Bio Unit 4 Ultimate Study Guide

Kelson Wang
Table of Contents
ATP and Energy 4.1…………………………………………………………………………….2
Photosynthesis 4.2……………………………………………………………………………...4
Photosynthetic Reactions 4.3………………………………………………………………….8
Intro to Cellular Respiration 5.1……………………………………………………………...12
Reactions in Cellular Respiration 5.2 ……………………………………………………….14
Fermentation 5.3 ………………………………………………………………………………18
Test Study
Information………………………………………………………………………...20
Study Questions……………………………………………………………………………….21

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ATP and Energy 4.1
Important Vocabulary
- ATP - Stands for Adenosine Triphosphate; a compound used by cells to store
and release energy. Photosynthesis - Plants and other autotrophs use this
process to capture light energy and power chemical reactions that convert
carbon dioxide and water into oxygen and energy-rich carbohydrates such as
sugars and starches.
Chemical Energy and ATP
- ATP is composed of adenine (yes, that nucleotide base), ribose (a 5-carbon
sugar), and three phosphate groups (ergo ‘triphosphate’). The phosphate groups
are what allows ATP to store energy. Adenine plus ribose is called adenosine.
- ADP (adenosine diphosphate) is like ATP but with two phosphate groups instead
of three (ergo ‘diphosphate). Living cells store energy in ATP by taking ADP and
adding a phosphate group to create this ATP.
1.

Figure 1 - ATP is composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.

2.

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Figure 2 - Shows the process by which ADP is converted to ATP. One can draw a parallel to batteries - the phosphate groups are
the energy, with the battery being charged and uncharged while in the ATP and ADP states respectively.
- ATP is useful for storing energy in its ability to easily break and reform bonds
with its phosphate groups.
- The energy from ATP powers active transport and is essential for cell movement,
powering flagella, cilia, and motor proteins.
- Most cells don’t have a lot of ATP, as it is inefficient. Rather, energy in the long
term is stored in glucose and other molecules. Cells use glucose to form ATP
from the ADP and subsequently turn the ATP into energy.
Obtaining Energy
- Heterotrophs are organisms that obtain energy from other organisms.
Autotrophs, however, make their own energy.
- Most autotrophs are powered by photosynthesis, which uses sunlight to create
carbohydrates like glucose.
Questions
1. How do molecules of ATP store and provide energy for the cell?
- Answer: Cells can add a phosphate group to ADP to store energy in ATP, and
then break it off to use the energy.
2. How does photosynthesis transform energy? Describe the process.
- Answer: Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy by using the
light from the sun to combine molecules into carbohydrates like glucose.

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Photosynthesis 4.2
Important Vocabulary
- Pigment - light-absorbing molecules used by plants to gather the sun’s energy.
- Chlorophyll - principal pigment of photosynthetic autotrophs, including plants
- Thylakoid - saclike photosynthetic membranes found in chloroplasts
- Stroma - fluid portion of the chloroplast, outside of the thylakoids
- NADP+ - Stands for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; a carrier
molecule that transfers high-energy electrons from chlorophyll to other molecules
- Light-dependent reactions - a set of reactions in photosynthesis that use energy
from light to produce ATP and NADPH
- Light-independent reaction: a set of reactions in photosynthesis that do not
require light; energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy
compounds such as sugar; also called the Calvin cycle.
Chlorophyll and Chloroplasts
- White light is composed of several different wavelengths which make up the
rainbow spectrum.
- Photosynthetic organisms use pigments to capture the energy in sunlight,
particularly chlorophyll, of which there is an a type and b type. These absorb
blue-violet and red light well respectively. Since plants can’t absorb green light
well, they appear green.
- Fall leaves appear when chlorophyll breaks down before other pigments do. The
green disappears to reveal red and orange from pigments like carotene.
- Photosynthesis takes place inside chloroplasts, which are organelles surrounded
by two envelope membranes and inside are filled with thylakoids. These
thylakoids are submerged in the stroma. When thylakoids are stacked they are
collectively known as a granum.
1.

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Figure 1 - The structure of a chloroplast. It is found within a plant cell, and a cutaway view shows the thylakoids along other parts of
the chloroplast’s structure such as the membranes and the stroma fluid.
- Chlorophyll can easily absorb light into its electrons, which are of many things
used as energy to build substances like sugars.
High-Energy Electrons
- The energized electrons produced by photosynthesis require a carrier.
2.

Figure 2 - NADP+ molecules are comparable to a frying pan - it can carry two high-energy electrons plus a hydrogen ion from place
to place, becoming NADPH before releasing back the electrons and the ion.
- Electron carriers do this job - they can carry the electrons to the destination with
most of the energy intact.
- NADP+ is one of these carrier molecules, and it accepts two electrons plus a
hydrogen ion, converting the molecule to NADPH. NADPH can carry the
electrons elsewhere in the chloroplast, where it can help build glucose and other
sugars.
Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis uses sunlight to convert water and oxygen, low-energy reactants,
into high-energy sugars and oxygen, the products.
- These sugars are subsequently used to produce complex carbohydrates such as
starches and to provide energy for synthesizing compounds like proteins and
lipids.
3.

Figure 3 - The chemical reaction for photosynthesis.

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 - The first set of reactions in photosynthesis are the light-dependent reactions.
They take place inside the thylakoid membranes, and use the light energy to add
a phosphate group to ADP, creating ATP.
- They take low-energy electrons from water molecules and energize them with
solar energy, subsequently transferring them to the NADP+, which is
subsequently converted to NADPH. The leftover water missing two electrons is
converted to electrons.
- Light-independent reactions complete the process of photosynthesis. Here, the
ATP and NADPH build high-energy sugars from carbon dioxide. This reaction
takes place in the stroma.
4.

Figure 4 - A chart demonstrates the process of photosynthesis. From the thylakoid, NADPH and ATP are created from the input of
light energy with oxygen as a byproduct in the light-dependent reaction, with the NADPH and ATP reacting in the stroma to produce
sugars and CO2 in the light-independent reaction.

Questions
1. What is chlorophyll? What is its role in photosynthesis?
- Answer: Chlorophyll is a pigment which absorbs light from the sun. This light
provides the energy for photosynthesis to occur.
2. NADP+ is an example of an electron carrier. Describe its function in
photosynthesis.
- Answer: NADP+ carries the energized electrons released from the water
molecule in photosynthesis to the stroma where in the light-independent
reactions it builds high-energy sugar molecules such as glucose.

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 3. Identify the reactants, products, and basic functions of photosynthesis.
- Answer: The reactants of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water. The
products of photosynthesis are oxygen and sugars. Photosynthesis serves to
convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of sugars such as glucose.
4. What roles do ADP and ATP play in the light-dependent and light-independent
reactions?
- Answer: ADP is converted to ATP by the addition of a phosphate group. In the
light-dependent reactions, a phosphate group is added to the ADP by the light
energy to create the ATP. The ATP is subsequently used in the light-independent
reactions to help create sugar molecules such as glucose.

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Photosynthetic Reactions 4.3
Important Vocabulary
- Photosystem - cluster of chlorophyll and proteins found in thylakoids
- Electron transport chain - series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle high-
energy electrons during ATP-generating reactions
- ATP synthase - cluster of proteins that span the thylakoid membrane and allows
hydrogen ions (H+) to pass through it
- Calvin cycle - the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis in which energy
from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugar
Light-Dependent Reactions
- Light-dependent reactions use sunlight energy to convert ADP and NADP+ into
the energy and electron carriers ATP and NADPH respectively, while producing
oxygen as a byproduct.
- These reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes which contain both chlorophyll
and photosystems.
- Photosystems are proteins surrounded by accessory pigments which absorb
sunlight and generate high-energy electrons which are carried away by electron
carriers. Both photosystem I and II work in this way.
- Light dependent reactions begin in photosystem II, which absorb light and
energizes electrons in chlorophyll. These electrons then enter the electron
transport chain, a series of electron carrier proteins.
- Enzymes pull apart water molecules into the two electrons, two hydrogen ions,
and the oxygen atom. These electrons reenter the chlorophyll to replace those
that were lost. The hydrogen ions stay in the thylakoid, and the electrons move
outside. The oxygen is left behind as a byproduct.
- The electrons are used by proteins to pump even more hydrogen ions from the
stroma into the thylakoid. At the very end of the chain, the electrons enter
photosystem I.
- Photosystem I uses light to reenergize the electrons after having used their
energy to pump the hydrogen ions. The electrons enter a second electron
transport chain ending up on NADP+, where it picks up electrons in addition to a
hydrogen ion on its way out to become NADPH.
- Hydrogen ions from photosystem II and pumped from the stroma build up in the
thylakoid, charging it positively.
- Although hydrogen ions cannot cross over the membrane directly, the ATP
synthase protein gives a way out. The positive charge and difference in hydrogen
ion concentration gives energy to make ATP. Due to these forces, the ATP
synthase is forced to let the hydrogen ions through and is rotated, comparable to
a turbine at a hydroelectric power plant.

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 - The rotating ATP synthase binds the ADP and a phosphate group, producing
ATP.
1.

Figure 1 - A full diagram of the light-dependent reactions. One can see the relationships among the photosystems, electron carriers,
and ATP synthase, while also looking at the H+ hydrogen ion dynamics between the thylakoids and stroma.

Light-Independent Reactions
- ATP and NADPH are used to synthesize sugars in these reactions.
- Carbon dioxide enters from the atmosphere, where an enzyme in the stroma
combines it with already present 5-carbon compounds to produce 3-carbon
compounds. For every 6 carbon dioxide molecules used, 12 3-carbon
compounds are made.
- Two of these 3-carbon molecules are removed to be used for the production of
sugars, lipids, amino acids, and other compounds like cellulose, while the
remaining 10 3-carbon molecules are converted back into 6 5-carbon compounds

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 for reacting with 6 more carbon dioxide molecules, perpetuating the cycle. All of
these conversions are done with energy from ATP and NADPH.
2.

Figure 2 - This diagram illustrates each step of the Calvin cycle, powered by ATP and NADPH.

Factors of Photosynthesis
- Enzymes in photosynthesis work best between 0 and 35 degrees celsius, and
leaving that temperature zone can slow or even stop photosynthesis.
- High light levels benefit photosynthesis to a point, but low light intensity does the
opposite.
- A shortage of water greatly affects the plant’s ability to photosynthesize, slowing
or even stopping the process.
- Plants that face water shortages therefore close the openings within the leaves
that capture carbon dioxide to reduce evaporation, but the carbon dioxide levels
drop dangerously low. To address these issues, C4 and CAM plants evolved.

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 - C4 plants change the Calvin Cycle to work with 4-carbon molecules instead of 3-
carbon molecules, which reduces the amount of needed carbon dioxide in
exchange for more energy from ATP being required.
- CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism) only admit air at night while closing their
pores in the day, and the carbon dioxide is combined with other molecules to
create organic acids. These compounds release carbon dioxide during the day to
perform photosynthesis while the openings are closed.
Questions
1. Describe three chemical changes that occur during the light-dependent reactions.
- Answer: Water molecules are broken down into their constituent hydrogen ions,
oxygen, and electrons, while ATP synthase proteins power the creation of ATP
from ADP and phosphate groups while NADP+ is converted into NADPH with the
addition of a hydrogen ion and two electrons.
2. What do plants do with the high-energy sugar molecules they produce during the
Calvin cycle?
- Answer: The high-energy sugar molecules go on to power various cellular
processes. These cellular processes allow the plant to synthesize
macromolecules such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates including cellulose.
3. Assuming there is enough light and water for photosynthesis to occur, explain
why a temperature between 0 and 35 degrees celsius is still important.
- Answer: Above or below this temperature range, the enzymes that power
photosynthesis slow or can even stop.

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Intro to Cellular Respiration 5.1
Important Vocabulary
- Calorie: Amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1 degree celsius
- Cellular respiration: Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and
other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
- Aerobic: Process that requires oxygen
- Anaerobic: Process that does not require oxygen
Cellular Respiration
- Organisms get energy from food, measured in units called calories.
- Cellular respiration is a process of energy conversion that releases energy from
food in the presence of oxygen. It is a chemical reaction that takes place in many
steps.
1.

Figure 1 - The process for cellular respiration is depicted. This example uses Glucose as the sugar.
- The three steps include glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transport.
- Glycolysis is the first step, where just 10% of the energy is captured in the ATP.
Pyruvic acid stores the rest. Glycolysis itself is anaerobic, although it contributes
to cellular respiration. This stage takes place in the cytoplasm, in contrast to the
other two which take place in the matrix of the mitochondria.
- The pyruvic acid undergoes the next step in the Krebs cycle, where some more
energy is captured. It is considered aerobic due to its reliance on the electron
transport chain.
- The electron transport chain takes in the rest of the energy, requiring reactants
formed in the other two stages. It uses oxygen as electron acceptors. Due to this
usage of oxygen, electron transport is considered an aerobic process.

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2.

Figure 2 - The full process of cellular respiration.

- Photosynthesis and cellular respiration balance each other out. As
photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, cellular respiration
returns it. Cellular respiration removes oxygen from the atmosphere and
photosynthesis returns it.
Questions
- Why do all organisms need food?
- Answer: In order to generate energy from cellular respiration to power cells.
- What is the overall reaction for cellular respiration?
- Answer: Oxygen and glucose in the glucose form of cellar respiration react to
produce water, energy, and carbon dioxide in a three-step process.
- Explain why photosynthesis and cellular respiration have opposite effects on
environmental gasses.
- Answer: Photosynthesis’ oxygen production is balanced by cellular respiration’s
oxygen consumption, and vice versa with carbon dioxide.
- Why is breathing required for life?
- Inhaling is necessary to obtain oxygen for the reactants, and exhaling is
necessary to remove the product of carbon dioxide in relation to the process of
cellular respiration.

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Reactions in Cellular Respiration 5.2
Important Vocabulary
- Glycolysis - First set of reactions in cellular respiration during which a molecule of
glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid
- Krebs cycle - Also known as the citric acid cycle, second stage of cellular
respiration in which pyruvic acid is broken down into carbon dioxide in a series of
energy-extracting reactions
- NAD+ - ALso known as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, an electron carrier
involved in glycolysis
- Matrix - Innermost compartment of the mitochondrion
Glycolysis
- During glycolysis, one molecule of glucose with six carbons is converted into two
molecules of pyruvic acid with three carbons each. Two ATP molecules are used
to begin the process, but the process itself returns four ATP and two NADH
molecules.
1.

Figure 1 - Depiction of glycolysis. NADH and ATP are produced in the process along with pyruvic acid.
- Glycolysis removes four high-energy electrons and passes them to NAD+, a
molecule which is similar to NADP+ in that it accepts two electrons and a
hydrogen ion, transforming into NADH.5
- Glycolysis can be performed very quickly, allowing for the cell’s energy demand
to be met when demand sharply increases or when oxygen is unavailable.

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Krebs Cycle
- The Krebs cycle breaks down pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide and energy. This
occurs in the matrix of the mitochondria, the innermost compartment.
- The first step of the Krebs cycle includes the splitting of one carbon atom from
pyruvic acid to produce carbon dioxide and two more carbon atoms. These
carbon atoms react with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA. The acetyl group (two
carbons) are given to a four-carbon molecule to produce citric acid.
- It is called a cycle because the four-carbon molecule is reused when the citric
acid is broken back into a five then four carbon molecule, releasing more carbon
dioxide. The rearrangement of these bonds especially with four carbons
produces NADH and FADH2 (from FAD, or flavine adenine dinucleotide; similar
to NADH) to be used in the electron transport chain, along with more ATP.
- The carbon dioxide leaves the mitochondria and enters the bloodstream, going to
the lungs where it will be exhaled.
2.

Figure 2 - The Krebs cycle. The cycle itself and its products can be seen.

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Electron Transport and ATP Synthesis
- The electron transport chain uses high-energy electrons from the previous steps
to synthesize ATP from ADP, including NADH and FADH2.
- The electron transport chain is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane of
eukaryotes and the cell membrane of prokaryotes.
- The electrons are combined with hydrogen ions and oxygen to form water with
an enzyme. This oxygen is the final electron acceptor, and is also why this
process is aerobic. By the end, the electrons are low energy.
- Each time the electrons are transported, their energy is used to transport
hydrogen ions across the membrane with pumps. Similarly to photosynthesis, a
positive charge builds up.
- Chemiosmosis is the process by which cells produce ATP. Also used in
photosynthesis, they use the charge difference between the area inside and
outside the membrane to force H+ through ATP synthase enzymes.
- Each pair of high-energy electrons can produce 3 molecules of ATP.
3.

Figure 3 - The electron transport chain, the main source of ATP in aerobic respiration.

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Products
- Glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain together release 36
molecules of ATP for every molecule of glucose, with Glycolysis and the Krebs
cycle providing 2 ATP each and electron transport providing 32.
- The process can extract 36% of the energy, with the rest being used as heat.
- Other molecules can be used with slightly different steps to extract ATP.
Questions
- What are the products of glycolysis?
- Answer: Glycolysis produces two pyruvic acid, two NADH, and four ATP.
- What happens to pyruvic acid in the Krebs cycle?
- Answer: The pyruvic acid gets one carbon split off and is combined with
Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA. Then this acetyl-CoA is combined with a four-
carbon molecule to form citric acid, which is eventually reduced back to the four-
carbon molecule following a series of energy-extracting reactions.
- How does the electron transport chain use the high-energy electrons from
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
- Answer: The electrons are used to power several hydrogen ion pumps that
create a charge imbalance, causing these hydrogen ions to go through ATP
synthase enzymes and creating ATP.
- How many molecules of ATP may be produced from glucose?
- Answer: Thirty-six, with two each from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle and thirty-
two from the electron transport chain.
- How does the presence of oxygen affect the chemical pathways used to extract
energy from glucose?
- Answer: The presence of oxygen allows for aerobic respiration methods using
the Krebs cycle and electron transport, letting the cell extract 36 molecules of
ATP instead of 2 from anaerobic respiration through methods such as glycolysis.
- How are hydrogen ions (H+) essential for the production of ATP?
- Answer: Hydrogen ions create a charge imbalance which allows them to power
ATP synthase enzymes.

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Fermentation 5.3
Important Vocabulary
- Fermentation: process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen
Fermentation
- Glycolysis alone is unsustainable as all the NAD+ molecules in the cell are
converted to NADH and not used because the electron transport chain is not
running. Instead, after a few seconds fermentation kicks in, releasing ATP from
food without oxygen as an anaerobic process.
- Fermentation is predicated on using the NADH’s energy on the pyruvic acid from
Glycolysis to convert it back into NAD+. There are two methods of fermentation.
- Alcoholic fermentation uses the NADH to convert pyruvic acid into ethyl alcohol
and CO2.
- Lactic acid fermentation uses the NADH to conver pyruvic acid into lactic acid.
1.

Figure 1 - Diagram depicting the two types of fermentation. The black spheres represent the carbons.
- Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by yeast and is used to make various
alcoholic beverages and to make dough rise.
2.

Figure 2 - Equation for alcoholic fermentation.

- Lactic acid fermentation is used to make other foods (including fermented dairy
products) and when humans exert - that’s what causes muscles to burn.

3.

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FIgure 3 - Equation for lactic acid fermentation.

Exercise
- Lactic acid fermentation is able to support the body for up to 30-40 seconds at
maximum capacity when aerobic respiration pathways fail.
- The lactic acid builds up afterward causing the muscles to feel burn, forcing the
body to use a different pathway that gets rid of it but needs oxygen.
- Exercise for over 90 seconds requires the body to use cellular respiration,
requiring athletes to pace themselves.
- Energy in muscles is stored as glycogen, which can burn for 15-20 minutes
before other sources like fats are burned.
- The body uses ATP already stored in muscle cells as well as lactic acid
fermentation to run for short, intense bursts.
Questions
- What are the two main types of fermentation?
- Answer: The two main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation and lactic
acid fermentation.
- Why do runners breath heavily after a long sprint?
- Answer: A process to break down the lactic acid requires oxygen to function.
- Why is lactic acid fermentation useful for short bursts of energy but not for a long-
term energy demand?
- Answer: Lactic acid builds up due to this process and the body needs to breathe
in oxygen to get rid of it, limiting lactic acid fermentation’s use in longer-term
exercises.

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Test Study Information
Miscellaneous Information
- Electrons don’t actually lose energy, but each time they are transferred they
require more energy to be held in place during transport.
- Inner thylakoid space - lumen
- Ferroxin NADP+ reductase - enzyme that converts NADP+ to NADPH
- Phase 1 CC: Carbon fixation: Each CO2 molecule is combined with a five carbon
sugar called Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) using an enzyme called RiBusCO.
The end produce is an unstable 6 carbon compound which splits in half making
3-Phosphoglycerate. Phosphoglycerates are called PGA for short.
- Phase 2 CC: Reduction: Each three carbon molecule is energized by 6 ATP and
6 NADPH forming Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P). This is used to make
glucose and to regenerate RuBP.
- Phase 3 CC: Regeneration: Regeneration of CO2 Acceptor RuBP: The G3P is
rearranged into 5-carbon molecules Ribulose biphosphate (RuBP).
- Use decimals instead of fractions when applicable.
- Know the differences between FADH2, NADH, and NADPH.
- Know Pyruvic Acid.
- Be able to read an energy diagram.

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Study Questions
Study Guide Questions
1. What are the products and reactants of the light-dependent reactions?
- Light-dependent reactions use water and sunlight as reactants to produce H+
ions, electrons, and oxygen as a waste product. The H+ ions are used to power
ATP synthase, creating ATP as a final product from ADP and a phosphate group.
The electrons are used to power hydrogen pumps to have more H+, and are
finally used to convert NADP+ and two H+ into NADPH. Therefore, the reactants
of a light-dependent reaction are water and sunlight, and the products are
oxygen, NADPH, and ATP.
2. What is the role of hydrogen ions in the light-dependent reactions?
- Hydrogen ions inside of the lumen, or inner thylakoid space, create a charge
imbalance with the stroma, or the inner space of the chloroplast. These hydrogen
ions are then forced out through the ATP synthase enzyme, producing ATP from
ADP and a phosphate group.
3. What are the products and reactants of the light independent reactions?
- The reactants are ATP, CO2, and NADPH. The light independent reactions
produce carbon in the form of glucose, oxygen, ADP, and NADP+ as final
products.
4. What ultimately happens to the Carbon in CO2 during photosynthesis?
- The CO2 carbon is ultimately transformed into G3P for use to build glucose.
5. What is the role of H2O in photosynthesis?
- H2O is broken into H+, oxygen, and electrons. The H+ is used to produce ATP,
the electrons are used to pump more H+ and then to create NADPH, and oxygen
is expelled as a waste product.
6. What is the connection between cellular respiration and photosynthesis?
- The oxygen from photosynthesis is used in cellular respiration in the aerobic
processes, namely the Krebs cycle and electron transport. The CO2 from cellular
respiration is used in photosynthesis, in the light-independent reactions, to
produce 3-phosphoglycerate, several of which are combined to form glucose.
7. What captures the light in photosynthesis? Where are they located?
- The light in photosynthesis is captured by chlorophyll in chloroplasts, located
inside cells. Inside of chloroplasts thylikoids contain photosystems which use the
light energy captured by the chlorophyll.
8. What are the waste products of cellular respiration?
- The waste products of cellular respiration are CO2 and H2O.
9. What is the purpose of free oxygen in aerobic respiration?
- Free oxygen in aerobic respiration is used in electron transport as the final
electron acceptor, combined with H+ and electrons to make water.

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 10. Where do the light dependent reactions take place?
- Light-dependent reactions take place within the thylikoids.
11. Where do the light independent reactions take place?
- Light-independent reactions take place within the stroma of the chloroplast.
12. What are the three reactions involved in cellular respiration?
- The three reactions involved in cellular respiration are glycolysis, the Krebs cycle,
and electron transport.
13. What is glycolysis? Where does it occur in the cell?
- Glycolysis is an anaerobic process that is the first step of aerobic cellular
respiration, producing pyruvic acid, ATP, and NADH from glucose. It occurs in
the cytoplasm.
14. What is the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?
- Glycolysis uses 2 ATP to begin the process, and extract 4 ATP from the glucose.
Therefore, the net gain of glycolysis is 2 ATP.
15. What is the Krebs cycle? Where does it occur in the cell?
- The Krebs cycle is the second process of aerobic cellular respiration and is
aerobic by association with electron transport, the final step. It converts pyruvic
acid into CO2, NADH, ATP, and FADH2. The Krebs cycle takes place in the
matrix of the mitochondria.
16. What is the electron transport chain? Where does it occur in the cell?
- The electron transport chain is an aerobic process which is the final stage of
aerobic cellular respiration. It uses an electron transport chain to produce ATP
with ATP synthase. The electrons are sent through hydrogen pumps which pump
H+ into the inner mitochondrial membrane, creating a charge imbalance which
forces H+ through ATP synthase and producing a large amount of ATP.
Electrons are combined with oxygen, the final electron acceptor in the chain, and
H+ to produce water. Electron transport occurs within the inner mitochondrial
membrane of the mitochondria in eukaryotic cells and the cell membrane of
prokaryotic cells.
17. What is the function of high energy electrons in the Electron Transport Chain?
- The high energy electrons power various hydrogen pumps to create a charge
imbalance within the inner mitochondrial membrane, which forces H+ through
ATP synthase to create ATP. At the end it is combined oxygen, the final electron
acceptor, and H+ to create water.
18. What do enzymes do, and how do they accomplish them?
- Enzymes are catalysts, and are collections of proteins which work to lower the
activation energy of reactions. It binds molecules to the substrate, which is
together called the active site. Enzymes weaken the bonds of the molecules in
the active site, allowing them to be more easily modified.
19. What affects the rate at which enzymes work?

22
 - The rate at which enzymes work can be modified by temperature and pH, along
with substrate concentration.
20. What are the main components of cellular membranes?
- The main components of cell membranes are the phospholipid bilayer along with
cholesterol, carbohydrates, and various proteins. The phospholipid bilayer is
composed of phospholipids, which are lipids with a hydrophilic phosphate head
and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails, creating a semipermeable membrane.
21. Approximately how many ATP are produced from the breakdown of one glucose
molecule?
- Between 32 and 38 ATP are produced from the breakdown of a single glucose
molecule, with 36 as a typical amount.
22. What two molecules do mitochondria need to continually produce ATP?
- Mitochondria need pyruvic acid and oxygen to continually produce ATP, required
for the Krebs cycle and electron transport respectively.
23. What are the pathways in order, from sunlight to ATP?
- First, sunlight powers the light-dependent reactions, and the products from that
reaction are used in the Calvin cycle, or light independent reactions.
24. What are the main pigments in plants?
- The main pigment in plants is chlorophyll.
25. What are the building blocks of triglycerides?
- Triglycerides contain a backbone of a 3-carbon molecule called glycerol.
Attached to the glycerol molecule are three fatty acid chains.
26. What is the difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph?
- Autotrophs generate their own energy, be it through photosynthesis or
chemosynthesis, while a heterotroph must consume other organisms to survive.
27. What molecule is the preferred source of cellular energy?
- The preferred source of cellular energy is glucose, being able to directly undergo
glycolysis.
28. What is ATP? How is ATP recycled in the cell?
- ATP is the primary energy carrier within cells. To release its energy, a phosphate
group is split off, leaving ADP. ADP is recombined with a phosphate group to be
recycled.
29. What are ATP and ADP composed of at the molecular level respectively?
- ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, contains adenine, ribose, and three phosphate
groups. ADP, or adenosine diphosphate, contains adenine, ribose and two
phosphate groups.
30. Where is ATP produced and how is energy released from ATP?
- ATP is produced at ATP synthase enzymes and a variety of other places,
including in the mitochondria during the Krebs cycle and in the cytoplasm in
glycolysis. Energy is released from ATP by breaking off a phosphate group.
31. What is the photosynthesis equation? What are the reactants and products?

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 - The photosystem equation contains sunlight, H2O and CO2 on one side, with
glucose and oxygen on the other. The equation looks like this: 6H2O + 6CO2 +
sunlight -> C6H12O6 + 6O2.
32. What is the cellular respiration equation? What are the reactants and products?
- The cellular respiration equation contains oxygen and glucose on one side, with
carbon dioxide, water, and ATP on the other. The equation looks like this: C
6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP.
33. What is fermentation? Is it aerobic or anaerobic? When does it occur?
- Fermentation is an anaerobic process that uses NADH to convert pyruvic acid
into various molecules, being ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide in alcoholic
fermentation and lactic acid in lactic acid fermentation, both processes releasing
NAD+ as a final product. Alcoholic fermentation is used by yeast, and is involved
in the creation of alcoholic beverages and bread rising. Lactic acid fermentation
is used to create dairy products, by bacteria, and by humans while exercising.
34. What is the correlation between the energy requirements of cells and the number
of mitochondria in said cell?
- Cells which require more energy contain more mitochondria.
35. What is the definition of hypothesis and theory respectively?
- A hypothesis is a testable and falsifiable statement to explain a phenomenon or
hypothesis, which posits a relationship between variables. A theory is
explanation of a phenomenon or explanation based on experiments, hypotheses,
and observations.
Lesson Questions
36. How do molecules of ATP store and provide energy for the cell?
- Answer: Cells can add a phosphate group to ADP to store energy in ATP, and
then break it off to use the energy.
37. How does photosynthesis transform energy? Describe the process.
- Answer: Photosynthesis converts light energy into chemical energy by using the
light from the sun to combine molecules into carbohydrates like glucose.
38. What is chlorophyll? What is its role in photosynthesis?
- Answer: Chlorophyll is a pigment which absorbs light from the sun. This light
provides the energy for photosynthesis to occur.
39. NADP+ is an example of an electron carrier. Describe its function in
photosynthesis.
- Answer: NADP+ carries the energized electrons released from the water
molecule in photosynthesis to the stroma where in the light-independent
reactions it builds high-energy sugar molecules such as glucose.
40. Describe three chemical changes that occur during the light-dependent reactions.
- Answer: Water molecules are broken down into their constituent hydrogen ions,
oxygen, and electrons, while ATP synthase proteins power the creation of ATP

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 from ADP and phosphate groups while NADP+ is converted into NADPH with the
addition of a hydrogen ion and two electrons.
41. What do plants do with the high-energy sugar molecules they produce during the
Calvin cycle?
- Answer: The high-energy sugar molecules go on to power various cellular
processes. These cellular processes allow the plant to synthesize
macromolecules such as lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates including cellulose.
42. Assuming there is enough light and water for photosynthesis to occur, explain
why a temperature between 0 and 35 degrees celsius is still important.
- Answer: Above or below this temperature range, the enzymes that power
photosynthesis slow or can even stop.
43. Why do all organisms need food?
- Answer: In order to generate energy from cellular respiration to power cells.
44. What is the overall reaction for cellular respiration?
- Answer: Oxygen and glucose in the glucose form of cellar respiration react to
produce water, energy, and carbon dioxide in a three-step process.
45. Explain why photosynthesis and cellular respiration have opposite effects on
environmental gasses.
- Answer: Photosynthesis’ oxygen production is balanced by cellular respiration’s
oxygen consumption, and vice versa with carbon dioxide.
46. Why is breathing required for life?
- Inhaling is necessary to obtain oxygen for the reactants, and exhaling is
necessary to remove the product of carbon dioxide in relation to the process of
cellular respiration.
47. What are the products of glycolysis?
- Answer: Glycolysis produces two pyruvic acid, two NADH, and four ATP.
48. What happens to pyruvic acid in the Krebs cycle?
- Answer: The pyruvic acid gets one carbon split off and is combined with
Coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA. Then this acetyl-CoA is combined with a four-
carbon molecule to form citric acid, which is eventually reduced back to the four-
carbon molecule following a series of energy-extracting reactions.
49. How does the electron transport chain use the high-energy electrons from
glycolysis and the Krebs cycle?
- Answer: The electrons are used to power several hydrogen ion pumps that
create a charge imbalance, causing these hydrogen ions to go through ATP
synthase enzymes and creating ATP.
50. How many molecules of ATP may be produced from glucose?
- Answer: Thirty-six, with two each from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle and thirty-
two from the electron transport chain.
51. How does the presence of oxygen affect the chemical pathways used to extract
energy from glucose?

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 - Answer: The presence of oxygen allows for aerobic respiration methods using
the Krebs cycle and electron transport, letting the cell extract 36 molecules of
ATP instead of 2 from anaerobic respiration through methods such as glycolysis.
52. How are hydrogen ions (H+) essential for the production of ATP?
- Answer: Hydrogen ions create a charge imbalance which allows them to power
ATP synthase enzymes.
53. What are the two main types of fermentation?
- Answer: The two main types of fermentation are alcoholic fermentation and lactic
acid fermentation.
54. Why do runners breath heavily after a long sprint?
- Answer: A process to break down the lactic acid requires oxygen to function.
55. Why is lactic acid fermentation useful for short bursts of energy but not for a long-
term energy demand?
- Answer: Lactic acid builds up due to this process and the body needs to breathe
in oxygen to get rid of it, limiting lactic acid fermentation’s use in longer-term
exercises.

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Credits
Authored by Kelson Wang
All images and diagrams by Savvas Learning Company LLC
Lesson questions by Savvas Learning Company LLC
Study guide questions by Mr. Tisor

2024-2025 Second Edition - 11/20/24

2024-2025 First Edition - 12/17/24

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