjugated bilirubin
 Conjugated bilirubin is then excreted into intestine through bile.
 In intestine, first the conjugated bilirubin is deconjugated into free bilirubin, of which 50%
is reduced into Urobilinogen by intestinal bacteria
 Remaining 50% of conjugated bilirubin from intestine is absorbed into blood and enters the
liver through portal vein (enterohepatic circulation). From liver, it is re-excreted in bile
 Some of the Urobilinogen is excreted in feces as stercobilinogen, some excreted in urine
and Most of Urobilinogen goes to the liver and re-excreted again

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 Session 3. Title: FUNCTION OF CIRCURATORY SYSTEM

3. Utilize knowledge on the functioning of the circulatory system in diagnosing diseases

Related Tasks
 Outline components of the conduction system of the heart
 Describe the cardiac cycle
 Describe factors affecting cardiac pumping activity
 Describe determinants of blood pressure
 Explain systemic and pulmonary circulation
 Describe functional parts of circulation (arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules and veins)
 Explain factors controlling fluid filtration across capillaries
 Describe formation and flow of lymph

 Circulatory system: An organ system that passes nutrients (such as amino acids and
electrolytes), gases (such as oxygen and CO2) , hormones, blood cells, , etc. to and from
cells/tissue in the body, and help stabilize body temperature and pH to maintain homeostasis.

 Cardiovascular system: The system that consisting of the heart, which acts as a pump, and the
blood vessels through which the blood circulates

 Cardiac cycle: is the term referring to all or any of the events related to the flow of blood that
occurs from the beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the next. The normal number of
cardiac cycles per minutes ranges from 60 to 100 beats per minute.

 Atria: Are the two superior chambers (the atria), known as receiving chambers, since they
receive blood from veins

 The right atrium: receives venous blood from the body through inferior and superior vena
cava, then pumps it the right ventricle

 The left atrium: receive oxygenated blood from pulmonary veins and pumps it to the left
ventricle

 Ventricles: Are the two thick lower chambers(Ventricles) are known as pumping chambers,
since they push blood into the large network of vessels

 Left Ventricle: it’s a thickest walled chamber that pumps blood via Aorta to the whole body.

 Right Ventricle: it pumps blood to the lung.

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  Atrioventricular: are valves controlling flow of blood from atria into the ventricles within the
heart, they prevent blood from flowing back into the atria from the ventricles when the ventricles
contract e.g. Tricuspid valve (right AV valve) and Bicuspid or mitral, valve (left AV valve)

 Semilunar valves: are the valves controlling flow of blood from the heart towards the lungs
and the whole body, they prevents blood from flowing back into the ventricles from the aorta
and pulmonary artery e.g. Aortic valve and Pulmonary valve

 Tricuspid valve: is the right Atrioventricular valve controlling flow of blood between right
atrium and right ventricle

 Bicuspid/Mitral: is the left Atrioventricular valve controlling flow of blood between left atrium
and left ventricle

 Sinoatrial node: is the 'pace-maker' of the heart because it normally initiates impulses more
rapidly than other groups of neuromuscular cells

 Atrioventricular node: is capable of initiating impulses that cause contraction but at a slower
rate than the SA node

 Bundle of HIS: This is a mass of specialized fibers that originate from the AV node

 Bundle branches: convey electrical impulses from the AV node to the apex of the
myocardium where the wave of ventricular contraction begins, then sweeps upwards and
outwards, pumping blood into the pulmonary artery and the aorta

 Systole: is synonymous with contraction (movement or shortening) of a muscle

 Diastole: means relaxation of the a muscles

 Electrical systole: is the electrical activity that stimulates the myocardium of the chambers of
the heart to make them contract

 Cardiac systole: is the period of time when the heart contract to pump blood after being filled
with circulating blood.

 Atrial systole: is the contraction of the heart muscle (myocardia) of the left and right atria
pumping blood to the right and left ventricles

 Ventricular systole: is the contraction of the muscles (myocardia) of the left and right
ventricles pumping oxygenated blood in the (left ventricle) to all parts of the body through aorta
and deoxygenated blood in the (right ventricle) to the lungs through pulmonary artery for
oxygenation.

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  Cardiac Diastole: is the period of time when the heart relaxes after contraction in preparation
for refilling with circulating blood

 Complete cardiac diastole: means relaxation of both atria and ventricles

 Ventricular diastole: is when the ventricles are relaxing, to allow left ventricles refilling with
oxygenated blood that was accumulating in the left atrium through mitral valve and right
ventricle refilling with deoxygenated blood that was accumulating in the right atria through
tricuspid valve

 Atrial diastole: is when the atria are relaxing, to allow right atrial to refill with deoxygenated
blood from all parts of the body through superior vena cava and left atria to refill with
oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary vein.

 Heart Tone or S1: This first heart tone is produced by the closure of (Atrioventricular valves)
mitral and tricuspid valve at the beginning of ventricular systole cause the first part of the "lub-
dub" sound made by the heart as it beats.

 The Second Heart Tone or S2: is produced by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves
at the end of ventricular systole during diastole.

 Blood pressure: is the force or pressure that blood exerts on the walls of blood vessels

 Cardiac output: is the amount of blood ejected from the heart

 Stroke volume: is the amount of blood expelled by each contraction of ventricles

 Pulmonary circulation: Refers to the type of blood circulation in which the deoxygenated
blood is pumped away from the heart (right ventricle) via the pulmonary artery to the lungs and
returned oxygenated blood from lungs to the heart (left atrium) via pulmonary vein

 Systemic circulation: refer to the type of the blood circulation in which the oxygenated blood
in the left ventricle is pumped to all parts of the body via aorta

 Lymph: is a clear watery fluid, similar in composition to plasma that is collected from the
interstitial spaces of the tissue and returns to the bloodstream

 Lymphatic plexuses: it’s a network of small lymphatic vessels, lymphatic capillaries, that
originate in the extracellular spaces of most tissues.

 Lymph nodes: are the small masses of lymphatic tissue through which lymph is filtered on its
way to the venous system.

 Lymph Nodes: are oval-shaped or bean-shaped structures of lymphatic tissue through which
lymph is filtered on its way to the venous system.

 Lymphocytes: are circulating cells of the immune system that react against foreign materials.
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  Lymphoid tissue: are the sites that produce lymphocytes, such as that found in the walls of
the digestive tract; in the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes; and in myeloid tissue in red bone
marrow.

 Tonsils: Masses of lymphoid tissue located in a protective ring under mucous membranes in
the mouth and back of the throat, Help protect against bacteria that may invade tissues in the
area around the openings between the oral and nasal cavities.

 Thymus: Is located in the mediastinum, extending up into the neck as far as the lower edge of
the thyroid and inferiorly as far as the fourth intercostal cartilage, Serves as a final site of
lymphocyte development before birth and Soon after birth the thymus begins secreting a
group of hormones collectively called thymosin that enable lymphocytes to develop into
mature T-cells.

 Spleen: is the dark red to blue organ which is slightly oval in shape (its second lymphoid organ)
in the left hypochondrium directly below the diaphragm, above the left kidney and descending
colon, and behind the fundus of the stomach.

 Lymphatic system: is part of the circulatory system and a vital part of the immune system,
comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph directionally
towards the heart

 Lymphatic system: A network of tissue, organs, and vessels that help to maintain the body’s
fluid balance, cleanse the body fluid of foreign matter and provide immune cells for defence.

 Lymphatic flow: is under forces similar to those govern venous flow.

 Starling forces: The balance of hydrostatic and osmotic forces causing movement out and
into the capillaries

 Hydrostatic pressure: is the pressure generated by pumping force of heart causing water
being pushed out of capillary

 Osmotic pressure: pressure that drives water back into vessel

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 Mention five (5) components of conduction system of the heart

Answers:
 Sinoatrial node
 Atrioventricular node
 Bundle of His
 Bundle branches
 Purkinje fiber

 Mention four (4) sympathetic and parasympathetic fiber that form cardiac plexus

Answers:
 Fiber of cardiac plus itself
 From Sinoatrial node
 Sympathetic nerve
 Vagus fiber

 Outline five (5) functional parts of circulation.

Answers:
 Arteries
 Arterioles
 Capillaries
 Venules
 Veins

 Enumerate five (5) factors affecting blood pressure

Answers:
 Heart rate
 Blood volume
 Stroke volume
 Sympathetic stimulation
 Peripheral vascular resistance
 Cardiac Output
 Arterial Blood Pressure
 Time of the day; at night blood pressure tends to be lower
 Body posture; During bed rest blood pressure tends to be lower
 Age; blood pressure tends to increases with age
 Gender; usually higher in males than females

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 Outline four (4) Factors affect the stroke volume

Answers:
 Ventricular end diastolic volume
 Venous return
 Strength of myocardium contraction
 Blood volume
 Afterload

 Mention five (5) Factors that affect the heart rate

Answers:
 Anxiety, fear, and anger often increase heart rate
 Grief tends to decrease heart rate
 Emotion produce changes in heart rate through the influence of impulses from the cerebrum
via the hypothalamus
 Exercise – heart rate normally increases
 Increased blood temperature or stimulation of skin heat receptors increases heart rate
 Decreased blood temperature or stimulating of skin cold receptors decrease heart rate
 Peripheral resistance

 Name four (4) factors affecting rhythmicity of the Heart.

Answer
 Neuronal factors e.g. parasympathetic vs sympathetic
 Physical factors e.g. cooling, warming
 Toxins
 Chemical factors i.e. drugs, gases and Ions

 The control mechanism for water exchange between plasma and interstitial fluid consists of
four pressures (Starling forces) Explain them:

Answers:

 Blood hydrostatic pressure (BHP) -forces fluid out of capillaries into interstitial fluid (IF)
 Blood colloid Osmotic pressure (BOP)- draws fluid from IF into capillaries
 Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure (IFHP) -forces fluid out of IF into capillaries
 Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure (IFOP)- draws fluid from capillaries to IF

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 Outline five (5) composition of lymphatic system

Answers:
 Lymph
 Lymph plexus
 Lymphocytes
 Lymph vessels (lymphatic’s)
 Lymph nodes
 Lymph organs, e.g. Spleen and thymus
 Diffuse lymphoid tissue, e.g. Tonsils

 Outline three (3) Specialized lymphatic organs

Answers:
 Tonsils
 Thymus
 Spleen.

 Mention five (5) areas where lymph nodes can be found

Answers:
 Submental and submaxillary groups
 Superficial cervical lymph nodes
 Superficial Cubital or supratroclear lymph nodes
 Axillary lymph nodes
 Inguinal lymph nodes
 Post auricular group
 Auricular group
 Submandibular group

 List down five (5) Functions of lymph nodes

Answers:
 Lymph filtration
 Phagocytosis of pathogens
 House of lymphocytes
 Haematopoiesis( maturation of lymphocytes and monocytes)

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 Outline any five (5) components of lymph

Answers:
 Water
 Proteins e.g. albumin, globulin
 Lipids e.g. lipoproteins
 Amino acids
 Non protein nitrogenous substances
 Carbohydrates e.g. glucose
 Inorganic substances e.g. sodium, calcium
 Cellular contents e.g. lymphocytes

 Mention five (5) factors promoting the rate of lymph flow

Answers:
 Interstitial fluid pressure
 Blood capillary pressure
 Surface area of the lymph capillaries by means of dilatation
 Permeability of lymph capillaries
 Functional activities of the tissue

 Outline five (5) functions of lymph

Answer
 Returning the protein from tissue spaces into blood
 Its responsible for redistribution of fluid in the body
 Removal of bacteria, toxins and other foreign bodies
 Remove metabolic waste from the tissue cells
 Play important role in immunity by transporting lymphocytes
 Maintain the composition of tissue fluid
 Absorb fats from the small intestine through lymphatic vessels
 Act against the pathogenic infections of microbes
 Supply nutrients to the body

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 Mention five (5) functions of lymphatic system
Answers:
 Lymphatic system plays a critical role in homeostasis
 Maintenance of fluid balance in the internal environment
 Immunity
 Transport clean fluids back to the blood
 Drains excess fluids from tissues
 Removes “debris” from cells of body
 It absorbs and transports fat and fat soluble vitamins from the intestine.
 Return leakage plasma protein to the blood
 Absorption and transportation of dietary fats
 Forms defence mechanism in the body

 Outline five (5) causes of oedema

Answers:
 Malnutrition
 Poor metabolism
 Inflammation of the tissue
 Abnormal leakage of fluid from capillaries into interstitial space
 Obstruction of lymphatic vessels that prevents fluid return from interstitial to the blood

 Mention five (5) principle function of the spleen.

Answers:
 Defense
 Hematopoiesis
 Red blood cell and platelet destruction
 Blood reservoir
 Biological filter

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 ESSAY SAMPLE QUESTIONS

 Explain Functions of the Spleen

 Defense: As blood passes through the sinusoids, reticulo-endothelial cell (macrophages)
lining these venous spaces remove microorganisms from the blood and destroy them by
phagocytosis.
 Hematopoiesis: Monocytes and lymphocytes complete their development to become
activated in the spleen. Before birth, red blood cells are also formed in the spleen.
 Red blood cell and platelet destruction: Macrophages lining the spleen's sinusoids
remove worn-out red blood cells and imperfect platelets from the blood and destroy them by
[Link] break apart the haemoglobin molecules from the destroyed red blood
cells and salvage their iron and globin content by returning them to the blood stream for
storage in bone marrow and liver.
 Blood reservoir: Pulp of the spleen and its venous sinuses store considerable blood which
can be released during haemorrhage

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 Session 4. Title: FUNCTION OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

4. Utilize knowledge on the functioning of the respiratory system in diagnosing diseases

Related Tasks
 Mention the functions of respiratory passageways
 Explain the types of respiration
 Describe the mechanism of inhalation and exhalation
 Describe pulmonary volumes and capacities
 Explain alveolar ventilation
 Describe principles of gas exchange through respiratory membranes
 Describe transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide between lungs and tissues
 Describe factors regulating respiration

 Respiration: is defined as the movement of oxygen from the outside air to the cells within
tissues, and the transport of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction

 External respiration: This is exchange of gases by diffusion between the alveoli and the blood

 Internal respiration: This is exchange of gases by diffusion between blood in the capillaries and
the body cells

 Spirometry: is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory
system

 Spirometer: is a device used to measure these pulmonary volumes.

 Pulmonary capacities: are the sums of two or more pulmonary volumes.

 Pulmonary volumes are the amount of air moved in and out and the remaining

 Tidal volume (VT ): is the volume of air inspired or expired with each normal breath eg 500ml
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): is the extra volume of air that can be inspired over and above
the normal tidal volume when the person inspires with full force eg. 3000ml

 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): is the maximum extra volume of air that can be expired by
forceful expiration after the end of a normal tidal expiration eg 1100ml
 Residual volume (RV): is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after the most forceful
expiration eg. 1200ml
 Inspiratory capacity (IC): equals the tidal volume plus the inspiratory reserve volume. Eg
3500ml

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 Functional residual capacity (FRC): equals the expiratory reserve volume plus the residual
volume eg. 2300ml

 Vital capacity (VC): equals the inspiratory reserve volume plus the tidal volume plus the
expiratory reserve volume. VC = VT + IRV + ERV eg.4600ml

 Total lung capacity: is the maximum volume to which the lungs can be expanded with the
greatest possible effort (about 5800 milliliters) •it is equal to the vital capacity plus the residual
volume

 Anatomic dead space: These are first 16 generation plus trachea and upper respiratory tract that
are involved only in conducting air while not involved in gaseous exchange OR

 Anatomical dead space: is the gas in the conducting areas of the respiratory system, such as the
mouth, trachea and bronchi where the air doesn't come to the alveoli of the lungs, that do not
participate in gas exchange

 Physiological dead space: The physiological dead space is equal to the anatomical dead space
plus the alveolar dead space.

 Alveolar dead space: Alveolar dead space is the area in the alveoli that does get air to be
exchanged, but there is no enough blood flowing through the capillaries for exchange to be
effective.

 Oxyhemoglobin- is the Chemical combination of oxygen with hemoglobin

 Carbaminohemoglobin- is the combination of carbon dioxide with hemoglobin.

 Spirometer- is a device used to measure the pulmonary volumes.

 Spirometry -is the process of measuring volumes of air that move into and out of the respiratory
system.

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 Name five (5) components of the respiratory tree divisions.

Answer
 Primary Bronchi
 Secondary Bronchi
 Tertiary Bronchi
 Bronchiole
 Terminal Bronchiole
 Respiratory Bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveoli

 Mention five (5) organs of the respiratory system

Answers:
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)
 Two bronchioles and smaller air passages
 Two lungs and their coverings, the pleura

 Mention five (5) function of the nose in respiration

Answers:
 Warm air
 Humidify air
 Filter air
 Respiration
 Smelling
 Aid in speech
 Elimination of secretions

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 Enumerate six (6) Functions of the pharynx

Answers:
 Passageway for air and food.
 Warming and humidifying
 Taste
 Hearing.
 Protection
 Speech

 Outline five (5) Function of trachea

Answers:
 Support the patency
 Mucociliary escalator
 Cough reflex
 Warming and humidifying air
 Filtering air

 Mention four (4) Paranasal sinuses

Answers:
 The frontal sinus
 Maxillary sinuses
 Sphenoid sinus
 Ethmoid sinuses

 List down five (5) Functions of respiratory bronchioles and alveoli

Answers:
 External respiration
 Defence against microbes: done by pulmonary macrophages
 Warming and humidifying

 Enumerate two (2) Types of respiration

Answers:
 External respiration: Lungs and blood
 Internal respiration: Blood and tissues

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 Mention four (4) Lung volumes

Answers:
 Tidal volume
 Inspiratory reserve volume
 Expiratory reserve volume
 Residual volume

 Mention four (4) Lung capacities

Answers:
 Inspiratory capacity
 Functional residual capacity
 Vital capacity
 Total lung capacity

 Mention any five (5) factors affecting the breathing

Answers:
 Emotional displays, e.g. crying, laughing, fear
 Drugs, e.g. sedatives, alcohol
 Sleep
 Temperature influences breathing.
 In fever

 Mention three (3) ways by which carbon dioxide is transported in the body

Answers:
As bicarbonate ions (HC03-) in the plasma (70%)
Some is carried in erythrocytes, loosely combined with haemoglobin as
Carbaminohemoglobin (23 %)
 Some is dissolved in the plasma (7%)

 Mention four (4) factors which shift oxygen dissociation curve to the right
Answers:
 High temperature
 Low PH
 Carbon dioxide
 Exercise
 2,3 diphosphoglycerate

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 List three (3) ways in which carbon dioxide is transported in the body
Answers:
 Physically dissolved in plasma (10%)
 As bicarbonate ions in plasma (60%)
 As carbamino compounds (30%)

 Mention five (5) factors that affect breathing

Answers:
 Stretching of lung
 Speech, singing
 Emotional displays, e.g. crying, laughing, fear
 Drugs (e.g. sedatives, alcohol)
 Sleep
 Body Temperature
 The partial pressure of gases(O2, CO2)
 Blood pH

 Mention five (5) function of respiratory system

Answers:
 Provide an extensive surface area for gaseous exchange between air and circulating blood
 Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lung along the respiratory passage ways
 Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes or any other
environmental variations, and defending the respiratory system and other tissues from
inversion by pathogens
 Producing sound for speaking, singing, and other form of communication
 Facilitating the detection of odors by olfactory receptors in the superior portions of the nasal
cavity

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 ESSAY SAMPLE QUESTIONS

 Explain six (6) Functions of the pharynx

 Passageway for air and food.
The pharynx is an organ involved in both the respiratory and the digestive systems, air
passes through the nasal and oral parts, and food through the oral and laryngeal parts.
 Warming and humidifying
By the same methods as in the nose, the air is further warmed and moistened as it passes
through the pharynx.
 Taste
There are olfactory nerve endings of the sense of taste in the epithelium of the oral and
pharyngeal parts.
 Hearing.
The auditory tube, extending from the nasal part to each middle ear, allows air to enter the
middle ear; satisfactory hearing depends on the presence of air at atmospheric pressure on
each side of the tympanic membrane (ear drum)
 Protection
The lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produces antibodies in
response to antigens, e.g. microbes. The tonsils are larger in children and tend to atrophy in
adults.
 Speech
The pharynx functions in speech; by acting as a resonating chamber for the sound ascending
from the larynx, it helps (together with the sinuses) to give the voice its individual
characteristics

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 Describe clearly the process of inhalation (How does it take place)

INTRODUCTION
Inhalation: is the process of taking air inward mainly oxygen enhanced by mechanism within
the lungs.

MAINBODY (Event take place during inspiration)

 During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and moves downwards
 External inter-costal muscles contracts raising the ribs and elevate the sternum
 This will cause increasing the size of the thoracic cavity(volume) even more due and
decrease in pressure
 This causes expansion of the lungs, as a result, the intra-alveolar pressure falls and the
atmospheric pressure forces more air into the airways.

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‘’STUDY MEDICINE SMARTER, NOT HARDER’’

STUDY MEDICINE SMARTER, NOT HARDER. PREPARED BY PROF. SALIM MAFANYA

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