Grade: 10 Control and Coordination Notes

• Nervous System: It is the system of conducting tissues that receives the stimulus and transmits it to
other parts of the body forming a network.
• Receptor: It is a cell or group of cells specialized to detect a particular stimulus and to initiate the
transmission of impulses via the sensory nerves.
• Units of Nervous system: Neurons are the structural and fundamental unit of nervous system.
• Neuron is the largest cell in the body.
• Neuron carry messages in the form of electrical signals called nerve impulses.
• Neuron is an elongated branched cell having three components- Cell body, Dendrites and Axon.
• Synapse: It is the junction between two adjacent neurons or nerve cells, i.e., between the axon ending
of one and the dendrites of the next.
• Nerve Impulse: It is the information in the form of chemical and electrical signals passing through
neurons. These impulses are carried by dendrites towards the cell body.
• Neuromuscular Junction: It is the point where a muscle cell fibre comes in contact with a motor neuron
carrying nerve impulses from the central nervous system. The impulses travel from the neuron to the
muscle fibre by means of a neurotransmitter in the same way as the transmission of impulses across a
synapse between two neurons.

• Voluntary actions: These are the actions which need thinking and are performed knowingly, i.e., are
controlled by conscious thought. Example: Speaking to a friend, writing a letter, etc.
• Involuntary actions: These are not under the control of the will of an individual and are automatic
response to a stimulus, which is not under the voluntary control of the brain. Example: Touching a hot
plate unknowingly.
• Reflex Action: It is defined as an unconscious, automatic and involuntary response of effectors, i.e.,
muscles and glands, to a stimulus, which is monitored through the spinal cord.
• Advantages Of Reflex Action:
• (i)It enables the body to give quick responses to harmful stimuli and thus protects our body.
(ii)It minimizes the overloading of brain.
• Reflex Arc: It is the pathway taken by the nerve impulses and responses in a reflex action, i.e., from the
receptor organs like skin to the spinal cord and from the spinal cord to the effector organs like muscles.

• Central Nervous System: The CNS consists of the brain.

• and the spinal cord. The brain and spinal cord are protected by the cranium and the vertebral column
respectively. The brain is divided into three regions.
 • Fore brain/Prosencephalon: It is the main thinking part of the brain.
• Mid brain/Mesencephalon: It connects the forebrain and hind brain. It controls the reflex movements
of the head, neck, and trunk in response to visual and auditory stimuli.
• Hind brain/Rhombencephalon: It consists of three centres called cerebellum, pons, and medulla
oblongata.
• Cerebellum: It lies at the roof of the hindbrain. This region controls the coordination of body
movements and posture.
• Pons lies just above the medulla and take part in regulating respiration.
• Medulla Oblongata lies at the floor of the hindbrain and continues into the spinal cord. It is also the
regulating centre for swallowing, coughing, sneezing, and vomiting.
• Functions of Brain
• The brain receives information-carrying impulse from all sensory organs of the body.
• The brain responds to the impulse brought in by sensory organs by sending its own instructions to the
muscles and glands causing them to function accordingly.
• The brain correlates the various stimuli from different sense organs and produces the most appropriate
and intelligent response.
• The brain coordinates the bodily activities so that the mechanisms and chemical reactions of the body
work efficiently.
• The brain stores ‘information’ so that behaviour can be modified according to the experience. This
function makes brain the organ of thought and intelligence.
Spinal Cord: It is a cylindrical structure and a part of the central nervous system. It is made up of nerves
that supply information to think.
• It begins in continuation with medulla oblongata and extended downwards.
• It is enclosed in a bony cage called vertebral column.
• A total of thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord.
Functions of Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord is the main centre of reflex action.
• It is connected with the conduction of nerve impulse to and from the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System: It constitutes the cranial and spinal nerves along with their branches.
• Cranial nerves arise from the brain and spread throughout the head. There are 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.
• Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord along most of its length and spread throughout the body. There
are 31 pairs of spinal nerves-eight in the neck region, 12 in chest region, five in abdominal region, and
five in hip region. Coccyx is the last bone of the vertebral column.
Action of Nervous Tissues:
• The nervous tissue collects information, sends it to brain, processes, it makes decision based on it and
conveys decision to muscles for action.
• When a nerve impulse reaches the muscles, the muscle fibres move by changing the shape of the
muscle cells with the help of special proteins [Actin and Myosin].
COORDINATION IN PLANTS-Plants respond to light, touch, gravitational force and other stimulus. The growth
in plants is controlled by certain chemical substances known as plant hormones or phytohormones and
movement of plant in the direction of stimulus is known as tropism.
Stimulus: It is the change in the external or internal environment of an organism that provokes a physiological
and behavioural response in the organism.
Plants Response to External Stimulus
• Plants use chemical means to convey information from cell to cell.
• Sensitive plants move very quickly in response to touch that are independent of the direction of stimuli.
 • The folding and drooping of the leaves of sensitive plant of ‘Touch-me-not’ when lightly touched is an
example.
• Plant cells change shape by changing the amount of water in them resulting in swelling or shrinking,
thereby changing shapes.
PLANT MOVEMENTS
The movements of the individual plant parts or organs of a plant like shoot, root, due etc. are due to some
external stimuli like light, force of gravity, chemical substances, water, etc.
DIRECTIONAL OR TROPIC MOVEMENTS
It is the directional growth or movement of a plant organ in response to an external stimulus.
• Growth towards the stimulus is ‘positive tropism’ and growth away from the stimulus is ‘negative
tropism’.
• Tropic movements are classified as follows, depending on the type of stimulus causing it:
1. Phototropism is the movement of a part of the plant in response to light.
2. Geotropism is the upward and downward growth of shoots and roots in response to the pull of earth of
gravity.
3. Hydrotropism is the movement of a part of the plant in response to water.
4. Chemotropism is the movement of a part of the plant in response to chemical stimulus. If the plant
shows movement or growth towards the chemical, it is called ‘Positive chemotropism’ and if the plant
part shows movement or growth away from the chemical, it is called ‘negative chemotropism’.
PLANT HORMONES OR PHYTOHORMONES: It can be defined as a chemical substance that is produced
naturally in plants and are capable of translocation and regulating one or more physiological processes when
present in low concentration.
Plant hormones help to coordinate growth development, and responses to the environment.
• They are synthesized at places away from where they act and simply diffuse to the area of action.
FUNCTIONS OF SOME PLANT HORMONES

Name of Functions
phytohormone
AUXIN (i)Controls a plant’s response to light and gravity. This hormone is responsible for the
phototropic (growth movement in the direction of light) and geotropic responses in
the plants. The auxin is prepared in the cells present at the top of stems and roots,
guides the movement in opposite directions. The stem grows against the gravity and
root grows in the direction of gravity. Auxin also, speeds up the growth process in
stem whereas it slows down the growth process in the roots.
(ii) Promotes cell enlargement and cell differentiation in plants.
(iii) Promotes fruit growth.
(iv) Initiates rooting in stem cutting.
(v) Helps to prevent premature fruit and leaf fall.
(vi) Synthetic auxins, 2,4-D (2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid) is used as herbicide in
agriculture and horticulture.
Gibberellin (i) Encourage cell enlargement and cell differentiation in the presence of auxins.
(ii) Helps in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
(iii) Induce the internode growth.
(iv) Promote the flowering and germination of seeds.
Cytokinin (i) Promote cell division in plants.
(ii)Help in breaking the dormancy of seeds and buds.
(iii) Help in delaying the ageing process of leaves.
 (iv) Promote the opening of stomata.
(v) Promote fruit growth.
(vi) Helps in the differentiation of tissues and organs.
Ethylene (i) Induces horizontal growth of seedlings.
(ii) Helps in ripening of fruits and opening of dry fruits.
(iii) Induces flowering in mango.
Abscisic acid (ABA) (i) Promotes the dormancy in seeds and buds (this is the opposite of breaking of
dormancy).
(ii) Promotes the closing of stomata (this is opposite of opening of stomata).
(iii) Promotes the wilting and falling of leaves (Abscission)
(iv) Causes the detachment of flowers and fruits from the plants.

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

There are special chemicals which regulate the physiological processes in animals. They are known a
hormones and are secreted by ductless glands, called endocrine glands, directly into the blood. The word
hormone was introduced by W. M. Bayliss and E.H. Starling.
HORMONES
Characteristics:
• They are mostly amino acids (proteins) while some are steroidal.
• They are released directly into the blood or lymph and are carried to the target organs.
• They are produced as chemical messengers in trace (very small) amounts.
• Hormones are specific in nature, i.e., act on particular target organs.
• Their activity can cause widespread effects on the body.
• Their secretion is regulated by a feedback mechanism.
Difference between Endocrine and Exocrine Glands
Endocrine glands Exocrine Glands
These lack ducts, thus called ductless glands. These have ducts.
Secretions are directly passed into the blood Secretions are discharged into body cavities or
stream. ducts.
The site of action is far away from the gland (site of The site of action is just near the glands.
origin).
Endocrine secretions are called hormones, e.g., Exocrine secretions are called enzymes, e.g.,
Insulin, Thyroxine, etc. Pancreatic juice, gastric juice, etc.
Examples of endocrine glands are Pituitary, thyroid, Examples of exocrine glands are liver, sweat glands,
adrenal glands etc. salivary glands etc.

There are some glands that are both exocrine and endocrine in nature. These glands are called ‘Heterocrine
glands’ where the exocrine secretion is sent through ducts while the endocrine secretions are discharged
straight away into the blood. For example, Pancreas and gonads (testes and ovaries) are heterocrine glands.
• Pancreas secretes Pancreatic juice helpful in digestion and insulin and glucagon that regulate
glucose content in blood.
• Ovaries produce female gametes called ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone.
• Testes produce male gametes called sperms and male hormone called Testosterone.
 FUNCTIONS OF VARIOUS HORMONES[Red ones are not for exam]
S. Endocrine Hormones Functions
No Gland
1. Hypothalamus Releasing Hormones Regulate the secretions of the Pituitary
hormones.
(a)Growth Hormone (GH) (a)Developments of bones and muscles.
(b)Stimulates Thyroid glands.
(b)Thyroid Stimulating
Hormone (TSH)
2. Pituitary (a) Follicle stimulating Stimulates Ovaries and testes growth.
Hormone (FSH) Regulates functions of mammary glands.

(b) Prolactin Darkens skin colour.

(c) Melanocyte Stimulating Regulates water and electrolyte balance in body.

Hormone (MSH) Regulates ejection of milk during lactation.
(d) Vasopressin Contraction of smooth muscles during childbirth.
(Antidiuretic Hormone-
ADH)
(e) Oxytocin Hormone
3. Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolism of carbohydrates, fats and
proteins for balanced growth, present in Iodine
in our food.
4. Parathyroid Calcitonin Regulates Calcium and Phosphate levels in
blood.
5. Adrenal glands Adrenaline Regulate heart rate, blood pressure and glucose
levels. Prepares the body for emergency
situations. Carbohydrate and mineral balance
regulation.
6. Thymus Thymosine Activates immune response and production of
antibodies.
7. Pancreas (a) Insulin (a) Lowers blood glucose levels. Converts
glucose to glycogen in liver and muscle cells.
(b) Increases blood glucose levels. Breaks
(b) Glucagon glycogen to glucose in liver.
8. Testes Testosterone Regulates male sex organs and secondary sexual
characters like moustache, beard, heavy voice
etc.
9. Ovaries (a) Estrogen (a)Regulates development of female sex organs
and secondary sexual characters like mammary
glands and feminine voice etc.
(b)Controls uterine changes in menstrual cycle
(b) Progesterone and maintenance of pregnancy.