Module (mathematics) - Wikipedia 01/01/2025, 00:31

Module (mathematics)
In mathematics, a module is a generalization of the notion of vector space in which the field of
scalars is replaced by a (not necessarily commutative) ring. The concept of a module also
generalizes the notion of an abelian group, since the abelian groups are exactly the modules
over the ring of integers.[1]

Like a vector space, a module is an additive abelian group, and scalar multiplication is
distributive over the operations of addition between elements of the ring or module and is
compatible with the ring multiplication.

Modules are very closely related to the representation theory of groups. They are also one of the
central notions of commutative algebra and homological algebra, and are used widely in
algebraic geometry and algebraic topology.

Introduction and definition

Motivation
In a vector space, the set of scalars is a field and acts on the vectors by scalar multiplication,
subject to certain axioms such as the distributive law. In a module, the scalars need only be a
ring, so the module concept represents a significant generalization. In commutative algebra,
both ideals and quotient rings are modules, so that many arguments about ideals or quotient
rings can be combined into a single argument about modules. In non-commutative algebra, the
distinction between left ideals, ideals, and modules becomes more pronounced, though some
ring-theoretic conditions can be expressed either about left ideals or left modules.

Much of the theory of modules consists of extending as many of the desirable properties of
vector spaces as possible to the realm of modules over a "well-behaved" ring, such as a principal
ideal domain. However, modules can be quite a bit more complicated than vector spaces; for
instance, not all modules have a basis, and, even for those that do (free modules), the number of
elements in a basis need not be the same for all bases (that is to say that they may not have a
unique rank) if the underlying ring does not satisfy the invariant basis number condition, unlike
vector spaces, which always have a (possibly infinite) basis whose cardinality is then unique.
(These last two assertions require the axiom of choice in general, but not in the case of finite-
dimensional vector spaces, or certain well-behaved infinite-dimensional vector spaces such as
Lp spaces.)

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Formal definition
Suppose that R is a ring, and 1 is its multiplicative identity. A left R-module M consists of an
abelian group (M, +) and an operation · : R × M → M such that for all r, s in R and x, y in M, we
have

1. ,
2. ,
3. ,
4.
The operation · is called scalar multiplication. Often the symbol · is omitted, but in this article
we use it and reserve juxtaposition for multiplication in R. One may write RM to emphasize that
M is a left R-module. A right R-module MR is defined similarly in terms of an operation
· : M × R → M.

Authors who do not require rings to be unital omit condition 4 in the definition above; they
would call the structures defined above "unital left R-modules". In this article, consistent with
the glossary of ring theory, all rings and modules are assumed to be unital.[2]

An (R,S)-bimodule is an abelian group together with both a left scalar multiplication · by

elements of R and a right scalar multiplication ∗ by elements of S, making it simultaneously a
left R-module and a right S-module, satisfying the additional condition (r · x) ∗ s = r ⋅ (x ∗ s) for
all r in R, x in M, and s in S.

If R is commutative, then left R-modules are the same as right R-modules and are simply called
R-modules.

Examples
If K is a field, then K-modules are called K-vector spaces (vector spaces over K).
If K is a field, and K[x] a univariate polynomial ring, then a K[x]-module M is a K-module with
an additional action of x on M by a group homomorphism that commutes with the action of K
on M. In other words, a K[x]-module is a K-vector space M combined with a linear map from
M to M. Applying the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal
domain to this example shows the existence of the rational and Jordan canonical forms.
The concept of a Z-module agrees with the notion of an abelian group. That is, every
abelian group is a module over the ring of integers Z in a unique way. For n > 0, let
n ⋅ x = x + x + ... + x (n summands), 0 ⋅ x = 0, and (−n) ⋅ x = −(n ⋅ x). Such a module need
not have a basis—groups containing torsion elements do not. (For example, in the group of
integers modulo 3, one cannot find even one element that satisfies the definition of a linearly
independent set, since when an integer such as 3 or 6 multiplies an element, the result is 0.
However, if a finite field is considered as a module over the same finite field taken as a ring,
it is a vector space and does have a basis.)
The decimal fractions (including negative ones) form a module over the integers. Only
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singletons are linearly independent sets, but there is no singleton that can serve as a basis,
so the module has no basis and no rank, in the usual sense of linear algebra. However this
module has a torsion-free rank equal to 1.
If R is any ring and n a natural number, then the cartesian product Rn is both a left and right
R-module over R if we use the component-wise operations. Hence when n = 1, R is an R-
module, where the scalar multiplication is just ring multiplication. The case n = 0 yields the
trivial R-module {0} consisting only of its identity element. Modules of this type are called
free and if R has invariant basis number (e.g. any commutative ring or field) the number n is
then the rank of the free module.
If Mn(R) is the ring of n × n matrices over a ring R, M is an Mn(R)-module, and ei is the n × n
matrix with 1 in the (i, i)-entry (and zeros elsewhere), then eiM is an R-module, since
reim = eirm ∈ eiM. So M breaks up as the direct sum of R-modules, M = e1M ⊕ ... ⊕ enM.
Conversely, given an R-module M0, then M0⊕n is an Mn(R)-module. In fact, the category of
R-modules and the category of Mn(R)-modules are equivalent. The special case is that the
module M is just R as a module over itself, then Rn is an Mn(R)-module.
If S is a nonempty set, M is a left R-module, and MS is the collection of all functions
f : S → M, then with addition and scalar multiplication in MS defined pointwise by
(f + g)(s) = f(s) + g(s) and (rf)(s) = rf(s), MS is a left R-module. The right R-module case is
analogous. In particular, if R is commutative then the collection of R-module
homomorphisms h : M → N (see below) is an R-module (and in fact a submodule of NM).
If X is a smooth manifold, then the smooth functions from X to the real numbers form a ring
C∞(X). The set of all smooth vector fields defined on X forms a module over C∞(X), and so
do the tensor fields and the differential forms on X. More generally, the sections of any
vector bundle form a projective module over C∞(X), and by Swan's theorem, every
projective module is isomorphic to the module of sections of some vector bundle; the
category of C∞(X)-modules and the category of vector bundles over X are equivalent.
If R is any ring and I is any left ideal in R, then I is a left R-module, and analogously right
ideals in R are right R-modules.
If R is a ring, we can define the opposite ring Rop, which has the same underlying set and
the same addition operation, but the opposite multiplication: if ab = c in R, then ba = c in
Rop. Any left R-module M can then be seen to be a right module over Rop, and any right
module over R can be considered a left module over Rop.
Modules over a Lie algebra are (associative algebra) modules over its universal enveloping
algebra.
If R and S are rings with a ring homomorphism φ : R → S, then every S-module M is an R-
module by defining rm = φ(r)m. In particular, S itself is such an R-module.

Submodules and homomorphisms

Suppose M is a left R-module and N is a subgroup of M. Then N is a submodule (or more
explicitly an R-submodule) if for any n in N and any r in R, the product r ⋅ n (or n ⋅ r for a right
R-module) is in N.

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If X is any subset of an R-module M, then the submodule spanned by X is defined to be

where N runs over the submodules of M that contain X, or explicitly

, which is important in the definition of tensor products of

modules.[3]

The set of submodules of a given module M, together with the two binary operations + (the
module spanned by the union of the arguments) and ∩, forms a lattice that satisfies the
modular law: Given submodules U, N1, N2 of M such that N1 ⊆ N2, then the following two
submodules are equal: (N1 + U) ∩ N2 = N1 + (U ∩ N2).

If M and N are left R-modules, then a map f : M → N is a homomorphism of R-modules if

for any m, n in M and r, s in R,

This, like any homomorphism of mathematical objects, is just a mapping that preserves the
structure of the objects. Another name for a homomorphism of R-modules is an R-linear map.

A bijective module homomorphism f : M → N is called a module isomorphism, and the two

modules M and N are called isomorphic. Two isomorphic modules are identical for all
practical purposes, differing solely in the notation for their elements.

The kernel of a module homomorphism f : M → N is the submodule of M consisting of all

elements that are sent to zero by f, and the image of f is the submodule of N consisting of values
f(m) for all elements m of M.[4] The isomorphism theorems familiar from groups and vector
spaces are also valid for R-modules.

Given a ring R, the set of all left R-modules together with their module homomorphisms forms
an abelian category, denoted by R-Mod (see category of modules).

Types of modules

Finitely generated
An R-module M is finitely generated if there exist finitely many elements x1, ..., xn in M
such that every element of M is a linear combination of those elements with coefficients
from the ring R.
Cyclic
A module is called a cyclic module if it is generated by one element.
Free
A free R-module is a module that has a basis, or equivalently, one that is isomorphic to a
direct sum of copies of the ring R. These are the modules that behave very much like
vector spaces.
Projective

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Projective modules are direct summands of free modules and share many of their
desirable properties.
Injective
Injective modules are defined dually to projective modules.
Flat
A module is called flat if taking the tensor product of it with any exact sequence of R-
modules preserves exactness.
Torsionless
A module is called torsionless if it embeds into its algebraic dual.
Simple
A simple module S is a module that is not {0} and whose only submodules are {0} and S.
Simple modules are sometimes called irreducible.[5]
Semisimple
A semisimple module is a direct sum (finite or not) of simple modules. Historically these
modules are also called completely reducible.
Indecomposable
An indecomposable module is a non-zero module that cannot be written as a direct sum
of two non-zero submodules. Every simple module is indecomposable, but there are
indecomposable modules that are not simple (e.g. uniform modules).
Faithful
A faithful module M is one where the action of each r ≠ 0 in R on M is nontrivial (i.e.
r ⋅ x ≠ 0 for some x in M). Equivalently, the annihilator of M is the zero ideal.
Torsion-free
A torsion-free module is a module over a ring such that 0 is the only element annihilated
by a regular element (non zero-divisor) of the ring, equivalently rm = 0 implies r = 0 or
m = 0.
Noetherian
A Noetherian module is a module that satisfies the ascending chain condition on
submodules, that is, every increasing chain of submodules becomes stationary after
finitely many steps. Equivalently, every submodule is finitely generated.
Artinian
An Artinian module is a module that satisfies the descending chain condition on
submodules, that is, every decreasing chain of submodules becomes stationary after
finitely many steps.
Graded
A graded module is a module with a decomposition as a direct sum M = ⨁x Mx over a
graded ring R = ⨁x Rx such that RxMy ⊆ Mx+y for all x and y.
Uniform
A uniform module is a module in which all pairs of nonzero submodules have nonzero
intersection.

Further notions

Relation to representation theory

A representation of a group G over a field k is a module over the group ring k[G].

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If M is a left R-module, then the action of an element r in R is defined to be the map M → M

that sends each x to rx (or xr in the case of a right module), and is necessarily a group
endomorphism of the abelian group (M, +). The set of all group endomorphisms of M is
denoted EndZ(M) and forms a ring under addition and composition, and sending a ring element
r of R to its action actually defines a ring homomorphism from R to EndZ(M).

Such a ring homomorphism R → EndZ(M) is called a representation of R over the abelian

group M; an alternative and equivalent way of defining left R-modules is to say that a left R-
module is an abelian group M together with a representation of R over it. Such a representation
R → EndZ(M) may also be called a ring action of R on M.

A representation is called faithful if and only if the map R → EndZ(M) is injective. In terms of
modules, this means that if r is an element of R such that rx = 0 for all x in M, then r = 0. Every
abelian group is a faithful module over the integers or over some ring of integers modulo n,
Z/nZ.

Generalizations
A ring R corresponds to a preadditive category R with a single object. With this understanding,
a left R-module is just a covariant additive functor from R to the category Ab of abelian groups,
and right R-modules are contravariant additive functors. This suggests that, if C is any
preadditive category, a covariant additive functor from C to Ab should be considered a
generalized left module over C. These functors form a functor category C-Mod, which is the
natural generalization of the module category R-Mod.

Modules over commutative rings can be generalized in a different direction: take a ringed space
(X, OX) and consider the sheaves of OX-modules (see sheaf of modules). These form a category
OX-Mod, and play an important role in modern algebraic geometry. If X has only a single point,
then this is a module category in the old sense over the commutative ring OX(X).

One can also consider modules over a semiring. Modules over rings are abelian groups, but
modules over semirings are only commutative monoids. Most applications of modules are still
possible. In particular, for any semiring S, the matrices over S form a semiring over which the
tuples of elements from S are a module (in this generalized sense only). This allows a further
generalization of the concept of vector space incorporating the semirings from theoretical
computer science.

Over near-rings, one can consider near-ring modules, a nonabelian generalization of modules.

See also
Group ring

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Algebra (ring theory)

Module (model theory)
Module spectrum
Annihilator

Notes
1. Hungerford (1974) Algebra, Springer, p 169: "Modules over a ring are a generalization of
abelian groups (which are modules over Z)."
2. Dummit, David S. & Foote, Richard M. (2004). Abstract Algebra. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. ISBN 978-0-471-43334-7.
3. Mcgerty, Kevin (2016). "ALGEBRA II: RINGS AND MODULES" (http://people.maths.ox.ac.u
k/mcgerty/Algebra%20II.pdf) (PDF).
4. Ash, Robert. "Module Fundamentals" (https://faculty.math.illinois.edu/~r-ash/Algebra/Chapte
r4.pdf) (PDF). Abstract Algebra: The Basic Graduate Year.
5. Jacobson (1964), p. 4 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KlMDjaJxZAkC&pg=PA4), Def. 1

References
F.W. Anderson and K.R. Fuller: Rings and Categories of Modules, Graduate Texts in
Mathematics, Vol. 13, 2nd Ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, 1992, ISBN 0-387-97845-3,
ISBN 3-540-97845-3
Nathan Jacobson. Structure of rings. Colloquium publications, Vol. 37, 2nd Ed., AMS
Bookstore, 1964, ISBN 978-0-8218-1037-8

External links
"Module" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Module), Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
module (https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/module) at the nLab

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