1

Chapter 5

Circular Motion Significance of Rotation

in Physics
What is angular displacement? Or Angular
Rotation occurs at all scales,
displacement. from the motions of electrons
Definition: A body that rotates about a rotation axis, in atoms to the motions of
changing its angular position of the reference line from entire galaxies.
You see rotation in nearly
θ1 to θ2 , undergoes an angular displacement every machine, you use it
every time you open a
Δ θ=θ2 −θ1 , beverage can with a pull tab,
and you pay to experience it
arc length every time you go to an
where the angular position θ= rad .
radius amusement park.
Rotation is the key to many
For a very small value of Δ θ , the angular displacement is fun activities, such as hitting a
a vector quantity. The direction associated with Δ θ is long drive in golf (the ball
needs to rotate in order for the
along axis of rotation and is given by the right hand rule. air to keep it aloft longer) and
Δ θ is positive for counterclockwise rotation and negative throwing a curveball in
for clockwise rotation. Δ θ is measured in any of the three baseball (the ball needs to
units; degrees (o) , radian (rad) and revolution (rev). rotate in order for the air to
push it left or right). Rotation
Radian is the SI unit of Δ θ . is also the key to more serious
matters, such as metal failure
Do you know? in aging airplanes.

The angular position θ is the

ratio between the arc length
and the radius of the circle.
So, an angle defined in this
way is measured in radians
(rad) rather than in
revolutions (rev) or degrees.
The radian, being the ratio of
two lengths, is a pure
number and thus has no
dimension.
 2

Note here we assume a reference line is fixed in the

body, perpendicular to that axis and rotating with the
rotating object.

Do you know?
Show that 1 rad = 57.3o = 0.159 rev
→ If the particle is confined As we know that the angular position θ is measured in
to a straight line, we do not radian according to SI convention:
really need vector notation.
Such a particle has only two arc length S
directions available to it, and θ= rad= rad
radius r
we can indicate these
directions with plus and
as shown in the figure. If the reference line OP is
minus signs.
rotating, the point P covers a distance s = circumference
→In the world of pure which is 2πr. And there are 2π radians in a complete
rotation, a vector defines an round trip which is one revolution. So:
axis of rotation, not a
direction in which something arc length 2π r
moves. θ= rad= rad
radius r
→ Angular displacements
(unless they are very small) o
cannot be treated as vectors.
2 π rad =360 =1 rev
Why not? We can certainly o
give them both magnitude and 360 1rev
1 rad= =
direction, as we did for the 2π 2π
angular velocity vector.
o
However, to be represented as 1 rad=57.3 =0.159 rev
a vector, a quantity must also
obey the rules of vector
addition, one of which says
What is angular velocity? Or Define angular
that if you add two vectors, velocity.
the order in which you add
them does not matter. If a body rotates through an angular displacement Δ θ in a
Angular displacements fail time interval Δ t , its average angular velocity w avg is
this test.
Δθ
w avg=
Δt

The (instantaneous) angular velocity w of the body is

Δθ
w= lim
Δt −→ 0 Δt
 3

The angular velocity tells us how fast or slow a body is

Note:
rotating and it is measured in radian per second: rad s −1
(SI unit) and revolution per minute ( rev min−1 or rmp). → Both equations for
angular velocity hold not
Both w avg and w are vectors, with directions given by a only for the rotating rigid
right-hand rule. They are positive for counterclockwise body as a whole but also
for every particle of that
rotation and negative for clockwise rotation. The body because the particles
magnitude of the body’s angular velocity is the angular are all locked together.
speed.
→ When we refer simply
to “angular velocity,” we
mean the instantaneous
angular velocity, not the
average angular velocity.

→ 1 rev/min = 1 rpm =
2π/60 (rad/s) which
implies that 1rad/s is
about 10 rpm.

What is angular velocity? Or Define angular

velocity.
If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant,
then the body has an angular acceleration. If the angular
velocity of a body changes from w 1 to w 2 in a time
interval Δ t = t 2 − t 1, the average angular acceleration
α avg of the body is

ω 2 − ω1= Δ ω
α avg=
Δt

The (instantaneous) angular acceleration α of the body is

 4
Note:

Δω In rotational motion, if the

α = lim
Δt −→ 0 Δt angular acceleration is
positive, then the angular
The angular velocity is measured in radian per second velocity is increasing; if it
square: rad s −2 (SI unit). is negative, then angular
velocity is decreasing.
Both α avg and α are vectors.
The rotation is speeding
up if angular acceleration
Relating the Linear and Angular Variables and angular velocity have
the same sign and slowing
Observation (knowledge point of view): When a rigid down if these two have
body, such as a merry-go-round, rotates around an opposite signs.
axis,each particle in the body moves in its own circle
around that axis. Since the body is rigid, all the particles
make one revolution in the same amount of time;that
is,they all have the same angular speed. However, the
farther a particle is from the axis, the greater the
circumference of its circle is, and so the faster its linear
speed v must be. You can notice this on a merry-go-
round. You turn with the same angular speed regardless
of your distance from the center, but your linear speed v
increases noticeably if you move to the outside edge of
the merry-go-round.
 5

How can we relate linear variables with angular

variables?

The linear variables distance (s), speed (v), and

acceleration (a) for a particular point in a rotating body to
the angular variables θ , ω , and α for that body are related
by r, the perpendicular distance of the point from the
rotation axis. This perpendicular distance is the distance
between the point and the rotation axis, measured along a
perpendicular to the axis. It is also the radius r of the
circle traveled by the point around the axis of rotation.

Show that s = r θ . Or Relate linear position (or

displacement) with angular position (or
displacement).

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, every

particle in the body moves in a circular path. The circle
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and is centered on
the axis. Consider a point P in a rigid body and it is a
constant distance r from the axis of rotation, so it moves
in a circle of radius r as shown in the figure.
 6

At any time, the angular position θ and the arc length s

are related when θ is measured in radian which is the
ratio of arc length and the radius of the circle:

arc length S
θ= rad= rad
radius r

rearranging will give, s=r θ (radian measure)

Show that v = r ω or Relate linear speed (velocity)

with angular speed (velocity)

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis with angular

speed (or velocity) ω , every particle in the body moves in
a circular path. The circle lies in a plane perpendicular to
the axis and is centered on the axis. Consider a point P in
a rigid body and it is a constant distance r from the axis
of rotation, so it moves in a circle of radius r as shown in
the figure.

The point P moves with linear speed (or velocity) v

(tangent to the circle) from initial position (I) to final
position (F) in time interval Δt . The angular displacement
 7

s2 s1
Δ θ=θ2 −θ1 = − ( rad )
r r

Δs
Δ θ= ( rad ) or Δs =r Δθ Do you know
r

Dividing on both sides with Δt, we get If the angular speed of the
rigid body is constant, then
Δs Δθ relation v= r w us that the
=r linear speed v of any point
Δt Δt within it is also constant. Thus,
each point within the body
v=r ω (radian measure) undergoes uniform circular
motion. The period of
Note: In the limit when Δt → 0, the length of arc Δs revolution T for the motion of
becomes very small and its direction represents the each point and for the rigid
direction of tangent to the circle at final position (F) body itself is given by
which is the direction of v. That is why the linear velocity
T= 2πr/v = (2πr)/(rw)
of the point P is also known as tangential velocity.
T= 2π/w

Show that a = r α or Relate linear acceleration with

angular acceleration.

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, every

particle in the body moves in a circular path. The circle
lies in a plane perpendicular to the axis and is centered on
the axis. Consider a point P in a rigid body and it is a
constant distance r from the axis of rotation, so it moves
in a circle of radius r as shown in the figure.
 8

If the angular velocity of a rotating body is not constant,

Linear vs Angular
then the body has an angular acceleration. If the angular
Motion
speed (velocity) of a P changes, there is linear
acceleration a which has two components: → Mass (m) vs Moment of
Intertia (I) [ I = m r2]
(1) Tangential component
→ Linear Position (S) vs
The aT produced in any instant can be related to angular angular position (θ) [S= rθ ]
acceleration as: → Linear speed (v) vs
angular speed (w) [S= r w ]
v ω
=r → Linear acceleration (a) vs
t t
angular acceleration (alpha)
a T =r α [a= r alpha ]

→ Force (F) vs Torque

(2) Radial component ar [Torque = r F ]

v
2 → Linear momentum (P) vs
a r= =r ω 2 Angular Momentum
r
[ L = r P]
It is directed radially inward and responsible for changes
in the direction of the linear velocity. (in these relation only
magnitude is considered)
Equations of Motion for Constant Linear
Acceleration and for Constant Angular
Acceleration

The angular equations hold true only in the case when

angular acceleration is constant and the axis of rotation is
fixed so that all the angular vectors have same direction.
Hence they can be manipulated as scalars.
 9

Example 5.1: An electric fan is rotating at 3 rev s-1 is

switched off. It comes to rest in 18.0 s. Assuming
Important observation deceleration to be uniform, find its value. How many
revolutions did it turn before coming to rest? Do you know
Suppose you ride in car and
shuttle while both car and Given; w i=3.0 rev s− 1, w f =0 and t=18.0 s In case of rounding a
shuttle your are in uniform curve in a car, the
circular motion, acted on by Required: α =? and θ=? centripetal force is a
a centripetal force —yet frictional force on the
your sensations in the two ω f −ω 1 ( − 0.3 ) rev s −1 tires from the road; it
−2
situations are quite different. Solution; α = = =− 0.167 rev s , makes the turn possible.
Δt 18.0 s
In the car, jammed up If you are to move in
1
against the wall, you are θ=ωi t+ α t 2 uniform circular motion
aware of being compressed 2
along with the car, there
by the wall. In the orbiting must also be a
shuttle, however, you are 1
θ=3.0 rev s ×18.0 s + ( −.167 rev s ) × ( 18.0 s )
−1 −2 2
centripetal force on you.
floating around with no 2
sensation of any force acting
on you. θ=27 rev

This is due to the nature of

the two centripetal forces. In
Define Centripetal Force and Derive its
the car, the centripetal force relation. Or Write a note on Centripetal
is the push on the part of Force.
your body touching the car
wall. You can sense the Definition: The force needed to bend the normally
compression on that part of straight path of moving particle into a circular path is
your body. In the shuttle,
called the centripetal force. In other words, it is a force
the centripetal force is
Earth’s gravitational pull on that acts on a body moving in a circular path and is
every atom of your body. directed towards the center around which the body is
Thus, there is no moving. It is denoted by Fc and given as:
compression (or pull) on
any one part of your body
mv 2
and no sensation of a force F c= (magnitude of centripetal force)
acting on you. r

Examples: The centripetal force has direct bearing on the

motion of such things as artificial and natural satellites,
nuclear particles in accelerators, bodies whirling at the
ends of the strings and flyweels spinning on the shafts.

Explanation;

Consider a particle of mass m moves along a circular

path from position A to position B as shown below. It
 10

reaches position B a short time after A. v A and v B are the

tangential velocities of rotating object at A and B
respectively. Due to the change in velocity of the object,
the object is accelerating. So, the acceleration of the
particle is

Δv
a=
Δt

where Δt is the time taken by the object to travel from A

to B. Since the speed of the object v is constant, so the
time taken to travel a distance s, as shown in figure is

S
Δt =
v
Note
Δv
so a=v ………….(1) A centripetal force is not a
S
new kind of force. The
name merely indicates the
direction of the force. It
can, in fact, be a frictional
force, a gravitational force,
the force from a car wall
or a string, or any other
force.

A centripetal force
accelerates a body by
changing the direction of
the body’s velocity
without changing the
body’s speed.

The change in the velocity Δv of the object can be

determined using a vector triangle. Let us now draw a
triangle PQR such that PQ is parallel and equal to v A and
PR is parallel and equal to v B as shown. We know that
radius of the circle is perpendicular to its tangent, OA is
perpendicular to v A and OB is perpendicular to v B.
 11

Therefore, angle AOB equals the angle QPR between v A

and v B. Further, as v A =v B =v and OB = OA, both
triangles are isosceles. From geometry, we know “two
isosceles triangles are similar, if the angles between
their equal arms are equal”.

Hence, the triangle OAB of the figure is similar to the

triangle PQR of the figure. Hence we can write

Δv AB
= ……… (2)
v r

If the point B is close to point A on the circle, as will be

the case when Δt→0, the arc AB is of nearly same length
as the line AB. To that approximation, we can write
AB = s and after substituting and rearranging terms, we
v
have, Δv =S ……...(3)
r
2
v
Putting this value for Δv in equation (1), we get a=
r
where a is the instantaneous acceleration.

Centripetal Acceleration: As this is caused by the

centripetal force, it is called centripetal acceleration,
denoted by a=a c. As the acceleration of the object
moving in circle is parallel to Δv when AB→0, so
centripetal acceleration is directed along radius towards
the center of the circle.

Centripetal Force:

Using Newton second law of motion e.g., F = ma, so by

multiplying centripetal acceleration with mass of object
will give us the centripetal force

mv 2
F c=
r

In angular measure v = r w, this equation becomes:

2
F c =mr ω
 12

Example 5.2; A 1000 kg car is turning around a corner at

10 ms-1 as it travels along the arc of circle. If the radius of
the circular path is 10 m, how large a force must be
exerted by the pavement on the tyres to hold the car in
the circular path?

Given: speed v = 10 ms-1 , radius r = 10 m , mass m =

1000 kg

Required; Force F

Solution: Since the required force is centripetal force so

−1 2
mv 2 1000 kg × ( 10 ms )
F c= = =1.0× 104 N
r 10 m

This force must be supplied by the frictional force of the

pavement on the wheels.

Example 5.3: A ball tide to the end of string, swung in a

vertical circle of radius r under the action of gravity as
shown in figure. What will be the tension in the string
when the ball is at the point A of the path and speed is v
at the point ?

Solution: For the ball to travel in circular path, the force

acting on the ball must provide the required centripetal
force. In this case, at point A, two forces act on the ball,
the pull of the string and the weight w of the ball. These
forces act along the radius at A, and so the vector sum
must furnish the required centripetal force. We, therefore,
2
mv
have F c =T + w= as w = mg
r
−1 2
mv 2 1000 kg × ( 10 ms )
F c= = =1.0× 104 N
r 10 m

( )
2 2
mv v
T= −mg=m −g
r r
 13

2
v
if =g, then T will be zero and the centripetal force is
r
just equal to weight.

What is Moment of Inertia?

A physical quantity that depends on the body’s mass, and
Note:
how the mass is distributed, and expressing a body's
In the physics of rotation,
tendency to resist angular acceleration is known as the word “moment”
moment of Inertia. For a body with a given rotation axis means that I depends on
and a given total mass, the greater the distance from the how the body’s mass is
distributed in space; it has
axis to the particles that make up the body, the greater the
nothing to do with a
moment of inertia (I) and given as: “moment” of time.
n
I=∑ mi r i2
i

where mi and r i are the mass and distance from axis of

rotation to point of ith particle of the rigid body. It is
measured in kg m2 The moment of inertia I plays the same
role in angular motion as the mass in linear motion.
 14

Torque in terms of Moment of Inertia

Torque is a turning or twisting action on a body about a
rotation axis due to a force. For a rotating rigid body
about a fixed axis, the torque τ produced in the body can
be described as

τ =I α

where I and α are the moment of inertia and angular

acceleration of the rotating body.

Derivation:

Suppose a force F = ma is acting on a rotating body of

mass m and causes a torque in the rigid body and given
as:

τ =rF=maT r …………. (1)

where a T is the tangential acceleration and it can be

written in terms of angular acceleration as a T =r α . So,

τ =mr aT =mr2 α …………. (2)

Note: The equation (2) is the rotational analogue of

Newton’s second law of motion.

Most rigid bodies have non uniform mass distribution

from the axis of rotation. To begin, we think of a body as
being made up of a large number of particles, with
masses m 1, m2, ... at distances r 1, r 2 …... from the axis of
rotation. The particles don’t necessarily all lie in the same
plane, so we specify that is the perpendicular distance
from the axis to the ith particle. So the magnitude of the
torque acting on mass m1

τ 1 =m1 r 12 α 1 …………. (3)

and for mass m2

τ 2=m2 r 22 α 2 …………. (4)

and so on.
 15

Since in the rigid body all the masses are rotating with
same angular acceleration, so the total torque is then
given as by

τ total=( m1 r 12+m2 r 22+.....+ mn r n2 ) α …………. (5)

(∑ )
n
τ= m i r i2 α or τ =I α
i

n
with I =∑ mi r i
2

What is Angular Momentum or Define

angular momentum.

The angular momentum ⃗

L of a particle with
respect to point O is the vector product of the
particle’s position r⃗ vector relative to O and its
linear momentum ⃗p=m⃗v

⃗
L=⃗r × ⃗p =m ( ⃗r × ⃗v )

or ⃗
L=rp sin θ n^ =mvr sin θ n^

where n^ is the unit vector perpendicular to the

plane of r⃗ and ⃗p=m⃗v . and θ is the angle between
these two parameters.

When a symmetrical body rotates about a stationary

axis of symmetry, its angular momentum ⃗ L is the
product of its moment of inertia I and its angular
velocity vector ⃗
ω.

⃗
L=I ⃗
2
ω =mr ⃗ω

SI unit of ⃗
L is kg m2 s −1 or Nm s or Js.
 16

Differentiate between orbital angular

momentum and spin angular momentum.
The spin angular momentum (Ls) is the angular
momentum of the spinning body. (Ls) describes the
angular momentum about the center of the object's mass.

Whereas orbital angular momentum (Lo) is associated

with the motion of a body along a circular path. In other
words, Lo describes the angular momentum about a
chosen center of rotation.

Example 5.4: The mass of the Earth is 6.0 ×1024 kg . The

distance r from Earth to the Sun is 1.50 ×1011 m. As seen
from the direction of North star, the Earth revolves
counter clockwise around the Sun. Determine the orbital
angular momentum of the Earth about the Sun, assuming
that it traverses a circular orbit about the Sun once a year
3.16 ×107 s.

Given: mass of Earth M = 6.0 ×1024 kg ,

Distance r = 1.50 ×1011 m

Time T = 3.16 ×107 s

Required: Orbital angular momentum Lo

Solution: Orbital angular momentum Lo = Mvr

2π r
where v= . So
T
2
2πr
Lo=Mvr=M
T
2
2 π ( 1.50 ×10 m )
11
24
Lo=6.0× 10 kg 7
=2.67 ×10 40 kg m2 s −1
3.16 ×10 s

The sign is positive because the revolution is counter

clockwise.
 17

State Law of Conservation of Angular

Momentum
Statement: When the net external torque acting on a
system is zero, the total angular momentum of the system
is constant (conserved). Or for an isolated system change
in angular momentum is zero.

Ltotal=L1 + L2+ .....=I ω=constant

or

net angular momentum at some initial time = net

angular momentum at some later time

or ⃗
Li= ⃗
Lf

The effect of angular momentum is readily apparent if the

a single isolated spinning body alters its moment of
inertia.

Example: A circus acrobat, a diver, and an ice skater

pirouetting on the toe of one skate all take advantage of
this principle.

When a skater or ballerina spins with arms outstretched

Note and then pulls her arms in, her angular velocity increases
The axis of rotation of an as her moment of inertia decreases. In each case there is
object will not change its conservation of angular momentum in a system in which
orientation unless an the net external torque is zero. So
external torque causes it to
do so. Which means the I i ω i=I f ω f
direction of angular
momentum along the axis Similarly, a diver must spin faster when moment of
of rotation also remains
fixed. Due to this reason no inertia becomes smaller to conserve angular momentum.
effective torque is This enables the diver to take extra somersaults.
experienced by the Earth
while revolving around the
Sun and Earth’s axis of
rotation remains fixed in
one direction with
reference to the Universe
around us.
 18

What is Rotational Kinetic Energy.

Definition: The energy possessed by a body to due its
rotation is referred as rotational kinetic energy. The
kinetic energy of a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis
is given by
Do you know
1 2
K . E .rot= I ω (radian measure)
2 The rapidly rotating
blade of a table saw
in which I is the rotational inertia of the body defined as certainly has kinetic
energy due to that
I =∑ mi r 2i rotation. How can we
i express the energy? We
cannot apply the familiar
for a system of discrete particles. formula to the saw as a
whole because that
Example: Rotational kinetic energy are put to practical would give us the kinetic
use by fly wheels that store energy between the power energy only of the saw’s
strokes of the piston so that the energy is distributed over center of mass, which is
the full revolution of the crankshaft and hence the zero.
Instead, we shall treat
rotation remains smooth. the table saw (and any
other rotating rigid body)
1 2
as a collection of
Show that rotational K . E .rot= 2 I ω .
particles with different
speeds. We can then add
A rotating body certainly has kinetic energy due to that up the kinetic energies of
rotation. How can we express the energy? To begin, we all the particles to find
think of a body as being made up of a large number of the kinetic energy of the
body as a whole.
particles, with masses m1, m2, ... at distances r 1, r 2 …...
from the axis of rotation. We label the particles with the
index i: The mass of the ith particle is mi and r i is the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the ith particle.

Note: The particles don’t necessarily all lie in the same

plane.

When a rigid body rotates about a fixed axis, the speed of

the ith particle is vi given by

vi =r i ω

where is the body’s angular speed. Different particles

have different values of r, but is the same for all
 19

(otherwise, the body wouldn’t be rigid). The kinetic

energy of the ith particle can be expressed as

1 2 1 2 2
mi v i = mi r i ω
2 2
Note
The total kinetic energy of the body is the sum of the The rotational kinetic
energy given by is not a
kinetic energies of all its particles: new form of energy; it’s
simply the sum of the
1 2 2 1 1
K . E rot = m1 r 1 ω + m2 r 2 ω +......=∑ ❑ mi r i ω
2 2 2 2
kinetic energies of the
2 2 i 2 individual particles that
make up the rotating
1 1 rigid body.
K . E rot = ( m1 r 12+ m2 r 22+ ...... ) ω2=∑ ❑ ( mi r 2i ) ω 2
2 i 2

Since we know that

I =( m1 r 1 +m2 r 2 +...... ) =∑ ❑ ( mi r i ) which implies that

2 2 2

1 2
K . E .rot= I ω
2

The greater the moment of inertia, the greater the kinetic

energy of a rigid body rotating with a given angular
speed.

Note: Here angular speed must be measured in radians

per second, not revolutions or degrees per second, to give
rotational kinetic energy in joules. And if rolling or
spinning bodies are present in a system, their rotational
kinetic energy must be included as part of the total
kinetic energy.

Describe or Compare kinetic energy of a Disc

and a Hoop.
Case1: When Disc and Hoop are rotating around axis
of rotation

Suppose that two solid bodies i.e., Hoop and Disc are
rotating around their axis of rotation with angular speed
ω . As we know that for a rotating object, its kinetic
energy is given as:
 20

1 2
K . E .rot= I ω
2

Where I and ω are the moment of inertia and angular

speed of the rotating body. Since, I depends on how the
body’s mass is distributed in space; so the disc and hoop
do not have same moment of inertia due to the difference
in the distributed masses of the bodies. Hence:

For hoop

I hoop=mh r 2h

where mh and r h are the mass and distance from axis of

rotation for hoop.

For Disc

1 2
I disc = md r d
2

where md and r d are the mass and distance from axis of

rotation for the disc.

Therefore, the corresponding rotational kinetic energies

are

For hoop

1 2 1 2 2
K . E .rot ( hoop ) = I hoop ω = mh r h ω
2 2

For Disc

1 2 1 2 2
K . E .rot ( disc ) = I disc ω = md r d ω
2 4

If mh=md =m and r h =r d =r then

K . E .rot ( hoop ) =2× K . E .rot ( disc )

So we can say that the hoop rotates faster as compared to

disc if mh=md =m and r h =r d =r .
 21

Case 2: When Disc and Hoop are moving down

inclined plane

Suppose a disc and hoop start moving down an inclined

plane of height h. Their motion consist of both rotational
and translational motions. If no energy is lost against
friction, the total kinetic energy of a rolling body on
reaching the bottom of the incline must be equal to its
potential energy at top:

P . E .=K . E .tran + K . E .rot

1 2 1 2
mgh= m v + I ω ……. (1)
2 2

Now, if mh=md =m and r h =r d =r then, the equation (1)

becomes

For disc:

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
mgh= m v disc + I disc ω = m v disc + mr ω …….(2)
2 2 2 4

using v=r ω, we have

1 1 1 1
( )
mgh= m v 2disc + m v 2disc or mgh= 1+ m v 2disc
2 4 2 2

v disc =
√ 4 gh
3
………….(3)

For Hoop:

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2
mgh= m v hoop + I hoop ω = m v hoop + m r ω
2 2 2 4

we have

1 2 1 2 2
mgh= m v hoop + m v hoop =m v disc
2 2

v hoop= √ gh ……………….. (4)

 22

Comparing equations (3) and (4), we have

v disc =
√ 4
3
v hoo
Do you know?
which implies that disc rolls down quickly as compared According to NASA
to hoop.
(National Aeronautics and
Example 5.5: A disc without slipping rolls down a hill of Space Administration)
height 10.0 m. If the disc starts from rest at the top of the
Usually, the word "satellite"
hill, what is its speed at the bottom? refers to a machine that is
launched into space and
Given: height h = 10.0 m, object = disc moves around Earth or
another body in space.
Required: speed v

Solution: As we know that the speed of disc rolling

down an incline plan is

v disc =
√ 4 gh
3

so using given data

√
−2
4 ×9.8 m s ×10.0 m −1
v disc= =11.4 ms
3

What are Satellites?

Satellites are the objects that orbit a planet or star.

Types:

There are two different types of satellites –

Natural Satellites

Any celestial body in space that orbits around a larger

celestial body. Examples of natural satellites are the Earth
and Moon. The Earth rotates around the Sun and the
Moon rotates around the Earth.
 23

Artificial Satellites
What is an Orbit of
Artificial satellite is a man-made machine that is Satellite?
launched into space and orbits around a body in space.
Such satellites are put into orbit by rockets and are held An orbit is the curved path that
in orbits by the gravitational pull of desired planet like an object in space (such as a
star, planet, moon, asteroid or
that of Earth. spacecraft) takes around
another object due to gravity.
Examples: Navigation satellites, Communication
satellites, Weather satellites, Earth observation satellites,
Astronomical satellites, International Space Station (ISS)
and etc.

Extra Information
 24

What is the critical velocity?

The minimum velocity necessary to put a satellite into
orbit around the Earth is known as critical velocity. For Information

For a low flying Earth satellite, one having acceleration Close orbiting satellites
around 9.8 meter per second square, the centripetal orbit the Earth at height
of about 400 km.
acceleration is supplied by gravity and we have
24 satellites form GPS
v2
a c =g=
R (Global Positioning
System)
v crit =√ gR=√ 9.8 m s −2 × 6.4 ×10 6 m=7.9 kms −1

S 2πR
Using the relation T = = , tell us that it would take
v v crit
approximately 84 min to complete one revolution around
the Earth by satellite orbiting with critical velocity.
Which means, the higher the satellite, the slower will the
required speed and longer it will take to complete one
revolution around the Earth.

Describe Real and Apparent Weight

Weight: It is the gravitational pull of the Earth on the
object if the Earth is the reference of weighing.

Real weight: The weight of a body measured on the

surface of the Earth, when the body is not accelerating
vertically relative to the ground assuming that the ground
is an inertial frame, is known as real (or actual) weight.
A body’s weight is related to the body’s mass by

w =m ⃗g
⃗

It always remains constant with respect to reference

frame.

Apparent weight: If you repeat the measurement of

weighing with the scale in an accelerating frame such as
an elevator, the reading differs from your weight because
of the acceleration. Such a measurement is called an
apparent weight.
 25

Free Fall:

If the effects of the air can be neglected, all bodies at a

particular location fall with the same downward
acceleration, regardless of their size or weight. If in
addition the distance of the fall is small compared with
the radius of the earth, and if we ignore small effects due
to the earth’s rotation, the acceleration is constant. The
idealized motion that results under all of these
assumptions is called free fall, although it includes rising
as well as falling motion.

Explanation:

Generally the weight of an object is measured by a spring

balance. It can be the real weight or the apparent weight
depending upon the situations under which the
measurement of weight is carried out.

Consider an object of mass m is suspended vertically

with spring balance in an elevator (or lift). The are also a
man is standing in the lift holding the same object. The
weight of the hanged object due to the pull of gravity is
w=mg directing downward. While the tension ⃗ T in
spring balance and surface reaction force ⃗R in response to
weight of the man, are pointing upward as shown in the
figure. We have three situations:

(I) Lift is at rest:

In this situation, Newton’s second law tells us that net

acceleration a (magnitude) is zero, so the resultant force
on the hanged object and on the man is zero:

T − w=F=ma=0 ……. (for hanging object)

T =w ………. ...(1)
 26

In this state, w=mg =T is the real weight. The same hold

for the person unless he does not move.

(II) Lift is moving up (or accelerating upward): In this

case there is acceleration a due to the upward motion. So
there is a net resultant force.

T − w=F=ma

or T =ma+w ………(2)

the object will then weigh more than its real weight by an
amount “ma”. The weight given by equation is apparent
weight. The person standing the lift not only find it hard
to hold the weight but also feel stress over his body due
to increase in apparent weight. Increased tension shows
that a large upward force must be required to balance the
gravitational force.

(III) Lift is moving down (or accelerating downward):

When the lift moves downward, the reaction force

increases and the apparent weight decreases: so the
resultant force becomes:

w − T =ma

or T =w − ma ………(2)

the object weight less than its real weight by an amount

“ma”. To a person in the accelerating lift, the object
appears to weigh less than w. Its apparent weight is then
( w − ma )

(IV) Lift is freely falling:

In the freely falling condition, the acceleration a = g,

hence

T =w − ma=mg −mg=0

the apparent weight of the body becomes zero as it is just

equal and opposite to the force required to stop it from
falling in that frame of reference. As a result, the objet
 27

appears to weightless just like an astronaut feels

weightless in free falling rocket.

What is weightlessness in the satellite and

gravity free system or free fall system? Or
Why do the freely falling objects like space
ship not fall to the Earth?
In freely falling condition, the acceleration of falling
body becomes equal to gravitational acceleration, so
when an object (such as satellite or space ship) is freely
falling in space, everything within this freely falling
system will appear weightless i.e., apparent weight
becomes zero.

The space ship accelerating towards the center of the

Earth does not fall on the Earth because it has radial
acceleration is simply g, the free fall acceleration and it is
thrown fast enough parallel to the Earth, the curvature of
its path will match the curvature of the Earth due to its
spherical shape. So, in this case no force is required to
hold an object falling the frame of the reference of the
space craft or satellite. Such a system is called gravity
free system.
 28

What is Orbital Velocity and Derive its

expression. What is orbital motion?
Orbital velocity is the velocity sufficient to cause a
The motion of natural or
natural or artificial satellite to remain in orbit. artificial satellites in nearly
circular trajectories round
v orb=
√ GM
r
the planet or a star is
referred as orbital motion.

where G is gravitational constant, M is the mass of

planet: the Earth and r is distance of satellite from the
center of the Earth.
Note:
The figure shows a satellite of mass m going to round the
Under conditions such as
Earth in a circular path with speed v. As we know that r = R (radius of the Earth)
centripetal force is required to stay into circular path, so and g = (GM / R^2), the
the required centripetal force is provided by the orbital velocity becomes
the critical velocity.
gravitational force of attraction between the Earth and
the satellite. So:
2
GmM m v
=
r
2
r

or v orb=
√ GM
r

This shows that the orbital velocity is independent of the

mass of the satellite. Any speed less than the orbital
speed will bring the satellite tumbling back to the Earth.

Example 5.6: An Earth satellite is in circular orbit at a

distance of 384000 km from the Earth’s surface. What is
its period of one revolution in days? Take mass of the
Earth M = 6.0 ×1024 kg and its radius R = 6400 km.

Given: height h = 384000 km, M = 6.0 ×1024 kg

Radius R = 6400 km.

Required: Time T in days

S 2πr
Solution: T = =
v v orb
 29

where v orb=
√ √
GM
r
=
GM
R +h

so

v orb=
√ 6.67 ×10− 11 Nm2 kg− 2 × 6 ×1024 kg
390400 km
=1.01 kms
−1

Hence

2 π 390400 km 1 day
T= × =27.5 days
1.01 km s orb 60 ×60 ×24 s
−1

Artificial Gravity
Definition: Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial
force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force,
usually by rotation.

Significance:

If a gravity free space ship is to stay in orbit over

extended period of time, the weightlessness may effect
the performance of the astronauts by giving rise to

1. Loss of bone mass (similar to osteoporosis)

2. Reduced total blood volume, particularly loss of red

blood cells

3. Giddy, light-headed feeling

4. Space sickness with nausea and vomiting

5. Decrease of heart size

6. Nasal congestion

7. Muscle weakness

To overcome these effects, an artificial gravity is created

in the spacecraft. This could enable the crew of the space
ships to function in almost normal manner.
 30

How to create artificial gravity: The space ship is set

into rotation around its own axis. The astronaut then is
pressed towards the outer rim and exerts a same force on
the floor of the space ship in much the same way as on
the Earth.

Calculation:

Consider a spacecraft with outer radius R s and it rotates

around its own axis with angular speed ω . The
centripetal acceleration a c produced is :

a c =Rs ω2 ………...(1)

2π
As we know that ω= where T is period of revolution
T
of the space ship, hence
2
a c =Rs ( )
2 π 2 4 π Rs
T
=
T2
………...(2)

As frequency f = 1/ T, therefore,
2 2
a c =4 π Rs f ………...(3)

f=
1
2π √ ac
Rs
………...(4)

The frequency f is increased to such an extent that the

centripetal acceleration equals to g. Therefore, a c =g

and f =
1
2π √ g
Rs
………...(5)

When the space ship rotates with this frequency, the

artificial gravity is like Earth is provided to the
inhabitants of the space ship.

Geostationary orbits
Definition: The orbit of orbiting satellite, in which its
orbital motion is synchronized with the rotation of the
Earth is referred as Geostationary orbit and such satellites
 31

are known as geostationary or geosynchronous satellite.

In this way, the synchronous satellites remains over the
same point on the equator as the Earth spins on its axis.

Significance: Geostationary satellite is very useful for

worldwide communication, weather observations,
navigation, and other military uses.

Radius of Geostationary orbit:

As we know that orbital speed is

v orb=
√ GM
r

but this speed must be equal to the average speed of the

satellite in one day i.e., v orb=v where

S 2π r
v= =
T T

with T is the period of revolution of the satellite, that is

equal to one day. This means the motion of the satellite
must be geosynchronous. So,

2π r
T
=
GM
r√
which gives;
2 2
4 π r GM 3 GMT
= or r =
T
2
r 4π
2

from this we get the orbital radius;

( )
2 1
GMT 3
r= 2
4π

Substituting the values for the Earth we get

4
r =4.23 ×10 km which is the radius measured from the
center of the Earth, for a geostationary satellite. A
satellite at this height will always stay directly above a
 32

particular point on the surface of the Earth. This height

above equator comes to be nearly 36000 km.

What are Communication Satellites? Do you know?

Definition: A communications satellite is an artificial
satellite that relays and amplifies microwaves signals to International
Telecommunication
create a communication channel between a source Satellite Organization
transmitter and a receiver at different locations on Earth. (INTELSAT) is the
largest satellite system
Purpose: Communications satellites are used for managed by 126
television, telephone, radio, internet, and military countries.
applications. There are over 200 Earth stations which
It is created to own and
exchange information via these satellites. manage a constellation of
communications satellites
Orbit type: Many communications satellites are in providing international
geostationary orbit (GEO) so the satellite dish antennas broadcast services
of ground stations can be aimed permanently at that spot
and do not have to move to track the satellite. The whole The Intelsat VI series of
satellites were the 8th
Earth can be covered by just three geostationary satellites generation of
by covering 1200 each. geostationary
communications satellites
Source of power; The energy needed to amplify and for the Intelsat
transmit the signals is provided by large solar panels Corporation.
fitted on the satellite. It operates at microwave
frequencies of 4, 6 , 11
and 14 GHz and has
Example 5.7: Radio and TV signals bounce from a
capacity of 30000 two
synchronous satellite. This satellite circles the Earth once way telephone circuits
in 24 hours. So, if the satellite circles eastward above the plus three TV channels.
equator, it stays over the same spot on the Earth because
the Earth is rotating at the same rate. (a) What is the
orbital radius for a synchronous satellite? (b) what is its
speed?

Solution: As we know that the radius of geostationary

orbit is

( )
2 1
GMT 3
(a) r= 2
4π

where G=6.67× 10−11 N m2 kg− 2 , M = 6.0 ×1024 kg and

T = 24 × 60× 60 s=86400 s
 33

so,

( )
− 11 2 −2 24 2 1
6.67 ×10 Nm kg × 6.0× 10 kg × ( 86400 s ) 3
r= 2
4π
4
r =4.23 ×10 km
7
2 π r 2 π × 4.23 ×10 m −1
(b) v= = =3.1 kms
T 86400 s

What are the views of Einstein and Newton

about Gravity?
Newton’s View

1. Gravitation is the intrinsic property of the matter

that every particle of the matter attracts every
other particle with a force directly proportional to
the product of their masses and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between
them.

G m1 m2
F g=
R2

2. It does not tell us why gravity follow inverse

square law

3. According to Newton; if light consist of stream of

tiny particles (photons), light would be deflected
by gravity.

Einstein’s View

1. Space times is curved especially locally near

massive bodies. It does not speak of the force of
gravity acting on bodies; instead bodies and light
rays move along geodesics in curved space time.
 34

Body at rest or moving slowly near the greater

mass would follow a geodesic toward that body.

2. It gives us a physical picture of how gravity

works and why gravity follow inverse square law
except in strong gravitational fields

3. According to Einstein, if gravitational

acceleration and inertial acceleration are precisely
equivalent, gravity must bend light by a precise
amount that could be calculated. The deflection of
light by gravity is predicted to be exactly as twice
as great as it is according to Newton’s theory.

Note

Bending of light measured during solar eclipse in

1919 match Einstein predictions-- hailed as
scientific triumph on behalf of Einstein

Exercise short Questions

1. Explain the difference between tangential velocity
and the angular velocity. If one of these is given for a
wheel of known radius, how will you find the other?

Ans. Tangential velocity (v) “The linear velocity of

moving (or rotating) particle along the direction of the
tangent at any point on that curve measured at any
arbitrary instant, is referred as tangential velocity.

Angular velocity (ω): “The rate of change of angular

displacement of a particle moving along a curved path”.

Δ θ⃗
ω = lim
⃗
Δt →0 Δt

Its direction is along the axis of rotation. Since both

tangential velocity and angular velocity are related as:
v = r ω. If one is given for a wheel of known radius,
other can be easily found.
 35

2. Explain what is meant by centripetal force and why

it must be furnished to an object if the object is to
follow a circular path?

A force that acts on a body moving in a circular path and

is directed towards the center around which the body is
moving. is called the centripetal force. It is denoted by Fc
and given as:

mv 2
F c= (magnitude of centripetal force)
r

When a particle move along any curved path, it has

tangential velocity which try to make the moving particle
to deviate from its curved path due to Newton’s first law.
So, a force is needed to continuously bend the normally
straight path of moving particle into a circular path. That
is the centripetal force. It keeps in balance the component
of the force to which the body is exposed during
movement.

3. What is meant by moment of inertia? Explain the

significance.

A physical quantity that depends on the body’s mass, and

how the mass is distributed, and expressing a body's
tendency to resist angular acceleration is known as
moment of Inertia. For a body with a given rotation axis
and a given total mass, the greater the distance from the
axis to the particles that make up the body, the greater the
moment of inertia (I) and given as:
n
I =∑ m i r i2
i

where mi and r i are the mass and distance from axis of

rotation to point of ith particle of the rigid body. It is
measured in kg m2 The moment of inertia I plays the same
role in angular motion as the mass in linear motion.
 36

4. What is meant by angular momentum? Explain the

law of conservation of angular momentum.

The angular momentum ⃗ L of a particle with respect to

point O is the vector product of the particle’s position r⃗
vector relative to O and its linear momentum ⃗p=m⃗v

⃗
L=⃗r × ⃗p =m ( ⃗r × ⃗v )

When a symmetrical body rotates about a stationary axis

of symmetry, its angular momentum ⃗ L is the product of
its moment of inertia I and its angular velocity vector ⃗
ω.

⃗ ω =mr 2 ⃗
L=I ⃗ ω

SI unit of ⃗
L is kg m2 s −1 or Nm s or Js.

Law of conservation of angular momentum:

When the net external torque acting on a system is zero,

the total angular momentum of the system is constant
(conserved). Or for an isolated system change in angular
momentum is zero.

Ltotal=L1 + L2+ .....=I ω=constant

or

net angular momentum at some initial time = net

angular momentum at some later time

or Li=Lf or I i ω i=I f ω f

5. Show that orbital angular momentum Lo = mvr.

As we know that Orbital angular momentum (Lo) is

associated with the motion of a body along a circular
path. In other words, Lo describes the angular
momentum about a chosen center of rotation. Since, Lo
of a particle with respect to point O is the vector product
of the particle’s position r⃗ vector relative to O and its
linear momentum ⃗p=m⃗v
 37

⃗
Lo=⃗r × ⃗p =m ( ⃗r × ⃗v )

or ⃗
Lo=mvr sin θ n^

where n^ is the unit vector perpendicular to the plane of r⃗

and ⃗v. and θ is the angle between these two parameters
which is 90 o. So
o
Lo=mvr sin 90 =mvr which is proved.

6. Describe what should be the minimum velocity, for

a satellite, to orbit close to the Earth around it.

The minimum velocity necessary to put a satellite into

orbit around the Earth is known as critical velocity.

For a low flying Earth satellite, one having acceleration

around 9.8 meter per second square, the centripetal
acceleration is supplied by gravity and we have

v2
a c =g=
R

v crit =√ gR=√ 9.8 m s −2 × 6.4 ×10 6 m=7.9 kms −1

7. State the direction of the following vectors in simple

situations; angular momentum and angular velocity.

The direction of angular velocity and angular momentum

is along the axis of rotation stated by right hand rule “
Grasp the axis of rotation in your right hand then erect
thumb show the direction of angular velocity and
moment and curled fingers show the direction of
rotation”.

8. Explain why an object, orbiting the Earth, is said to

be freely falling. Use your explanation to point out
why objects appear weightless under certain
circumstances.
 38

An object like space ship accelerating towards the center

of the Earth does not fall on the Earth because it has
radial acceleration is simply g, the free fall acceleration.
So. when an object is freely falling in space, everything
within this freely falling system will appear weightless
i.e., apparent weight becomes zero. It is thrown fast
enough parallel to the Earth, the curvature of its path will
match the curvature of the Earth due to its spherical
shape. So, in this case no force is required to hold an
object falling the frame of the reference of the space craft
or satellite. Such a system is called gravity free system.

9. When mud flies off the tyre of a moving bicycle, in

what direction does it fly? Explain.

Normally, during cycling, there is a static friction force

between the tire and the ground intact. This frictional
force provide the required centripetal force and keep a
balance between the centrifugal and the centrifugal force
but this balance no longer exist while driving through
mud due to low force of static friction. So, centrifugal
force becomes dominant and causes the mud to fly off,
and it will travel in the opposite direction making
tangents that the wheel is moving. So if you wheel is
propelling you North the centrifugal force will be sending
the mud South.

10. A disc and a hoop start moving down from the top
of an inclined plane at the same time. Which one will
be moving faster on reaching the bottom?

As we know that linear velocity for disc:

v disc =
√ 4 gh
3

and for Hoop

v hoop= √ gh

Comparing the equations gives us:

 39

v disc=
4
3√ √
v hoo that is v hoop <v disc by the factor of
implies that disc rolls down quickly as compared to hoop
4
3
. This

when both start moving down from the top of an inclined

plane at the same.

11. Why does a diver change his body positions before

diving in the pool?

According to the law of conservation of angular

momentum, we know that for an isolated system, the
change in angular momentum is zero.

or Li=Lf or I i ω i=I f ω f

So according to this law, moment of inertia I = mr 2 (how

mass is distributed) and angular speed ω behave inversely
proportional to each other. Therefore, a diver spin faster
when moment of inertia I becomes smaller (i.e., the diver
closed his legs and arms to make smaller r) to conserve
angular momentum. This enables the diver to take extra
somersaults.

12. A student holds two dumb-bells without stretched

arms while sitting on a turntable. He is given a push
until he is rotating at certain angular velocity. The
student then pulls the dumbbell towards his chest.
What will be the effect on rate of rotation?

According to the law of conservation of angular

momentum, we know that for an isolated system, the
change in angular momentum is zero.

or Li=Lf or I i ω i=I f ω f

So according to this law, moment of inertia I = mr 2 (how

mass is distributed) and angular speed ω behave inversely
proportional to each other. Hence, in the given situation
that is when he pulls the dumbbells towards his chest, his
rate of rotation will increase because his moment of
inertia decreases. And vice versa.
 40

13. Explain how much minimum number of

geostationary satellites are required for global
coverage of T.V. transmission.

As we know that the geostationary orbits are circular

orbits and a complete round trip of a circle comprise
360°. So, the whole Earth can be covered by just three
correctly positioned geostationary satellites. As one such
satellite covers 120° of longitude.