Volume 2, Issue 5, May 2015, PP 1-7

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International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE)

Position of women in the Indian society
Manzoor Ahmad Bhat
Abstract
India is a country which boast its glorious heritage, where woman has not only enjoyed the equal status but
has been described in the scriptures more than the better half, the same she lost with the passage of time.
At present it has become necessary for the Government to create special laws and enforce those rigorously
to give the desired social and economic status to this impoverished sex. In fact the problem is deep rooted
as to be found in any patriarchal society of which India is a living example where males generally dominate
and women are trailing in a subordinate position though they shoulder major responsibilities. Efforts need to
revive their glory and honour by removing the inequality and imbalance they are facing in the society.
Keywords: Brahmavadinis, Sati, Jauhar, Child Marriage, Slavery, Svayamvar, Pardah.

INTRODUCTION

Women form a vital but vulnerable section of the society. She is a pivot round which the whole
family revolves. Family is considered the cradle of the society. In a country like India which boast
its glorious heritage, where women has not only enjoyed equal status but has been described in
the annals of history more than better half. During Rig-Vedic period women enjoyed a status
of equality with men. She along with men received education, participated in assemblies and
debates, studied Vedas and made sacrifices along with their husbands.

The history of India started with the Harappan culture which is mostly based on archeology,
but it is Vedic age which boast the history of India on account of sound literary sources. The
Vedic literature has been derived from Vedas which are four in number, Rig-Veda, Sama -Veda,
Yajur-Veda and Athurva-Veda. It is Rig-Veda the oldest known literature in the whole world
that contains 1,028 hymns (mantars) written by a number of priestly families of which some
were even contributed by 27 women called Brahmavadinis who enjoyed family life as well. In
Ramayana and Mahabharata, we find novel examples of women like Anasuya, Sramanisabari,
Maitreye and Gargi who were highly educated. On the other hand the highest manifestation
of domestic perfection is found in great personality of Sita, the idol of Indian women hood.
In Mahabharata there are instances of women who led dedicated lives at home e.g. Gandhari,
Kunti and Draupadi1. Though we notice the practice of levirate and widow remarriage in the
Rig-Veda yet there is no reference about pardah and child marriage. The marriageable age in the
period seemed to have been 16-17 years. She was given a place of honour as she participated in
the religious ceremonies with her husband. At numerous places one finds the wives joining their
husbands and performing sacrifices together. They offer the oblations together and hope to go
to heaven together. But they did not have much freedom in the matter of their marriage. Only
the girls of royal families had voice to choose their spouse as there is mention of ‘Svayamvara’2.
As the society was patriarchal the birth of a son was repeatedly desired and people prayed to the
gods for brave sons to fight the wars. In Rig-Veda no desire is expressed for daughters, though
the desire for children and cattle is a recurrent theme in the hymns3.

During the later Vedic period their position deteriorated. The golden Rig-Vedic ideals of unity
and equality began to fade off. They were denied the right to study Vedas, to utter Vedic mantras
and to perform Vedic rights. On the other hand marriage or domestic life became compulsory
for women and unquestionable devotion to their husbands. The birth of a daughter was not
liked by their parents. Women along with Sudras were held in derision by several authors of
Dharmasastras and Puranas. Socially they were regarded most impure. The Brahma Purana
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Manzoor Ahmad Bhat
lays down that members of first three Varnas should perform the ceremonies of bathing and
muttering of prayers according to the Vedic methods, but the women and Sudras cannot
perform these ceremonies accordingly. However it was rejected by Varahamihira, who said
women in general are pure and blameless. They deserve the highest honour and respect. He
also criticized some writers for dilating only the vices of women instead of their virtues. This
too was reflected in the works of Kalidasa, Banu and Bharabhuti4. They were even denied the
right of inheritance. In Vedas there are references, a father who has no son honours his son-in-
law, capable of begetting sons and leaves the property to the sons and daughter. This is the first
germ of Hindu law of inheritance, which make son and not daughter, the inheritor of his father’s
property and religious duties5. Their situation further worsened as dowry emerged a custom in
the society. The ruler of MagadhBimbsara (544-492 B.C) married a Koshalan princess, got Kashi
village as dowry which yielded 10,00,000 coins as revenue. Chandragupta Maurya defeated
NikoterSelucus in 305 B.C married his daughter. In marriage he got Kabul Kandhar, Heart and
Baluchistan as dowry fromhis father-in-law. History is eyewitness that Chandragupta I (319-
334 A.D) married Kumaradevi a lichchavi princess and got 100 villages of Vaishali the territory
of his in-laws6. The custom filtered down and spread especially when a girl suffered from any
defect. With the passage of time more social evils crept in the society effecting the position of
women which were sati, female infanticide, child marriage, pardah, jauhar, widowhood. The
emergence of the same in the society may be highlighted as:

SATI

Smritis and Puranas encouraged the performance of sati rite. Brihaddharmapurana declares
that widow, who followed her husband on the pyre though she commits a great sin does well
to the departed soul. The authorities however, prohibit those wives who have not attained the
age of puberty or pregnant or have very young children from becoming a sati. But the widows
of Brahman and Kshtriyavarana, preferred sati to the ill-treatment by her relations. Under the
rules of Smritis, a widow had to lead an austere life. She slept on the floor and was not allowed
to use a cot; she took only one meal a day7.

The practice of sati can be traced with the help of historical records. The wife of Goparaja, the
general of Gupt king Bhanugupta is known to have ascended the funeral pyre of her husband in
510 A.D8. The existence of a large number of sati memorial tablets proved the practice was popular
in central India and in Deccan during the period. The mother of king HarshvardhanaYasomati
burnt herself to ashes as soon as it became definite that her husband would be passing away
within short time. Though there are exceptions in Orissa and Kashmir many women ruled as
queens in their ownright. Prabhavatigupta of the Vakataka dynasty ruled for 13 years as the
mother of the Yuvraja, Queen Didda (958-1003 A.D) ruled Kashmir for 45 years and withstood
all intrigues against her9. But the lot of widows in general was really hard. In the Milindapanho,
the widow as a person is despised and condemned in this world. The Sangam literature reveals
that as a rule the widows were expected to lead a life of self-denial and that the custom of sati
was extolled as a great virtue10. In the transition period from Hindu rule to Muslim period in
India [800-1200 A.D], the practice of sati was made obligatory. Sulaiman an Arabian writer
hold that the wives of kings sometimes burnt themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands.
It appeared that with the growth of polygamy as enjoyed by feudal chiefs and with the resultant
disputes about their property, there was a tendency for the spread of the custom. During the
sultanate period, IbnBattuth mention with horror, the scenes of a woman burning herself on the
funeral pyre of her husband with great beatings of drums11.

The practice of sati was in full swing during the medieval times. The custom was found among
the nobles castes of Rajas. A woman refusing to perform sati was considered to be less loyal to
her late husband. AbulFazl has recorded numerous instances where the reluctant women were
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Position of women in the Indian society
forced to perform sati due to the pressure from her relations or public. During the Mughal
period steps were taken to curb this evil. Humayun is said to have banned the burning of widows
who were capable of child bearing. Akbar declared that reluctant widows could not be forced to
burn herself. In addition, a widow of tender age who had not shared the bed with her husband
was not to be burnt at all. Though he passed certain laws against the inhuman custom of sati yet
he failed to bring its final end12.
WIDOWHOOD
There is no reference of widow remarriage in smritis and puranas. The system of Niyog or
levirate is advocated by Narada following the early smriti writers, but later on the practice was
discouraged. Brihaspati remarked, on account of the successive deterioration of the four spans
of life in the world, it must not be practiced by the mortals13. The widows are expected to lead
a chaste life. Though Yajnavalkya informs us about the right of widows to inherit the property
of her husband in absence of her sons yet the lot of widows in general was really hard. During
the Sultanate period, there was a little change in their position. The writers uphold their right
to property of a sonless husband. They were not only the guardian of the property but also had
full right to dispose of it. Thus it would appear that the property rights of women improved in
the Hindu law. Despite, the widows had either to live a life of fidelity or commit sati. In case a
woman did not commit sati, she was looked down upon. They were considered as unfortunate
creatures. Akbar too legalized the widow remarriage but it had a little effect on the Hindu
society14.

CHILD MARRIAGE

Right from birth a girl was considered a liability. The birth of a daughter was received with
disappointment and not celebrated like that of sons. A wife who gave birth to girls in succession
was despised. This had naturally given birth to an evil custom of child marriage, who were given
training in domestic affairs rather than education. In view of prevailing circumstances girls
were married at an early age of 7-8 years. This naturally implied that the selection of the bride
or bridegroom was made by the parents. Sometimes the betrothals took place before the actual
birth of the children15. It has been reported in 19th century that the evil existed in the Hindu
community of Kashmir as well which sprang the number of widows many of them were young
and innocent. Their number increased as no restriction was imposed on the evil. They have to
work on the command of father-in-law in the in-laws home, this reveals that their lot was most
miserable16.

Pardah

The Arabs and Turks adopted this as a part of dress. They brought it to India with them, so it
became widespread in northern India. The growth of pardah has been attributed to the fear of
Hindu women being captured by the invaders. In an age of violence women were liable to be
treated as a prize of war17. R.C Majundar says, “Hindus adopted pardah as a protective measure
to save honour of their women folk and to maintain the purity of their social order.” There
are references that some sort of pardah in shape of ghoonghat was observed in India even
before the advent of the Muslims but in present form it emerged with their arrival18. History
is eye witness that Rajyasri the daughter of PrabhakanVardhan put on a veil when she met
her husband MaukhariGrahavarman of Kanauj for the first time. In KadambariPatralekha is
described as wearing a veil of red cloth19. The growth of pardah was more social as it became a
symbol of the higher classes in the society, so discarding the practice of using pardah was not
favoured. It may be noted that the Hindu women belonging to the middle or lower classes did
not observe pardah. They only used dopatta to cover their head when they go out. Whatever the
reasons it affected women adversely and made them more dependent on men20.
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Manzoor Ahmad Bhat
JAUHAR

This evil was prevalent amongst the Hindus. Usually Jauhar was performed by the Rajput
ladies, when attacked by invaders and there was no hope of victory. According to his practice,
the Rajput ladies would apply tilak on forehead of their husbands, touched their feet and then
burnt themselves. This was done primarily to escape dishonor at the hands of the enemy in
case of defeat. The Rajput ladies cared more for their chastity than their lives. A large number
of examples of Jauhar during the medieval period have been recorded by scholars e.g. Hamir
Deva, the Chauhan warrior of Ranthambore, the strongest fort of Rajasthan where the women
committed Jauhar when they found that AlaudinKhalji was likely to win a victory after a long
siege of the fort for three months in 1301 A.D.21

FEMALE INFANTICIDE

The practice of female infanticide was common among the upper class Bengalis and Rajputs,
who considered female infanticide to be an economic burden. As per Todd,” Rajputs resorted
to this practice due to the scarcity of suitable matches on the prohibition of inter-marriages
between families of the same clan, as unworthy match lowers prestige of the bride’s father.”
Further the Rajput’s pride led their downfall which affected their social setup as well because
they thought it below their dignity to become the father-in-law of anyone else22.

SLAVERY

This evil too got birth in the Hindu society. It was during 800-1200 A.D the evil opened its eyes.
The temple at Tanjore was a richest one during the period. It maintained 400 women associated
with entertainment [the devadasis]. These devadasis [female slaves of gods] were commonly
found in most temples during Chola period. They were in origin a special and venerated group
of women attendants dedicated to the temple by their parents at their birth or in younger age.
The talented among them were selected for becoming a BhatrataNatyam dancer. But the system
was absurd and eventually in many temples, the devadasis degenerated into shame full exploited
prostitutes. Their earning being collected by the temple authorities23.

The position of women was distinctly subordinate to the service of male and dependent upon
him in every stage of life. In a word her life was a state of perpetual hardship and the social
laws and costumes stamped her with a sort of mental deficiency. They were supposed to have
no personality of their own apart from their ties to their husbands. They could not find any
other expression to their in born talents or desirous to expect as house wives. In fact they were
seen as more adjuncts to men24. Though women were not given a pride in the social structure
of the nation yet certain talented women made a mark in different spheres. These women
mainly belonged to higher classes. Gulbadan Begum, JahanAra of Mughal period produced
outstanding works, similarlyMirabai,Noor Jahan,ZebunNisa produced works of distinction.
Some even showed their mettle in the administration of the state as well. Mahamanga, the chief
nurse of Akbar controlled the affairs of the state for full four years from 1560-1564. Chand Bibi
was a brilliant ruler of Ahmadnagar. Rani Durgawati also ruled with great courage. Tara Bai
widow of Maratha king Raja Ram (1700-1707) also displayed great qualities of administration.
She became the chief source of inspiration for her son Shivaji II25.

During the modern period of history in India social reformers started a powerful movement
to improve the position of woman. They declared that Hinduism or Islam or Zorastrainism
did not sanction the inferior status of women and true religion assigned them a high social
position. As per Holy Quran, “women are men’s raiment and men are their raiment.” If a woman
observes five time prayer, fast in the month of Ramadhan, chaste, obedient to her husband then
she is guaranteed an entry into paradise by the door she likes26. It is Islam that for the first time
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Position of women in the Indian society
indicated the rights of woman and their secure position. They could inherit property, though
only half as much as man could and dreaded divorce as well27.

Numerous individuals, reform societies, religious organizations and administrators took keen
interest in liquidation of evils prevalent in the society like sati, female infanticide, child marriage,
widowhood etc. Raja RammohanRai a Bengali was the first Indian who raised his voice against
the inhuman custom of sati when he lost his brother Jug Mohan, whose wife was compelled
by the people to be on the pyre of her husband in 1811 A.D. she boldly denied performing
the custom. Raja RammohanRai supported her for which he faced torture from his parents.
Since then he crusaded against the custom. His struggle got full vigour when Lord William
Bentinck passed a law in 1829 which banned sati28. Raja RammohanRai denounced the practice
in strongest terms and showed from the scriptures, that it was contrary to religion. It has been
recorded that from 1815-1829, 8000 widows burnt. Accordingly volunteers were directed to
watch the Ghats in Bengal where such customs were observed. Subsequently the custom of sati
got decreased day by day. If the Britishers during their rule succeeded in receding the custom
now it rest on the shoulders of Indian administrators to bring its logical end as reports are there
of the custom in the remote parts of Rajasthan even today.

The success of Raja RammohanRai inspired his fellow men to fight against the remaining evils of
the society. Accordingly Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar launched an uncompromising struggle in
fravour of widow remarriage. In 1855 he published an article describing their petable condition.
The success of this country wide movement for widow remarriage got fruit in 1856 as widow
remarriage got legalized. The first widow remarriage was celebrated under his direct supervision.
From 1856-1860 twenty widow remarriages were performed29. This had affected other parts of
Indian subcontinent as well. In Kashmir Shri Ram ChandrajiAbhay an AryaSamajist publicized
the evil effects of child marriage and conducted propaganda in favour of widow remarriage. It
is remarkable that from 1920-1930the samajists celebrated the marriage of half a dozen widows
in Srinagar. These steps were even supported by M.K Gandhi, who had written a letter to P.N
Bazaz, the architect of Fraternity society in Kashmir [1920]. The contents of the letter strongly
supported the issue of widow remarriage. This naturally led the passage of widow remarriage
act in 1933 in Kashmir30.

The practice of female infanticide was widespread along the Rajputs of Banaras Gujarat, Madhya
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab and Sindh. The reasons for the evil were dowry system hyper gamy,
pride and sense of honour. The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804, declare female infanticide
illegal and equivalent to murder. In 1870, Lord Mayo passed laws against the evil, which made
it compulsory to register the birth of all babies and provides for verification of the female
children31. Though laws against it were passed in 19th century yet the practice still goes on in
a modernized and scientific manner which need to be condemned, as fair sex are being killed
in the womb of their mothers. The status of women was further destroyed by the evil of child
marriage. This was the result of hyper gamy, dowry, the notion of virginity and chastity32. which
led to the problem of overpopulation. Since 1860-1955, various acts were passed against, it,
which time and again fixed the marriageable age 18 years for girl and 21 years for boys. Despite
these laws, child marriage is prevalent even today especially in Northwestern parts of India,
where couple used to be under the age of [07-09] years while making a contact through media
with the married ones, the girls revealed, if they deny to opt for the said evil, then they had to
take resource of ill-famed prostitution for their survival. Further it has come to press that in
India 40% of marriages are being conducted below the age of 18years especially of girls.

In the society, the role of Muslims may not be underestimated, various socio-religious
organizations of the community got birth to eradicate the evils prevalent in the society. Sir
Syed Ahmad Khan strongly opposed polygamy, subordinate position of women, easy divorce
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Manzoor Ahmad Bhat

and Pardah33. He raised his voice in support of women education as well, for which he faced
severe criticism from orthodox Muslims ulemas. Despite his novel ideas to bring reformation
in the society, there are certain evils existing even at present i.e. “Asura” type marriages in the
Muslim community e.g. in Kashmir there are thousands of girls purchased by the people from
Bengal and Bihar, who enjoy a family life there. Inspite of the article 23 and 24 of the Indian
constitution which prohibited the illicit trafficking in women.

The liberation of the fair sex received a great stimulus in the 20th century, as they played an
active role in the struggle for freedom of India. How could they any longer be confined to the
home and be satisfied with the life of “doll or as salve girl”. They are bound to assert their rights
as human beings34. It was Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru who had advocated their self-dependence and
self-reliance. He also stressed that women have to fight for freedom, from the tyranny of man-
made customs and laws, for man is not likely to help them35. The event led to the birth of a
women’s movement in the country. Till 1920’s enlightened men had worked for the upliftment of
women, now fully aware and self-confined women undertook the task. They began to organize
themselves under one flag and put a joint fight against these evils. They realized its importance
to bring effective changes in this dismal scenario. The struggle resulted in the formation of All
Indian Women’s Conference in 1927, which pressed its legitimate demands36.

In post-independence period India witnessed a universal movement for equality with men.
All over the world feminism has in its origin inequality between men and women. Their
dependence on men folk was in total. Recently the educated women especially employed one
in particular and poor in general realized the need to work outside the households. Despite
this men’s tyrannical hegemony is strong and deep-rooted to allow her for any change. Though
the working ladies give their earnings to their husbands yet she is still identified as a daughter-
in-law, mother, mother-in-law etc. but not as a person. The crusade for a changed social order
had come both for government and voluntary association. Article, 14 and 15of the Indian
constitution guaranteed a complete equality of men and women. The Hindu marriage Act of
1955 permitted the desolation of marriage on specific grounds. Monogamy had been made
mandatory on men as well as women. The Hindu succession Act of 1956 made a daughter an
equal co-heir with the son. The Directive Principles of the Indian constitution lay down the
principle of equal pay for equal work both for men and women. Despite this many visible and
invisible obstacle still remain there in practicing the principle of equality between the sexes.
Though a committee on status of women 1974 was followed by:

i) National Plan of Action for women.

ii) The Committee on self-employed women.
iii) The National Perspective Plan for women 1988.
The programmes for women empowerment were held in every nook and corner of country, yet
the status of women had changed minutely. Birth of a daughter is still considered a bad omen.
Burning of brides goes on its routine work. They are tortured for not bringing dowry though
it has been banned. They often commit suicide. It got added by other crimes i.e. molestation,
kidnapping, abduction, rape. Eye teasing and murder after rapping which do come in press time
and again.

CONCLUSION

The account made clear that the impoverished sex faced wretched onslaughts in the society.
Which were manmade and permitted nowhere in any religion? Despite different efforts taken
so far, the status of women had continued to remain at the low level. The situation demands a
proper change of social and mental climate of the nation, where men had to give their unlimited
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Position of women in the Indian society
support to their female organization in eradicating these evils, so that the impoverished sex may
revive their own status with honour in the society. “A successful woman is one who can lay a firm
foundation with stones that others’ through at her.”

REFERENCE
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[2]. R.C Dutt, Early Hindu Civilization. New Delhi, 1989 P 59.
[3]. R.S Sharma, India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi, 2005 P 112.
[4]. Krishna Reddy, Indian History. New Delhi, 2008 P237-238.
[5]. R.C Dutt, Early Hindu Civilization. New Delhi, 1989 63.
[6]. R.S Sharma India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi 2005 P 148.
[7]. Krishna Reddy, Indian History. New Delhi, 2008 P 238-239.
[8]. R.S Sharma, India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi 2005 P 242.
[9]. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007 P 48.
[10]. S.M Ajaz, Indian History New Delhi, 1997 P 235.
[11]. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007 P 132.
[12]. S.C Ray Chaudary, Social Cultural and Economic History of India New Delhi 2007 P 60.
[13]. Krishna Reddy, Indian History. New Delhi, 2008 P 239.
[14]. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007 P 258.
[15]. S.C Ray Chaudary, Social Cultural and Economic History of India New Delhi 2007 P 59.
[16]. M. Ishaq Khan, Historyof Srinagar Srinagar 1978 P 114-115. ;
[17]. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007 P 132.
[18]. S.C Ray Chaudary, Social Cultural and Economic History of India New Delhi 2007 P 58.
[19]. Krishna Reddy, Indian History. New Delhi, 2008 P 238.
[20]. S.C Ray Chaudary, Social Cultural and Economic History of India New Delhi 2007 P 58.
[21]. Satish Chandra, History of Medieval India, New Delhi, 2007 P 97.
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[24]. BipanChndra, History of Modern India, New Delhi, 2009, P 236.
[25]. S.C Ray Chaudary, Social Cultural and Economic History of India New Delhi 2007 P 62.
[26]. Al-Quran Chapter No 2 Verse No 187.
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[31]. Satish Chandra, Modern India, New Delhi, 2003 P142.
[32]. BipanChndra, History of Modern India, New Delhi, 2009, P 137.
[33]. Satish Chandra, Modern India, New Delhi, 2003 P 194.
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[35]. RachnaMehrotra, Impact of Indian Culture on Nehru, New Delhi 1996. P 120.
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AUTHOR’S BIOGRAPHY
Manzoor Ahmad Bhat is an Indian author, born on Nov.10, 1961 in saffron town Pampore of
Kashmir. The author got P.G in history from university of Kashmir in 1984, M. Phil in 1988
and PhD in 1992. He joined the dept. of education in 1993 as lecturer at inter-mediate level,
got elevated to Asst. Professor in the said discipline in 2007 and promoted to the present scale
as Senior Asst. Professor in 2011. The author had a number of Research papers published at
international level to his credit.

Citation: Manzoor Ahmad Bhat (2015) Position of women in the Indian society. IJHSSE 2(5),
pp: 1-7.

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