Calligraphy

Various examples of calligraphy in different languages and writing systems throughout history

Calligraphy (from Ancient Greek καλλιγραφία (kalligraphía) 'beautiful writing') is a visual art related to
writing. It is the design and execution of lettering with a pen, ink brush, or other writing instrument.[1]: 17
Contemporary calligraphic practice can be defined as "the art of giving form to signs in an expressive,
harmonious, and skillful manner".[1]: 18

In East Asia and the Islamic world, where more flexibility is allowed in written forms, calligraphy is
regarded as a significant art form, and the form it takes may be affected by the meaning of the text or the
individual words.

In the Western world, the aim of calligraphy is normally regarded as only to achieve attractive writing
that is usually consistent within each piece of writing, with little or no interpretation of the text attempted.

Modern Western calligraphy ranges from functional inscriptions and designs to fine-art pieces where the
letters may or may not be readable.[1] Classical calligraphy differs from type design and non-classical
hand-lettering, though a calligrapher may practice both.[2][3][4][5]

Western calligraphy continues to flourish in the forms of wedding invitations and event invitations, font
design and typography, original hand-lettered logo design, religious art, announcements, graphic design
and commissioned calligraphic art, cut stone inscriptions, and memorial documents. It is also used for
props, moving images for film and television, testimonials, birth and death certificates, maps, and other
written works.[6][7]

Tools

Pens and brushes

The principal tools for a calligrapher are the pen
and the brush. The pens used in calligraphy can
have nibs that may be flat, round, or
pointed.[8][9][10] For decorative purposes, multi-
nibbed pens (steel brushes) can be used. However,
works have also been created with felt-tip and
ballpoint pens, although these works do not
employ angled lines. There are certain styles of
calligraphy, such as Gothic script, that require a
stub nib pen. DA calligraphic nib, with part Ink brushes of
names various size and
Common calligraphy pens and brushes include: material

Quill
Dip pen
Ink brush
Qalam
Fountain pen
Chiselled marker
Reed pen

Inks, papers, and templates

The ink used for writing is usually water-based and is much less viscous than the oil-based ink used in
printing. Certain specialty paper with high ink absorption and constant texture enables cleaner lines,[11]
although parchment or vellum is often used, as a knife can be used to erase imperfections and a light-box
is not needed to allow lines to be visible through it. Normally, light boxes and templates are used to
achieve straight lines without pencil markings detracting from the work. Ruled paper, either for a light
box or direct use, is most often ruled every quarter or half an inch, although inch spaces are occasionally
used. This is the case with litterea unciales (hence the name), and college-ruled paper often acts as a
guideline well.[12]

East Asia
Chinese calligraphy is locally called shūfǎ or fǎshū (書法 or 法書 in traditional Chinese, literally "the
method or law of writing"); Japanese calligraphy is shodō ( 書 道 , literally "the way or principle of
writing");[13] and Korean calligraphy is called seoye (Korean: 서예; Hanja: 書 藝 ; literally "the art of
writing");[14] The calligraphy of East Asian characters continues to form an important and appreciated
constituent of contemporary traditional East Asian culture.

Calligraphy samples from East Asia

On Calligraphy by Mi Fu, Song Japanese calligraphy: Two Calligraphy by one of Korea's

dynasty (China) Chinese characters "平和" most celebrated calligraphists,
meaning "peace" and the Kim Jeong-hui (1786–1856)
signature of Japanese
calligrapher Ōura Kanetake
(1910). Horizontal writing.

Modern Korean calligraphy in

Hangul, meaning "Wiktionary"

History
In ancient China, the oldest known Chinese characters are oracle bone script ( 甲 骨 文 ), carved on ox
scapulae and tortoise plastrons, as the rulers in the Shang dynasty carved pits on such animals' bones and
then baked them to gain auspice of military affairs, agricultural harvest, or even procreation and weather.
During the divination ceremony, after the cracks were made, the characters were written with a brush on
the shell or bone to be later carved.[15] With the development of the bronzeware script (jīn wén) and large
seal script (dà zhuàn)[16] "cursive" signs continued. Mao Gong Ding is one of the most famous and
typical bronzeware scripts in Chinese calligraphic history. It has 500 characters inscribed onto the bronze
which is the largest number of bronze inscription we have discovered so far.[17] Moreover, each archaic
kingdom of current China had its own set of characters.

In Imperial China, the graphs on old steles — some dating from 200 BCE, and in the small seal script (小
篆 xiǎo zhuàn) style — have been preserved and can be viewed in museums even today.

About 220 BCE, the emperor Qin Shi Huang, the first to conquer the entire Chinese basin, imposed
several reforms, among them Li Si's character unification, which created a set of 3300 standardized small
seal characters.[18] Despite the fact that the main writing implement of the time was already the brush,
few papers survive from this period, and the main examples of this style are on steles.

The clerical script (隸書/隸书) (lì shū) which was more regularized, and in some ways similar to modern
text, was also authorised under Qin Shi Huang.[19]

Between clerical script and traditional regular script, there is another transitional type of calligraphic
work called Wei Bei. It started during the North and South dynasties (420 to 589 CE) and ended before
the Tang dynasty (618–907).[20]

The traditional regular script (kǎi shū), still in use today, and largely finalized by Zhong You (鐘繇, 151–
230) and his followers, is even more regularized. Its spread was encouraged by Emperor Mingzong of
Later Tang (926–933), who ordered the printing of the classics using new wooden blocks in kaishu.
Printing technologies here allowed a shape stabilization. The kaishu shape of characters 1000 years ago
was mostly similar to that at the end of Imperial China; However, small changes to the characters have
been made. For example the shape of 广 has changed from the version in the Kangxi Dictionary of 1716
to the version found in modern books. The Kangxi and current shapes have tiny differences, while stroke
order remains the same, according to the old style.[21]

Styles which did not survive include bāfēnshū, a mix of 80% small seal script and 20% clerical script.
Some variant Chinese characters were unorthodox or locally used for centuries. They were generally
understood but always rejected in official texts. Some of these unorthodox variants, in addition to some
newly created characters, compose the simplified Chinese character set.

Technique
Traditional East Asian writing uses the Four Treasures of the Study[22] — ink brushes known as máobǐ
( 毛 筆 / 毛 笔 ), Chinese ink, paper, and inkstones — to write Chinese characters. These instruments of
writing are also known as the Four Friends of the Study (Korean: 문방사우/ 文 房 四 友 ,
romanized: Munbang sau) in Korea. Besides the traditional four tools, desk pads and paperweights are also
used.

Many different parameters influence the final result of a calligrapher's work. Physical parameters include
the shape, size, stretch, and hair type of the ink brush; the color, color density and water density of the
ink; as well as the paper's water absorption speed and surface texture. The calligrapher's technique also
influences the result, as the look of finished characters are influenced by the quantity of ink and water the
calligrapher lets the brush absorb and by the pressure, inclination, and direction of the brush. Changing
these variables produces thinner or bolder strokes, and smooth or toothed borders. Eventually, the speed,
accelerations and decelerations of a skilled calligrapher's movements aim to give "spirit" to the
characters, greatly influencing their final shapes.

Styles
Cursive styles such as xíngshū ( 行 書 / 行 书 )(semi-cursive or running script) and cǎoshū ( 草 書 / 草 书 )
(cursive, rough script, or grass script) are less constrained and faster, where movements made by the
writing implement are more visible. These styles' stroke orders vary more, sometimes creating radically
different forms. They are descended from the clerical script, in the same time as the regular script (Han
dynasty), but xíngshū and cǎoshū were used for personal notes only, and never used as a standard. The
cǎoshū style was highly appreciated during Emperor Wu of Han's reign (140–187 CE).

Examples of modern printed styles are Song from the Song dynasty's printing press, and sans-serif. These
are not considered traditional styles, and are normally not written.

Influences
Japanese and Korean calligraphy were each greatly influenced by Chinese calligraphy. Calligraphy has
influenced most major art styles in East Asia, including ink and wash painting, a style of Chinese,
Japanese, and Korean painting based entirely on calligraphy and which uses similar tools and techniques.

The Japanese and Koreans have also developed their own specific sensibilities and styles of calligraphy
while incorporating Chinese influences.

Japan
Japanese calligraphy goes out of the set of CJK strokes to also include local alphabets such as hiragana
and katakana, with specific problematics such as new curves and moves, and specific materials (Japanese
paper, washi 和紙, and Japanese ink).[23]

Korea
The modern Korean alphabet and its use of the circle required the creation of a new technique not used in
traditional Chinese calligraphy.

Mongolia
Mongolian calligraphy is also influenced by Chinese calligraphy, from tools to style.

Tibet
Tibetan calligraphy is central to Tibetan culture. The script is derived from Indic scripts. The nobles of
Tibet, such as the High Lamas and inhabitants of the Potala Palace, were often capable calligraphers.
Tibet has been a center of Buddhism for several centuries, with said religion placing a high significance
on the written word. This does not provide for a large body of secular pieces, although they do exist (but
are usually related in some way to Tibetan Buddhism). Almost all high religious writing involved
calligraphy, including letters sent by the Dalai Lama and other religious and secular authorities.
Calligraphy is particularly evident on their prayer wheels, although this calligraphy was forged rather
than scribed, much like Arab and Roman calligraphy is often found on buildings. Although originally
done with a reed, Tibetan calligraphers now use chisel tipped pens and markers as well.

Southeast Asia

Philippines
The Philippines has numerous ancient and indigenous scripts collectively called as Suyat scripts. Various
ethno-linguistic groups in the Philippines prior to Spanish colonization in the 16th century up to the
independence era in the 21st century have used the scripts with various mediums. By the end of
colonialism, only four of the suyat scripts had survived and continued to be used by certain communities
in everyday life. These four scripts are Hanunó'o/Hanunoo of the Hanuno'o Mangyan people,
Buhid/Build of the Buhid Mangyan people, Tagbanwa script of the Tagbanwa people, and
Palaw'an/Pala'wan of the Palaw'an people. All four scripts were inscribed in the UNESCO Memory of the
World Programme, under the name Philippine Paleographs (Hanunoo, Build, Tagbanua and Pala’wan),
in 1999.[24]

Due to dissent from colonialism, many artists and cultural experts have revived the usage of suyat scripts
that went extinct due their replacement by the Spanish-introduced Latin alphabet. These scripts being
revived include the Kulitan script of the Kapampangan people, the badlit script of various Visayan ethnic
groups, the Iniskaya script of the Eskaya people, the Baybayin script of the Tagalog people, and the Kur-
itan script of the Ilocano people, among many others.[25][26][27] Due to the diversity of suyat scripts, all
calligraphy written in suyat scripts are collectively called as Filipino suyat calligraphy, although each are
distinct from each other.[28][29] Calligraphy using the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are also
prevalent in the Philippines due to its colonial past, but the Western alphabet and the Arabic alphabet are
not considered as suyat, and therefore Western-alphabet and Arabic calligraphy are not considered as
suyat calligraphy.[30][31]

Vietnam
Vietnamese calligraphy is called thư pháp (書法, literally "the way of letters or words") and is based on
Chữ Nôm and Chữ Hán, the historical Vietnamese writing system rooted in the impact of Chinese
characters and replaced with the Latin alphabet as a result of French colonial influence. However, the
calligraphic traditions maintaining the historical employment of Han characters continue to be preserved
in modern Vietnamese calligraphy.[32]

South Asia
Religious texts preservation is the most common purpose for
Indian calligraphy. Monastic Buddhist communities had members
trained in calligraphy and shared responsibility for duplicating
sacred scriptures.[33] Jaina traders incorporated illustrated
manuscripts celebrating Jaina saints. These manuscripts were
produced using inexpensive material, like palm leave and birch,
with fine calligraphy.[34]

Nepal
Sikh Calligraphy in the Gurmukhi
Nepalese calligraphy is primarily created using the Ranjana script. Script
The script itself, along with its derivatives (like Lantsa, Phagpa,
Kutila) are used in Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Leh, Mongolia, coastal
Japan, and Korea to write "Om mani padme hum" and other
sacred Buddhist texts, mainly those derived from Sanskrit and
Pali.

Africa

Egypt
Egyptian hieroglyphs were the formal writing system used in
Ancient Egypt. Hieroglyphs combined logographic, syllabic and
Budha in Samrup Rachna
alphabetic elements, with a total of some 1,000 distinct characters.
Calligraphy by Syed Mohammed
Anwer
Ethiopia
Ethiopian (Abyssinian) calligraphy began with the Ge'ez script, which replaced Epigraphic South Arabian
in the Kingdom of Aksum, which was developed specifically for Ethiopian Semitic languages. In those
languages that use it, such as Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is called Fidäl, which means script or
alphabet. The Epigraphic South Arabian letters were used for a few inscriptions into the 8th century,
though not in any South Arabian language since Dʿmt.

Early inscriptions in Ge'ez and Ge'ez script are dated to as early as the 5th century BCE, with a sort of
proto-Ge'ez written in ESA since the 9th century BCE. Ge'ez literature begins with the Christianization of
Ethiopia (and the civilization of Axum) in the 4th century, during the reign of Ezana of Axum.
The Ge'ez script is read from left to right and has been adapted to write
other languages, usually ones that are also Semitic. The most widespread
use is for Amharic in Ethiopia and Tigrinya in Eritrea and Ethiopia.

Americas

Maya
Maya calligraphy was expressed via Maya glyphs; modern Maya
calligraphy is mainly used on seals and monuments in the Yucatán
Peninsula in Mexico. Maya glyphs are rarely used in government offices;
however, in Campeche, Yucatán and Quintana Roo, calligraphy in Maya
languages is written in Latin script rather than Maya glyphs. Some
commercial companies in southern Mexico use Maya glyphs as symbols
of their business. Some community associations and modern Maya
brotherhoods use Maya glyphs as symbols of their groups.
A painting of Susenyos I (r.
Most of the archaeological sites in Mexico such as Chichen Itza, Labna, 1607–1632) on a Ge'ez
prayer scroll meant to
Uxmal, Edzna, Calakmul, etc. have glyphs in their structures. Carved
dispel evil spirits, Wellcome
stone monuments known as stele are common sources of ancient Maya Collection, London
calligraphy.

Europe
Calligraphy samples from Europe and near East
 Folio 27r from the Lindisfarne Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of Georgian calligraphy is a
Gospels (c. 700) contains the 1407 on display in centuries-old tradition of an
incipit from the Gospel of Malmesbury Abbey, England. artistic writing of the Georgian
Matthew. This Bible was hand-written in language with its three scripts.
Belgium, by Gerard Brils, for
reading aloud in a monastery.

Modern Western calligraphy

Calligraphy in Europe is recognizable in the use of the Latin script in Western Europe, and in the use of
the Greek, Armenian, and Georgian, and Cyrillic scripts in Eastern Europe.

Ancient Rome
The Latin alphabet appeared about 600 BCE in ancient Rome, and by the first century CE it had
developed into Roman imperial capitals carved on stones, rustic capitals painted on walls, and Roman
cursive for daily use. In the second and third centuries the uncial lettering style developed. As writing
withdrew to monasteries, uncial script was found more suitable for copying the Bible and other religious
texts. It was the monasteries which preserved calligraphic traditions during the fourth and fifth centuries,
when the Roman Empire fell and Europe entered the early Middle Ages.[35]

At the height of the Roman Empire, its power reached as far as Great Britain; when the empire fell, its
literary influence remained. The Semi-uncial generated the Irish Semi-uncial, the small Anglo-Saxon.[36]
Each region developed its own standards following the main monastery of the region (i.e. Merovingian
script, Laon script, Luxeuil script, Visigothic script, Beneventan script), which are mostly cursive and
hardly readable.

Western Christendom
Christian churches promoted the development of writing through the prolific copying of the Bible, the
Breviary, and other sacred texts.[37] Two distinct styles of writing known as uncial and half-uncial (from
the Latin uncia, or "inch") developed from a variety of Roman bookhands.[38] The 7th–9th centuries in
northern Europe were the heyday of Celtic illuminated manuscripts, such as the Book of Durrow,
Lindisfarne Gospels and the Book of Kells.[39]

Charlemagne's devotion to improved scholarship resulted in the recruiting of "a crowd of scribes",
according to Alcuin, the Abbot of York.[40] Alcuin developed the style known as the Caroline or
Carolingian minuscule. The first manuscript in this hand was the Godescalc Evangelistary (finished 783)
— a Gospel book written by the scribe Godescalc.[41] Carolingian remains the one progenitor hand from
which modern booktype descends.[42]

In the eleventh century, the Caroline evolved into the blackletter ("Gothic") script, which was more
compact and made it possible to fit more text on a page.[43]: 72 The Gothic calligraphy styles became
dominant throughout Europe and, in 1454, when Johannes Gutenberg developed the first printing press in
Mainz, Germany, the Gothic style was adopted for its use, making it the first typeface.[43]: 141

In the 15th century, the rediscovery of old Carolingian texts encouraged the creation of the humanist
minuscule or littera antiqua. The 17th century saw the Batarde script from France, and the 18th century
saw the English script spread across Europe and world through their books.

In the mid-1600s French officials, flooded with documents written in various hands and varied levels of
skill, complained that many such documents were beyond their ability to decipher. The Office of the
Financier thereupon restricted all legal documents to three hands, namely the Coulee, the Rhonde,
(known as Round hand in English) and a Speed Hand sometimes called the Bastarda.[44]

While there were many great French masters at the time, the most influential in proposing these hands
was Louis Barbedor, who published Les Ecritures Financière Et Italienne Bastarde Dans Leur Naturel
c. 1650.[44]

With the destruction of the Camera Apostolica during the sack of Rome (1527), the capitol for writing
masters moved to Southern France. By 1600, the Italic Cursiva began to be replaced by a technological
refinement, the Italic Chancery Circumflessa, which in turn fathered the Rhonde and later English
Roundhand.[44]

In England, Ayres and Banson popularized the Round Hand while Snell is noted for his reaction to them,
and warnings of restraint and proportionality. Still Edward Crocker began publishing his copybooks 40
years before the aforementioned.[44]

Eastern Europe
Other European styles use the same tools and practices, but differ by character set and stylistic
preferences. For Slavonic lettering, the history of the Slavonic and consequently Russian writing systems
differs fundamentally from the one of the Latin language, having evolved from the 10th century to today.

Style
Unlike a typeface, handwritten calligraphy is characterised by irregularity in the characters which vary in
size, shape, style, and color, producing a distinct aesthetic value, although it may also make the content
more difficult to decode for some readers. As with Chinese or Islamic calligraphy, Western calligraphic
script employed the use of strict rules and shapes. Quality writing had a rhythm and regularity to the
letters, with a "geometrical" order of the lines on the page. Each character had, and often still has, a
precise stroke order.

Sacred Western calligraphy has some unique features, such as the illumination of the first letter of each
book or chapter in medieval times. A decorative "carpet page" may precede the literature, filled with
ornate, geometrical depictions of bold-hued animals. The Lindisfarne Gospels (715–720 CE) are an early
example.[45] Many of the themes and variations of today's contemporary Western calligraphy are found in
the pages of The Saint John's Bible. A particularly modern example is Timothy Botts' illustrated edition of
the Bible, with 360 calligraphic images as well as a calligraphy typeface.[46]

Islamic world
Samples of Islamic calligraphy samples

The phrase Bismillah in an Bowl with Kufic Calligraphy, Sample showing Nastaliq
18th-century Islamic (Persia) 10th century proportional rules (Persian and
calligraphy from the Ottoman Urdu languages)
region

Islamic calligraphy[a] has evolved alongside Islam and the Arabic language. As it is based on Arabic
letters, some call it "Arabic calligraphy". However the term "Islamic calligraphy" is a more appropriate
term as it comprises all works of calligraphy by Muslim calligraphers of different national cultures, such
as Persian or Ottoman calligraphy, from Al-Andalus in medieval Spain to China.
Islamic calligraphy is associated with geometric Islamic art (Arabesque) on the walls and ceilings of
mosques as well as on the page or other materials. Contemporary artists in the Islamic world may draw
on the heritage of calligraphy to create modern calligraphic inscriptions, like corporate logos, or
abstractions.

Instead of recalling something related to the spoken word, calligraphy for Muslims is a visible expression
of the highest art of all, the art of the spiritual world. Calligraphy has arguably become the most
venerated form of Islamic art because it provides a link between the languages of the Muslims with the
religion of Islam. The Qur'an has played an important role in the development and evolution of the Arabic
language, and by extension, calligraphy in the Arabic alphabet. Proverbs and passages from the Qur'an
continue to be sources for Islamic calligraphy.

During the Ottoman civilization, Islamic calligraphy attained special prominence. The city of Istanbul is
an open exhibition hall for all kinds and varieties of calligraphy, from inscriptions in mosques to
fountains, schools, houses, etc.[47]

Antiquity
It is believed that ancient Persian script was invented by about 600–500 BCE to provide monument
inscriptions for the Achaemenid kings. These scripts consisted of horizontal, vertical, and diagonal nail-
shape letters, which is why it is called cuneiform script (lit. "script of nails") (khat-e-mikhi) in Persian.
Centuries later, other scripts such as "Pahlavi" and "Avestan" scripts were used in ancient Persia. Pahlavi
was a middle Persian script developed from the Aramaic script and became the official script of the
Sassanian empire (224–651 CE).

Contemporary scripts
The Nasta'liq style is the most popular contemporary style among classical Persian calligraphy scripts;
Persian calligraphers call it the "bride of calligraphy scripts." This calligraphy style has been based on
such a rigid structure that it has changed very little since Mir Ali Tabrizi had found the optimum
composition of the letters and graphical rules. It has just been fine-tuned during the past seven centuries.
It has very strict rules for graphical shape of the letters and for combination of the letters, words, and
composition of the whole calligraphy piece.

Modern calligraphy

Revival
After printing became ubiquitous from the 15th century onward, the production of illuminated
manuscripts began to decline.[37][48] However, the rise of printing did not mean the end of
calligraphy.[37][4][49] A clear distinction between handwriting and more elaborate forms of lettering and
script began to make its way into manuscripts and books at the beginning of the 16th century.

The modern revival of calligraphy began at the end of the 19th century, influenced by the aesthetics and
philosophy of William Morris and the Arts and Crafts movement. Edward Johnston is regarded as being
the father of modern calligraphy.[50][51][52] After studying published copies of manuscripts by architect
William Harrison Cowlishaw, he was introduced to William Lethaby in 1898, principal of the Central
School of Arts and Crafts, who advised him to study manuscripts at the British Museum.[b]

This triggered Johnston's interest in the art of calligraphy with the use of a broad-edged pen. He began a
teaching course in calligraphy at the Central School in Southampton Row, London from September 1899,
where he influenced the typeface designer and sculptor Eric Gill. He was commissioned by Frank Pick to
design a new typeface for London Underground, still used today (with minor modifications).[53]

He has been credited for single-handedly reviving the art of modern penmanship and lettering through his
books and teachings — his handbook on the subject, Writing & Illuminating, & Lettering (1906) was
particularly influential on a generation of British typographers and calligraphers, including Graily Hewitt,
Stanley Morison, Eric Gill, Alfred Fairbank and Anna Simons. Johnston also devised the crafted round
calligraphic handwriting style, written with a broad pen, known today as the Foundational hand.
Johnston initially taught his students an uncial hand using a flat pen angle, but later taught his hand using
a slanted pen angle.[54] He first referred to this hand as "Foundational Hand" in his 1909 publication,
Manuscript & Inscription Letters for Schools and Classes and for the Use of Craftsmen.[55]

Subsequent developments
Graily Hewitt taught at the Central School of Arts and Crafts and published together with Johnston
throughout the early part of the century. Hewitt was central to the revival of gilding in calligraphy, and his
prolific output on type design also appeared between 1915 and 1943. He is attributed with the revival of
gilding with gesso and gold leaf on vellum. Hewitt helped found the Society of Scribes & Illuminators
(SSI) in 1921, probably the world's foremost calligraphy society.

Hewitt is not without both critics[56] and supporters[57] in his rendering of Cennino Cennini's medieval
gesso recipes.[58] Donald Jackson, a British calligrapher, has sourced his gesso recipes from earlier
centuries, a number of which are not presently in English translation.[59] Graily Hewitt created the patent
announcing the award to Prince Philip of the title of Duke of Edinburgh on November 19, 1947, the day
before his marriage to Queen Elizabeth.[60]

Anna Simons, Johnston's pupil, was instrumental in sparking interest in calligraphy in Germany with her
German translation of Writing and Illuminating, and Lettering in 1910.[50] Austrian Rudolf Larisch, a
teacher of lettering at the Vienna School of Art, published six lettering books that greatly influenced
German-speaking calligraphers. Because German-speaking countries had not abandoned the Gothic hand
in printing, Gothic also had a powerful effect on their styles.

Rudolf Koch was a friend and younger contemporary of Larisch. Koch's books, type designs, and
teaching made him one of the most influential calligraphers of the 20th century in northern Europe and
later in the U.S. Larisch and Koch taught and inspired many European calligraphers, notably Karlgeorg
Hoefer and Hermann Zapf.[61]

Contemporary typefaces used by computers, from word processors like Microsoft Word or Apple Pages
to professional design software packages like Adobe InDesign, find their roots in the both calligraphy of
the past as well as several professional typeface designers.[1][4][62]

Selected images
Banknote motif: number 5 Chinese soldier in calligraphy Edward Johnston, a famous
against a circular panel of competition British calligrapher, at work in
lace-like lathe work with a 1902
scalloped edge

See also
Handwriting script – style of handwritten document
Asemic writing – Wordless open semantic form of writing
Bastarda – Blackletter script used in France and Germany
Blackletter – Historic European script and typeface
Book hand – Legible handwriting style
Brāhmī script – Ancient script of Central and South Asia
Calligraffiti – Calligraphy/typography/graffiti art form
Chancery hand – Any of several styles of historic handwriting
Concrete poetry – Genre of poetry with lines arranged as a shape
Court hand – Style of handwriting used in medieval English law courts
Cursive – Style of penmanship
Handstyle – In graffiti culture, the unique handwriting of an artist
Handwriting – Writing created by a person with a writing implement
History of writing
Italic script – Style of handwriting and calligraphy developed in Italy
Lettering – The art of drawing letters
List of calligraphers
Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols – Unicode block
Micrography – Art genre using minute Hebrew letters
Palaeography – Study of handwriting and manuscripts
Penmanship – Technique of writing with the hand
Ronde script (calligraphy)
Rotunda (script) – Medieval blackletter script
Round hand – Type of handwriting
Secretary hand – Style of European handwriting
Siyah mashq – Calligraphic practice sheets
Sofer – Jewish scribe
 Tag (graffiti) – Form of graffiti

Notes
a. Calligraphy in Arabic is khatt ul-yad (‫ )خط اليد‬and in Persian is Khosh-Nevisi (‫خوشنویسی‬.
b. Such as the Ramsey Psalter, BL, Harley MS 2904

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External links
Calligraphy alphabets (https://www.lettering-daily.com/calligraphy-alphabets/), a list of major
historical scripts (simplified version) at Lettering Daily (https://www.lettering-daily.com/)
French Renaissance Paleography (https://paleography.library.utoronto.ca) This is a
scholarly maintained site that presents over 100 carefully selected French manuscripts from
1300 to 1700, with tools to decipher and transcribe them.

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