DELHI

PUBLIC
SCHOOL
RAU
INDORE

AISSCE PHYSICS PROJECT 2024-2025

Physics Project on

Total Internal Reflection and Optical Fibres

Session 2024-25

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Ashwin Singh Rathore Vaibhav Tiwari

PGT Physics XII - Science

 Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my Physics teacher Mr. Ashwin Singh Rathore for guiding
me throughout this project work and helped me in my research work.

A special acknowledgement goes to our Principal Ms. Asha Nair who gave me
the golden opportunity of this wonderful project and her invaluable guidance has
sustained my efforts in all the stages of this project work.

The kind support of our lab assistant helped me to line up the project.

I am also thankful to my friends who displayed appreciation for my work and

motivated me to continue my work.

Place: Rau, Indore “Vaibhav Tiwari”

Date: 10th November 2024

 Certificate

This is to certify that Vaibhav Tiwari bearing roll no.__________________ of

class XII A has successfully completed his Physics Project work on the topic
Total Internal Reflection and Optical Fibres under the guidance of Mr.
Ashwin Singh Rathore during the session 2024-25 in partial fulfilment of the
requirement of Physics Practical curriculum in AISSCE.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

Principal’s Signature
 Declaration

I hereby declare that this project work entitled Total Internal Reflection and
Optical Fibres submitted to DPS, Rau is a record of original work done by me under
the guidance of Mr. Ashwin Singh Rathore.

Name: Vaibhav Tiwari

Class\Sec.: XII A

Signature:
 Index
SL. NO. TITLE PAGE NO.
1. AIM OF PROJECT 6
2. INTRODUCTION 7
3. REFRACTION 8-10
4. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION 11-13
5. DIAMOND 14
6. APPLICATIONS 15-17
7. OPTICAL FIBRE 18-34
8. CONCLUSION 35
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY 36

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 AIM OF PROJECT:

Theoretical discussion and analysis of total internal

reflection and its use in form of optical fiber.

6|Page
 INTRODUCTION
Total internal reflection is an optical phenomenon that
happens when a ray of light strikes a medium boundary
at an angle larger than a particular critical angle with
respect to the normal to the surface. If the refractive
index is lower on the other side of the boundary and the
incident angle is greater than the critical angle, no light
can pass through and all of the light is reflected. The
critical angle is the angle of incidence above which
the total internal reflectance occurs.
When a light beam crosses a boundary between
materials with different kinds of refractive indices, the
light beam will be partially refracted at the boundary
surface, and partially reflected. However, if the angle
of incidence is greater (i.e. the ray is closer to being
parallel to the boundary) than the critical angle – the
angle of incidence at which light is refracted such that
it travels along the boundary – then the light will stop
crossing the boundary altogether and instead be totally
reflected back internally. This can only occur where
light travels from a medium with a higher [n1=higher
refractive index] to one with a lower refractive index
[n2=lower refractive index]. For example, it will occur
when passing from glass to air, but not when passing
from air to glass. This Phenomenon is practically used
in OPTICAL FIBRE.

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 REFRACTION
Refraction is the change in direction of a wave due to a
change in its speed. This is most commonly observed
when a wave passes from one medium to another.
Refraction of light is the most commonly observed
phenomenon, but any type of wave can refract when it
interacts with a medium, for example when sound waves
pass from one medium into another or when water waves
move into water of a different depth.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT:
Refraction of light is the bending of light rays as they
pass from one medium to another,
resulting in a change in their direction.
This phenomenon occurs due to a change
in the speed of light, which depends on
the refractive index of the two media
involved. Causes of Refraction are :

Change in Speed: When light travels from a medium with

a higher refractive index to one with a lower refractive
index, its speed increases. Conversely, when it travels
from a lower refractive index to a higher one, its speed
decreases. This change in speed causes the light ray to
bend.

Angle of Incidence: The angle at which light enters the

new medium also affects the degree of refraction. A
greater angle of incidence results in a more noticeable
bending of the light ray.

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Laws of Refraction Snell’s Law: The ratio of the sines of
the angles of incidence and refraction is equal to the ratio
of the refractive indices of the two media.
Mathematically, this is expressed as:
sin i / sin r = constant = n2 / n1
where i is the angle of incidence, r is the angle of
refraction, n1 is the refractive index of the first medium,
and n2 is the refractive index of the second medium.
Refraction Index: The refractive index of a medium is a
measure of how much it bends light. A higher refractive
index indicates a greater bending of light.
Examples and Applications :
Rainbows: Refraction of light occurs when sunlight
passes through water droplets in the air, creating the
colors of the rainbow.
Mirages: Refraction of light occurs when light passes
from air into a layer of hot air or a layer of denser air,
creating an apparent image of a distant object.
Optical Instruments: Refraction is used in magnifying
glasses, lenses, and prisms to focus and manipulate
light.
Fiber Optics: Refraction is used to transmit data as light
signals through fiber optic cables. Key Points Refraction
occurs due to a change in the speed of light as it passes
from one medium to another. The angle of incidence and
the refractive indices of the two media affect the degree
of refraction.

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When a light travels from denser to rarer medium the
angle of refraction is more than the angle of incidence.
This is because the speed of light varies from medium to
medium. Angle of incidence is the angle which light
makes with normal while entering the medium whereas
angle of incidence is the angle which light makes with the
surface after refraction.

There are two types of medium

namely optically rarer medium
and optically denser medium.
Speed of light is more in the rarer
medium than in denser medium.
So, whenever light travels from
denser to rarer medium light
tends to move away from the
normal. And when light travels
from rarer to denser medium light
tends to move towards normal. Also the relative
refractive index of the medium is equal to the ratio of
speed of light in medium 1 to that of medium 2.

μ=v1/v2

where, μ=refractive index of medium and v1,v2 are speed

of light in respective mediums.
The angle of incidence is only equal to the angle of
refraction only when light enters perpendicular to the
surface of the medium.

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TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
To understand total internal reflection (T.I.R) we will have
to know some terminologies first :

REFLECTION:
Reflection is the change in direction of a wavefront at an
interface between two different media so that the
wavefront returns into the medium from which it
originated. Common examples include the reflection of
light, sound and water waves.
OR

The bouncing back of light rays into the same medium

after striking a reflecting surface or an interface is known
as reflection.

CRITICAL ANGLE:

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The critical angle is the angle of incidence above which
total internal reflection occurs. The angle of incidence is
measured with respect to the normal at the refractive
boundary. Consider a light ray passing from glass into air.
The light emanating from the interface is bent towards the
glass. When the incident angle is increased sufficiently,
the transmitted angle (in air) reaches 90 degrees. It is at this
point no light is transmitted into air. The critical angle is
given by Snell's law.
we have, n1sin(θi)=n2sin(θr), where n1 is the index of refraction
on the incident side, θi is the incident angle, n2 is the index of
refraction on the refracted side and θr is the angle of
refraction. Here we are assuming that the incident side is the
denser medium side, and the refracted side is the less dense
medium. That generally means that n1 is bigger than n2, and
in fact you seem to assume that the refracted side is air, so
we can take n2=1, a reasonable approximation. In this case,
the refracted angle is greater than the incident angle. That
then gives us n1sin(θi)=n2sin(θr). The largest that the sine on
the RHS can be is 1 (which is obtained when the angle of
refraction is 90o). That's the criticality condition. That then
gives us
n1=1/sin(θC)
so, critical angle that is : θC = sin-1(n2/n1)
(we can take n2=1)
where θC is the critical angle and n2 ,n1 are respective
refractive indices.
That makes sense, since n1>1 because of the dense medium,
which allows us to find a real angle that solves this equation.
If the less dense medium side was the incident side, there

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would be no way to make the refracted angle 90, because it
would always be less than the incident angle.
x

TOTAL INTENAL REFLECTION:

Total internal reflection, in physics, complete reflection of
a ray of light within a medium such as water or glass
from the surrounding surfaces back into the medium. The
phenomenon occurs if the angle of incidence is greater
than a certain limiting angle, called the critical angle. In
general, total internal reflection takes place at the
boundary between two transparent media when a ray of
light in a medium of higher index of
refraction approaches the other medium at an angle of
incidence greater than the critical angle. For a water-air
surface the critical angle is 48.5°. Because indices
of refraction depend on wavelength, the critical angle
(and hence the angle of total internal reflection) will vary
slightly with wavelength and, therefore, with colour. At all
angles less than the critical angle, both refraction and
reflection occur in varying proportions.
Glass prisms can be shaped to produce total internal
reflection and as such are employed
in binoculars, periscopes, telescopes, and other optical
instruments. Light rays may be conducted over long,
twisting paths by multiple total internal reflection in glass
or plastic rods or fibres.

DIAMOND
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From glass to air the critical angle is about 42o but it
varies from one medium to another. The material that
gives the smallest critical angle is diamond. That is why
they sparkle so much! Rays of
light can easily be made to
'bounce around inside them' by
careful cutting of the stone and
the refraction at the surfaces
splits the light into a spectrum
of colours!
Relatively speaking, the critical angle 24.4o
for the diamond- air boundary is extremely
small. This property of the diamond-air
boundary plays an important role in the
brilliance of a diamond gemstone. Having a
small critical angle, light has the tendency to
become "trapped" inside of a diamond once
it enters. Most rays approach the diamond at angles of
incidence greater than the critical angle (as it is so
small) so a light ray will typically undergo TIR
several times before finally refracting out of the
diamond. This gives diamond a tendency to sparkle. The
effect can be enhanced by the cutting of a diamond
gemstone with a 'strategically' planned shape.

APPLICATIONS

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 1. Total internal reflection is the operating
principle of optical fibres, which are used in
endoscopes and telecommunications.
2. Total internal reflection is the operating
principle of automotive rain sensors, which
control automatic windscreen/windshield
wipers.
3. Another application of total internal
reflection is the spatial filtering of light.
4. Prismatic binoculars use the principle of total
internal reflections to get a very clear image.
5. Gonioscopy employs total internal reflection to
view the anatomical angle formed between the eye's
cornea and iris.
6. Optical fingerprinting devices use frustrated total
internal reflection in order to record an image of a
person's fingerprint without the use of ink.
7. A Total internal reflection fluorescence microscope
uses the evanescent wave produced by TIR to
excite fluorophores close to a surface. This is
useful for the study of surface properties of
biological samples.

EXAMPLES IN EVERYDAY LIFE:

Total internal reflection can be observed while swimming,
when one opens one's eyes just under the water's

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surface. If the water is calm, its surface appears mirror-
like.
One can demonstrate total internal reflection by filling a
sink or bath with water, taking a glass
tumbler, and placing it upside- down
over the plug hole (with the tumbler
completely filled with water). While water
remains both in the upturned tumbler and
in the sink surrounding it, the plug
hole and plug are visible since the angle
of refraction
between glass and water is not
greater than the critical angle. If
the drain is opened and the
tumbler is kept in position over
the hole, the water in the tumbler
drains out leaving the glass filled
with air, and this then acts as the
plug. Viewing this from above, the tumbler now appears
mirrored because light reflects off the air/glass
interface.
This is different phenomenon from reflection and
refraction. Reflection occurs when light goes back in
same medium. Refraction occurs when light travels
from different mediums. Here both are not happening.
This is due to both and a mixture of both. Another
common example of total internal reflection is a critically

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cut diamond. This is what gives it maximum spark.

OPTICAL FIBRE
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An Optical fiber is a thin, flexible glass or plastic fiber
that transmits light signals over long distances. This
technology enables high-speed data
transmission, surpassing traditional
electrical cables in terms of bandwidth
and distance. Fiber optics is a
technology that enables the
transmission of data, voice, and
images by the
passage of light
through thin, transparent fibers. With
its ability to transmit multiple light
pulses simultaneously, multimode
fiber optics offer higher data
transmission capacity, while single-
mode fiber optics prioritize higher performance and
longer distances. The technology’s advantages over
copper cables make it an essential component in modern
telecommunications and data transmission
infrastructure.

Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals

travel along them with less loss, and they are also
immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also
used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they
can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in
tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a
variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber
lasers.

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Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total
internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a
waveguide. Fibers which support many propagation
paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers
(MMF), while those which can only support a single mode
are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers
generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for
short-distance communication links and for applications
where high power must be transmitted. Single-mode
fibers are used for most communication links longer than
550 meters (1,800 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is
more complex than joining electrical wire or cable.

APPLICATIONS:
Optical fiber communication
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for
telecommunication and networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is
especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through
the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be
spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-
channel light signals propagating in the fiber can be
modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per
second, although 10 or40 G b /s is typical in
deployed systems .Each fiber can carry many
independent channels, each using a different
wavelength of light (wavelength-division
multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate
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without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel
data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied
by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in
commercial dense WDM systems as of 2008). The
current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held
by Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing
155 channels, each carrying 100 Gbps over a 7000
km fiber. For short distance applications, such as
creating a network with in an office building, fiber-
optic cabling can be used to save space in cable
ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry
much more data than many electrical cables, such
as Cat-5 Ethernet cabling .Fiber is also immune to
electrical interference; there is no cross-talk
between signals in different cables and no pickup of
environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do
not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good
solution for protecting communications equipment
located in high voltage environments such as power
generation facilities, or metal communication
structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also
be used in environments where explosive fumes are
present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is
more difficult compared to electrical connections,
and there are concentric dual core fibers that are
said to be tap-proof .Although fibers can be made
out of transparent plastic, glass, or a combination of
the two, the fibers used in long distance
telecommunications applications are always glass,
because of the lower optical attenuation. Both multi-

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mode and single-mode fibers are used in
communications, with multi-mode fiber used mostly
for short distances, up to 550 m (600 yards), and
single-mode fiber used for longer distance links.

Fiber optics sensor

Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some
applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other
cases, fiber is used to connect
a non-fiber optic sensor to a
measurement system.
Depending on the application,
fiber may be used because of
its small size, or the fact that
no electrical power is needed
at the remote location, or
because many sensors can be multiplexed along the
length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light
for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light
passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay
can be determined using a device such as an optical
time-domain reflectometer.

Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain,

temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying
a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the
intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time
of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light
are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector
are required. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light.

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CONSTRUCTION:
An optical fibre typically consists of three parts, namely
core, cladding, and outer jacket. The material used to
make the core and cladding of an optical fibre is
generally silica, plastic, or glass. The outer jacket of the
fibre is made up of PVC. The size of the core typically
varies between 50 µm to 500 µm. The size of the cladding
varies as per the requirement. To achieve total internal
reflection, the refractive index of the material should
always be slightly higher than the refractive index of the
material or the air present around it. This is the reason
why the refractive index of the core is always maintained
higher than the refractive index of the cladding.

The cladding prohibits the data from being lost or

distorted. The purpose of the cladding is not only to
support the total internal reflection phenomenon but also
to provide a protective coating to the fibre.

The main purpose of a jacket layer wrapped around the

fibre is to provide protection against the rough and
uneven surface. It shields the core of the fibre from
getting damaged and from suffering deformations at a
micro-level. The optical fibre cables that are laid under
the seas and oceans are more prone to suffer data
losses, hence they contain more protective coatings
around the core than the cables that are present simply
beneath the ground.

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Diagram

WORKING PRINCIPLE AND MATERIAL:

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An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non
conducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis,
by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber core
is surrounded by a cladding layer. So basically optical
fibre works on the principle of total internal reflection
(TIR) and
refraction.

The term total internal reflection indicates that no part of

the signal gets refracted or transmitted to the second
medium, but instead, all of the signals is retained inside
the fibre. The natural tendency of a ray of light, when it
encounters a change in medium, is to slow down and get
refracted. The change in the speed of the propagation of
light before and after entering the medium can be
represented easily with the help of the refractive index of
the medium. The phenomenon of refraction of light is
defined as the process of a slight bending of light at the
interface of two different mediums having distinct values
of refractive indexes. It should be noted that when the
light travels from a medium of high refractive index
towards a medium of low refractive index, the ray of light
tends to get bend towards the interface. The bending of
light towards the interface can be increased by
increasing the refractive index of the second medium.
This can be done easily by introducing dopants or
selective impurities into the medium. If the refractive
index of the medium is increased up to a value after
which the refracted light does not go out, but instead,
gets diverted towards the first medium, then one can say
that total internal reflection of light has been achieved.
The process of achieving the total internal reflection of
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light by increasing the refractive index of a medium is a
tedious task. An alternate method of attaining TIR or total
internal reflection is to increase the incident angle of
light. The incidence angle at which the light gets reflected
back inside the first medium is known as the critical
angle. The signal incident at an angle greater than the
critical angle tends to propagate from one end to the
other by undergoing multiple reflections along the curved
surface of the fiber.

Index of refraction
The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed
of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum,
such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a
vacuum is about 300 million meters (186 thousand miles)
per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing
the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in
some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum
is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the
cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is
typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the
slower light travels in that medium. From this
information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using
optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200
million meters per second.

Total Internal reflection

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When light travelling in a dense medium hits a boundary
at a steep angle (larger than the "critical angle" for the
boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This
effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core.
Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off
of the boundary. Because the light must strike the
boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle,
only light that enters the fiber within a
certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without
leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance
cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a
function of the refractive index difference between the
fiber’s core and cladding.

Attenuation mechanism
Attenuation in fiber optics, also known as transmission
loss, is the reduction in intensity of the light beam (or
signal) with respect to distance travelled through a
transmission medium. Attenuation coefficients in fiber
optics usually use units of dB/km through the medium
due to the relatively high quality of transparency of
modern optical transmission media. The medium is
typically usually a fiber of silica glass that confines the
incident light beam to the inside.

The propagation of light through the core of an optical

fiber is based on total internal reflection of the light wave.
Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level,
can cause light rays to be reflected in random directions.
This is called diffuse reflection or scattering, and it is
typically characterized by wide variety of reflection
angles.

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Manufacturing materials
Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica,
but some other materials, such as fluorozirconate,
fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses, are used for
longer-wavelength infrared applications. Like other
glasses, these glasses have a refractive index of about
1.5. Typically the difference between core and cladding is
less than one percent.

Silica exhibits fairly good optical transmission over a

wide range of wavelengths. In the near-infrared (near IR)
portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 μm, silica
can have extremely low absorption and scattering losses
of the order of 0.2dB/km. A high transparency in the 1.4-
μm region is achieved by maintaining a low concentration
of hydroxyl groups (OH).

WORKING OF OPTICAL FIBRES:

To communicate a piece of information between the

transmitter and the receiver via optical means, a network
of optical fibre cables is laid beneath the surface of the
earth. The data that is required to be communicated is
first translated into binary format. This binary coded data
is then transmitted by the transmitter to the cellular base
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station in the form of electromagnetic radiations. The
‘ones’ contained by the data are represented by a high-
frequency signal; whereas, the ‘zeroes’ are represented
with the help of a comparatively low-frequency signal.
The cell tower picks up the electromagnetic radiations
transmitted by a cellular device or a transmitter.

When a high-frequency signal is traced, a light pulse

gets generated. Similarly, when a low-frequency signal is
detected, a light pulse is not generated. The light pulses
are transmitted to the receiver through the optical fibre
cables. The light used in optical fibre communication is
highly directional in nature. When such a ray of light is
made to strike the inside of the fibre at an angle that is
greater than the critical angle, then the light tends to
undergo multiple reflections along the surface of the
fibre. This allows the signal to propagate from one end of
the fibre to the other end, thereby communicating
information between the transmitter and the receiver end.
The phenomenon of total internal reflection does not lead
to degradation of the light quality, hence the signal can
travel long distances without losing the data or the
information. Also, the twisted shape of the cable has no
effect on the quality of data contained by the ray of light
that travels through it. The signal travelling through the
fibre tends to undergo various losses and a certain
amount of attenuation due to absorption and scattering
of light radiation. The reconstruction of the lost signal is
performed by adding amplifiers to the circuit. The
amplifiers help boost the signal strength and allow long-
distance communication of data.

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Types of Optical Fiber:

On the basis of the refractive index, type of construction

material used, and the mode of propagation of light, there
exist a number of optical fibres in the market. Broadly the
optical fibres can be classified into three categories,
given below:

On the Basis of the Refractive Index

1. Step Index Optical Fibre

The refractive index of the core and cladding of a step-

index optical fibre is uniform throughout the length. If
you cut a step-index optical fibre and notice its cross-

29 | P a g e
sectional view, you can easily observe the step change in
the refractive index of the core and the cladding.

2. Graded Index Optical Fibre

The refractive index of the core and cladding of a graded

index optical fibre is not uniform throughout the length. If
you cut a graded-index optical fibre and notice its cross
sectional view, you can easily observe that the change in
the refractive index of the core and the cladding
decreases as the radial distance increases. The refractive
index profile of the core and cladding of a graded-index
optical fibre plotted on graph paper gives a parabolic
shape.

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On the Basis of Material Used

1. Plastic Optical Fibre

As the name itself suggests, plastic

optical fibre is made up of plastic.
The core element of such fibres is
typically constructed with the help
of chemical substances such as
polymethylmethacrylate.

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2. Glass Optical Fibre

The strands of glass optical fibres

are made up of fine glass.

On the Basis of the Mode of Propagation of

Light

1. Single-mode Optical Fibre

Single-mode optical fibre is specifically designed to carry
a single monochromatic ray of light. The diameter of the
core of a single-mode optical fibre is approximately equal
to 9 µm. Single-mode optical fibres are generally
preferred for long-distance communication.

2. Multi-mode Optical Fibre

Multi-mode optical fibres consist of a core that is slightly

wide in diameter as compared to single-mode optical
fibres. The broad diameter of the core helps a multi-mode
optical fibre to allow the propagation of more than one
ray of light from the transmitter end to the receiver
end. The diameter of the core of the multi-mode optical
fibre is approximately equal to 50 µm or above. Multi-
mode optical fibres are usually preferred for the short-
distance transmission of signals.

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33 | P a g e
 Conclusion
In conclusion, the theoretical discussion and analysis of
total internal reflection (TIR) and its application in optical
fibers has provided valuable insights into the principles
that underpin modern communication technologies. TIR,
occurring when light travels from a medium with a higher
refractive index to one with a lower refractive index at an
angle greater than the critical angle, is the fundamental
mechanism that enables the efficient transmission of
light through optical fibers. The analysis of this
phenomenon has highlighted the crucial role of fiber
geometry, material properties, and the angle of incidence
in ensuring minimal signal loss and optimal data
transmission.
Optical fibers, utilizing TIR, have revolutionized
telecommunications, offering advantages such as high
bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference, making them the backbone
of global data networks. The practical application of TIR
in fiber optics has facilitated advancements in various
fields, including medical imaging, internet infrastructure,
and sensing technologies.
As research in optical materials and fiber design
continues to evolve, there is potential for even more
efficient and specialized applications of optical fibers in
emerging technologies. Understanding the principles of
total internal reflection remains essential for both
academic inquiry and the continued development of high-
performance optical communication systems.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books:

Physics (Part 1&2)–Textbook for Class XII;

National Council of Educational Research and Training

Websites:

www.google.com/images

www.wikipedia.org

www.studiousguy.com

www.britannica.com

www.google.com

www.icbse.com

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