Application of Superposition Theorem

Video 1

Hello everyone. In this video, we are going to learn a new technique of circuit analysis which is
termed as superposition theorem.

This is based on the superposition principle. We know that the linear systems obey the superposition
principle. By superposition principle, we mean that the homogeneity and additivity principles are
followed. Currently, we are dealing with linear circuits. The circuits which consist of linear elements,
linear dependent sources and independent sources.

The type of the linear element that we are currently considering is a resistor. We know that the
resistor is a linear element because the voltage current relationship in the register is a linear one. If
we increase the current through the resistor by the factor of k, the voltage drop across the resistor
will also increase by the same proportion. We will have linear dependent sources present in the
circuit. Wherein the voltage of the current values at the output of these dependent sources is linearly
proportional to the variable in another part of the circuit. We may also have the independent sources
present in the circuit. So the superposition principle essentially is to be invoked when we have more
than one independent source being present and the ways to use the superposition terram is as
follows. The problem statement over here is that we wish to find a response in a given linear circuit,
which consists of more than one independent source. We can find a response by taking each
independent source acting alone, which will lead us to the partial response at every time. Now such
experiment or procedure has to be repeated for every independent source present in the circuit. And
finally, all the partial responses are to be added together.

Now, when we want one independent source, only acting alone, we should be zeroing out or turning
off every other independent source present in the circuit. When we want to turn off or zero out the
voltage source, we mean that its value is to be made 0 volt. When the value of the voltage source is
made equal to 0 volts, it essentially would become a short circuit branch for us. The current may flow
through this branch because of the effect of the other source being present. Similarly, when a current
source is to be zeroed out, it means that the value of the current source should be made equal to 0
amperes. So when it is 0 amperes, it means that it is open circuit branch for us. There again, can be
a voltage or potential difference present in this branch because of the another source available in the
circuit.
Now let us jump to one particular example and try to see how the superposition theorem is being
used in order to analyze this given circuit. So the circuit present on this slide shows that there are
two resistors present, there are two independent sources present, namely the 12 volt voltage source
and the 6 ampere current source. We want to find the current through the 20 Ohm resistance,
termed as Ix over here, this is the total response essentially that we are interested in finding out.
Now when we are using the superposition theorem, what we will do that we will consider one
independent source at a time and zero out the other one.

So to begin with, let's consider the voltage source being present and zero out the current source.
The circuit now has been simplified to the circuit which is shown on the slide here. Now when the
response through the 20 Ohm resistance is to be found out, we will call this as a partial response
and we should be labeling it by using another terminology. For here, I am using the term as Ix' to
indicate it as a partial response. Now the circuit is simplified only to the extent over Ohm's Law. Over
here, the value of Ix' can be simply found out as 12 volt divided by the total resistance, which is 30
Ohm. What is that value of Ix'? The Ix' value is 0.4 amperes.
 Now let us go to the another experiment in this circuit. Over here, we'll be considering a current
source alone and will zero out the voltage source. When we are making the volt source equal to 0
volt, it has become the short circuit as shown here. Now again, we want to find out the partial
response because of the 6 ampere current source through the 20 Ohm resistance. The current
through the 20 Ohm resistance is what we are again finding out. Let's label it as Ix'' over here. Now
the value of Ix'' can be simply found out again by using the current division rule. So can you find out
the value of Ix'' here? This is nothing but a 6 ampere into 10 Ohm resistance divided by the total
resistance again, which is 30 Ohms. So the value of Ix'' is nothing but equal to 2 amperes. Now the
superposition principle tells us that according to additivity, we can simply add these two partial
responses to make it as a total response. Since both of the current were in the downward direction,
we can simply hire those currents together and find the value of Ix as 2.4 amperes here.
 Let's invoke the homogeneity principle. For that, if we multiply the voltage source value with 2, that
is making it as 24 volts and again multiply the 6 ampere current source value by 2 making it as 12
amperes. Then we can find out the Ix by using the same steps again and we will get it as 4.8
amperes. What we actually mean over here that if every independent sources being multiplied by the
factor k, then the total response would also be multiplied by the factor of k. In this video, we have
learned how to apply the superposition theorem on the linear electrical circuits consisting of more
than one independent source. What we do is that we select one independent source at a time while
zeroing out every other independent source present in the circuit. With selected independent source,
we analyze the circuit and find out the partial response. Such experiment is to be repeated for every
independent source present in the circuit. And finally, the partial responses are to be added together
to make the total response.
Application of Superposition Theorem
Reading Objective
In this reading, you will learn about the superposition theorem to analyze circuits. In the electric
circuits studied so far, you used linear elements such as resistors, linear-dependent sources, and
independent sources. Since the given circuits are linear, you can use the superposition theorem to
analyze the circuits.
Main Reading Section:
Application of Superposition Theorem
Superposition involves additivity and homogeneity. Let us briefly recall these principles.
Consider the linear system, which gives output y1 and y2 for input x1 and x2, respectively. Now, if
we apply the input x = (x1+x2) to this system, then the corresponding output y would be the sum of
the individual outputs, i.e., y =(y1+y2). This is the additivity principle.
As per the homogeneity principle, if the input is scaled by factor k, the output would be scaled by the
same factor k. In our example, applying k times x1 (i.e. x = k.x1) will give output as y = k.y1.
Combining the two principles, input x = (k1x1+k2x2) will give output as y = (k1y1+k2y2).
Now, how do we apply it to the electrical circuit? We see the use case when we have more than one
independent source (assume N independent sources) in the circuit. We need to obtain the response
(i.e., the voltage across or current through a particular element of interest). We can apply the
superposition theorem with the following steps in such a case.
1. Consider only one independent source at a time, and turn off or zero out other independent
sources.
2. Find the response by simplifying and analyzing the circuit. As this is not the total response,
term this as the individual response of the source under consideration. Label the response
accordingly.
3. Repeat the procedure N times, for N independent sources. Each time considering one
source at a time and turning-off every other independent source. Find all individual
responses.
4. Finally, add all individual responses to get the total response.
5. Note that when a current source needs to be turned off (indicating that the current supplied
would be zero), the source acts as an open circuit. Similarly, when a voltage source needs to
be turned off, the supplied voltage value would be zero; hence, the branch acts as a short
circuit.
1.Find the current Ix through the resistor R2 by using the superposition theorem, that is, find
current Ix ‘ due to8 A current source, and current due to 6 A current source. What are the values of
Ix ‘ and Ix ′′ respectively?

8 A and −6 A

Correct: While considering one current source, the other current source must be open circuited.

2.State whether the following statement is true or false.

True - correct
Utilization of Source Transformation to Simplify
Circuits
Video 2

In this video, we'll be learning a technique of circuit analysis which is termed as the source
transformation. The source transformation is applicable to a practical voltage source or a practical
current source. We know that a practical voltage source consists of two elements. It has ideal
voltage source in series with a series resistance. That resistance can also be termed as an internal
resistance of the source. Similarly, a practical current source is the one which consists of an ideal
current source in parallel to the internal resistance. Here that internal resistance comes in parallel,
so we call it as the parallel resistance as well. Now, in the circuit, we can actually convert a practical
current source into a practical voltage source and vice versa in order to simplify the circuit. The effect
on the rest of the part of the circuit remains same.

Now, let us look at the source transformation theory. Over here in the figure a, we show the practical
voltage source, which has the value V_S and a series resistance has a value R_S. In figure b, we
show the practical current source. It has the value I_S and parallel resistance has the value R_P. In
the Figure 1, we can calculate the voltage across the load resistance by the formula that is V_L=V_S
into R_L upon R_S+R_L. Similarly, in the figure b, we can calculate V_L. For that, we may first
calculate the value of I_L by using the current division rule, and from the I_L we can then multiply it
with R_L in order to get the value of V_L. Here, I_L is given as I_S into R_P/R_P+R_L. Now we can
say these two sources are electrically equivalent if we have the value of R_S as same as R_P and
V_S is same as R_P into I_S, or it is equivalent to R_S into I_S. In that case, these two sources are
electrical equivalent and one can be converted into the another.

Let's look at a simple example before we move ahead in solving the bigger circuits of the electrical
domain. Again, we have a current source and a voltage source being given over here. What we can
do is to connect the load resistance of same value to both of these sources. Try to connect the
10-ohm resistance over here. In the figure a, I will connect the load resistance, which has the value
of 10 ohms, over here also, I will connect the load resistance of the value of 10 ohms, both of these
are the load resistances for me. Now, in the figure a, if I want to calculate the current which is
passing through the load resistance, I can find its value as 6 into 2 divided by total resistance, that is
12. I get the value of the current over here as one ampere. Similarly in the figure b also I will get the
value of I_L=1 ampere because it is 12 by the total resistance equal to 12 ohms. The value of I_L is
nothing but one ampere here. Similarly, the value of V_L can be calculated as the product of I and R,
which gives us the value equal to 10 volts. Over here also we'll get the value of V_L=10 volts. What
it tells us is that effect on the load resistance is same and the source can be represented in either
form as a voltage source or the current source. While we are converting one type of source into
another, its effect on the rest of the circuit is same.
Now, let's use this particular method in order to solve the given circuit. We have over here two
voltage sources which are given and the number of resistances which are shown. Let us see that we
want to find out the current through the 8-ohm resistance. We will keep this particular resistor intact
and solve for reducing the rest of the part of the circuit by using source transformation. What we can
identify first is that we have a voltage source in series by ohm resistance. We can convert it into the
current source. That would mean that 40 by 5-ohm is my value of the current source there, and
5-ohm resistance will come into the parallel of that current source. So 40 by 5, it gives us the
8-ampere current source value and 5-ohm resistance has come in parallel.

Now we can reduce the circuit further by taking these two resistances in parallel that is 20 ohms and
5 ohms. The effect of this would become equivalent value to 4-ohm value. This 4-ohm value, we can
now convert into the voltage source, that is the value of the 8 amperes along with a 4-ohm in
parallel, can be converted into the voltage source. This becomes equivalent to 32 volt and 4 ohm in
series with it. Now, as you can see, this 6 ohms, 4 ohms, and 10 ohms, these are the three
resistances which are in series.

The effective value of them is 20 ohms, 20 ohms in series with a 32-volt voltage source. That again
can be converted into the current source over here. We will have 20 ohms in parallel to the current
source, which is given as 1.6 ampere, that is 32 by 20. This is now again a current source for us.
From this current source, we can further convert it into the voltage source. For that, we will take
these two resistances as parallel, so 30 ohms and 20 ohms, the effective combination of it is 12
ohms, 12 ohms in parallel with 1.6 ampere. We can convert this again into the voltage source, so 12
ohms will come in series with 1.6 into 12, that is 19.2 volts.

Now, this is our reduced circuit over here. We have two voltage sources and two series resistances.
We are anyway interested in finding out the value of current through this. Now we can apply a simple
equation for the loop over here. Let us consider that the current is in this direction and find out
whether this is true direction of the current and then solve this for the current I. We can write the
equation over here as -10 plus this current that is 8I. The current through the 12-ohm resistance is
another value is 12I, and then this value as 19.2 volts, which is equal to zero. From this you can find
out the value of current. You will get the value of current as -0.46 ampere. It tells us that the current
is actually flowing in this direction with a value of 0.46 amperes through the 8-ohm resistance. This is
how we can reduce the circuit and find out the parameter of our interest. In this video, we have
learned that we can convert a practical voltage source into a practical current source and vice versa.
We can do this transformation multiple times in order to get the simpler circuit. We have a particular
aim when we are doing the transformation that we may convert all these sources into the current
source, or we may want all the end sources to be voltage sources so that we can apply either the
mesh analysis or nodal analysis very easily. But when we are converting a source from the current
source to the voltage source, the value of resistor associated with it may be same, but we should
know that the effect of this resistor has changed, that is, the voltage and currents associated with
this resistor would definitely change. If we are interested in finding out the value of current through a
particular resistor or voltage across a resistor, that particular resistor should be kept untouched. That
resistor should not be used in the source transformation.
Utilization of Source Transformation to Simplify
Circuits
Reading Objective
In this reading, you will learn about the technique of source transformation. In electrical circuits, you
may come across the combination of an ideal voltage source in series with a resistor or an ideal
current source in parallel to a resistor. These combinations can be considered practical voltage
sources and practical current sources, respectively. It may help you to transform one type of source
into another, to simplify the circuit, or to have all similar sources in the circuit for easy analysis.
Main Reading Section:
Utilization of Source Transformation to Simplify Circuits
Let us consider the representations in Figures (a) and (b) below:
Practice Quiz: Utilization of Source
Transformation to Simplify Circuits
1.A practical voltage source represented by V1 and R1 is to be replaced by a practical current
source using source transformation. What would be the value of the current source and parallel
resistor of the practical current source?

1 A and 10 ohms

Correct: While the series resistor of the voltage source comes in parallel, the value of the current
source is given by the ratio of voltage by the series resistor.

2.
Question 2
Find the current Ix through the resistor RLoad by using source transformation.

0.2 A

Correct: Using superposition theorem, voltage source can be converted into current source. Value of
the current source will be V1/R1, and the resistor R1 will be in parallel. After this representation, use
the current division rule.
Superposition Theorem with Dependent
Source Present
Video 3

In this video, we'll be learning how to use the superposition theorem when a dependent source is
present in the circuit. A superposition theorem is invoked when we have multiple independent
sources present in the circuit. What we do is that we consider each individual independent source at
a time, and zero out all other independent sources. Now, this experiment is to be repeated for every
individual source present in the circuit. But while we repeat this experiment, we have to understand
that the dependent source has to be kept untouched. That is, the dependent source has to be
present in every experiment that we do.

Now, let us try to see how we apply the superposition theorem with one example where the
dependent source is present. The circuit on the slide shows that there are two independent sources,
and one dependent source. The type of the dependent source is a current-controlled voltage source.
The value of I_x is the value of the current through the 2-ohm resistance in the direction which is
shown. Now, since there are two independent sources, we can use the superposition theorem over
here, and we can have independent source at a time.
Now let us begin with a voltage source and zero out the current source. When we zero out the
current source it will become open circuit, and the circuit would simplify like this for us. We should
keep in mind to relabel our variables.

Now since this is a partial response only, we have labeled the current through the 2-ohm as I_x
dash, and so the value of the voltage source would also become 2I_x dash since it is dependent on
this variable. Now, we can simply use the mesh equation over here. Let us see this particular
equation. If we are using the mesh equation like this, I can begin with the voltage source with a sign,
first sign that I come across, which will be -20. Then for this resistance of 2 ohms, I will have the
equation as +2I_x dash. For this 1-ohm resistance, I will have the value as +1I_x dash, and for the
voltage source, I will take the value as +2I_x dash and equate it with the 0. Now, from this I can find
out the value of I_x dash, which will come out to be 4 amperes. This is how we can solve it by using
one individual source at a time.
 Here we've considered a voltage source. Now we have to repeat the experiment with a current
source being present and voltage source being zeroed out. When we zero out the voltage source, it
will become a short circuit, and only the current source would be present. Again, relabeling of the
variables is important.

Over here, I have labeled the current through the 2-ohm resistance as I_x double dash. And so
similarly, the value of the voltage source would become 2I_x double dash. The variable of the
voltage across the 3-ampere current source has also been labeled as V double dash. Now, this is
the same voltage which we'll have at the node over here, that is V double dash with respect to this
ground terminal. What we can do over here, that we can solve this circuit by using the nodal
equation to find out the value of the current route 2-ohm resistance. For that, at this particular node, I
will use the currents which are leaving this terminal, equate it with the current entering this terminal. I
can write the equation as follows. That is V double dash by 2, plus V double dash minus the 2I_x
double dash, divided by the resistance 1, and equate it with the current which is entering, which is
equal to 3 amperes. I can substitute the value of V double dash in the terms of I_x double dash, or
vice versa. Let's substitute the value over here of V double dash in terms of the I_x dash. So it would
be equal to -2I_x double dash. Or the value of the current I_x double dash is same as minus V
double dash by 2. By substituting this, we can get the value of I_x double dash. In this particular
equation, you will get the value of I_x double dash as negative, and this would be minus 0.6
amperes.
What it actually says is that this direction which we have considered over here, is the opposite
direction than the direction which we have got. The value of I_x double dash is minus 0.6.
 Now, these partial responses we should add together. We have got the I_x dash in this particular
direction as 4 amperes. We have got the I_x double dash, which is in this direction, which is equal to
0.6 amperes. The total of this, that is the I_x value, is equal to 3.4 amperes here. In this video, we
have learned how to use the superposition theorem while the dependent source is present. In
superposition theorem, we use individual independent source at a time in order to find out the partial
responses. We repeat this experiment for every independent source present in the circuit. We have
to remember that if the dependent source is present, it will be a part of every experiment. We should
keep the dependent source untouched, and find out partial responses while that source is present
over there.
Reading: Superposition Theorem with
Dependent Source Present
Reading Objective
In this reading, you will learn to apply the superposition theorem in the presence of the dependent
source in the circuit.
Main Reading Section:
Superposition Theorem with Dependent Source Present
We can apply the superposition theorem to the electrical circuit when we have more than one
independent source (let us assume N independent sources) in the circuit, and we need to obtain the
response (i.e., the voltage across or current through a particular element of interest). We can apply
the superposition theorem with the following steps in such a case.
1. Consider only one independent source at a time, and turn off or zero out other independent
sources.
2. Find the response by simplifying and analyzing the circuit. As this is not the total response,
term this as the individual response of the source under consideration. Lable the response
accordingly.
3. Repeat the procedure N times for N independent sources. Each time consider one source at
a time and turn off every other independent source. Find all individual responses.
4. Finally, add all individual responses to get the total response.
5. Note that when a current source needs to be turned off (indicating that the current supplied
would be zero), the source acts as an open circuit. Similarly, when a voltage source needs to
be turned off, the supplied voltage value would be zero; hence, the branch acts as a short
circuit.
One should note that to solve the circuit with N independent sources using the superposition
theorem, we have to solve N different circuits.
Now, if we have dependent sources present in the circuit, these sources have to be kept untouched
in every experiment. It means that the dependent sources would not be turned off or zeroed-out.
Care must be taken to label the controlling variable, value of dependent source, as well as the
individual response properly in every experiment.
Practice Quiz: Superposition Theorem
with Dependent Source Present
Question 1
Let’s assume we want to find the current Ix through a 2-ohm resistor by using the superposition
theorem. What is the value of current Ix’ due to the 10 V voltage source?

2 A: Correct- While considering the voltage source, the independent current source will be open
circuited. The dependent source would be kept untouched.

Question 2
Let’s assume we want to find the current Ix through a 2-ohm resistor by using the superposition
theorem. What is the value of current Ix’’ due to 3 A current source?

−0.6 A :Correct- While considering the current source, the independent voltage source will be short
circuited. The dependent source would be kept untouched.
Source Transformation with Dependent
Source in the Circuit
Video 4

In this video we'll be learning how to use the source transformation concept when the dependent
source is present in the circuit. A source transformation can be used on practical voltage source and
a practical current source. A practical voltage source can be converted into a practical current
source and vice versa and the effect on the rest of the circuit remains the same. The same concept
can be used on the dependent voltage source and the dependent current source as well. They can
also be converted from one form to another.

Now, let us use this source transformation concept in simplifying a circuit where the dependent
sources also present. Circuit on the slide consists of a voltage source and the current source. Also
there is a dependent source which is present. Type of the dependent source over here is a voltage
controlled current source. V_x is a variable given across the 1 Ohm resistance in this case.
We also see on the left-hand side that we have a 5 ampere current source in parallel with the 3 Ohm
resistance and this combination can be converted into the voltage source. Similarly, this dependent
source in parallel with a 3 Ohm can also be converted into the voltage source. Now what would the
values for your MPR in parallel with 3 Ohm will give us the 15 Volt voltage source and this 3 Ohms
which should come in series with it. Similarly here, 3V_x in parallel with 3 Ohm should give us the
9V_x voltage value and this 3 Ohm should be taken in series with this voltage source.

Now, the simplified circuit looks like this. We can see that these 3 Ohm and 2 Ohm is in series
becoming a 5 Ohm and it is in series with the 15 Volt voltage source. Another conversion is due
here. We can convert this voltage source into the current source with a value of 15 by 5 and the 5
Ohm should come in parallel to that. This is our conversion.
Again, you can see 5 Ohm is in parallel, giving us the value of 2.5 Ohms. It is in parallel with 3
amperes current source. We can convert this combination into the voltage source.

We can see the value of voltage source is 7.5V here, and a series resistance is 2.5 Ohms. Now we
have got the circuit reduced to a single loop. We can use the loop equation over here in order to find
out the value of the current through this particular loop. Now, we can use it as this and write the
equation as -7.5V. The values of the series resistance area 2.5 Ohm, 3 Ohm and 1 Ohm. I can add it
in series. That is 6.5 times the current I. Then we have the voltage source over here, which will use
the value as -9V_x and the voltage source here as +10V, this would be equated to zero. We know
the value of V_x is nothing but equal to I because the resistance value is 1 Ohm over here and from
this, I can find out the value of the current, which will come out to be 1 amperes. In this video, we
have learned how to use this source transformation concept when the voltage source is present.
Again, if there is the variable on which the dependent source is present, that particular variable
should not be changed in the circuit. This is something which we have to keep in mind when the
source transformation is being applied with the dependent sources.
Reading: Source Transformation with Dependent Source in the Circuit
Reading Objective

In this reading, you will learn about the application of source transformation on dependent sources in
the circuit.

Main Reading Section:

Source Transformation with Dependent Source in the Circuit

Source transformation can be easily applied to dependent sources as well. We can convert the
dependent current source into a dependent voltage source and vice-versa (similar to that of
independent sources). Care should be taken to keep the element of the controlling variable
untouched. Also, the element for which the response has to be obtained should not be part of the
transformation.
Practice Quiz: Source Transformation with
Dependent Source in the Circuit
Thevenin and Norton Theorem: Part 1
Video 5

In this video, we'll be learning the Thevenin and Norton theorem for the circuit analysis. Now let us
consider that we have a complex circuit at hand, which consists of number of sources and the
number of resistors. Now let us further consider that this circuit is driving a load. For us, load may
mean a simple load resistor. What we might be interested in is finding out the parameters associated
with this load. That is, the current through the load, voltage across the load resistor, or the power
delivered by the circuit to this load resistor. For such cases, Thevenin and Norton theorems help a
lot.

What we can do by using Thevenin theorem is that the complex circuit can be simply represented by
two element equivalent circuit. The two elements in Thevenin theorem are the voltage source in
series with the series resistor. In Norton theorem, again, same thing can be done that we can
represent a complex circuit with two element equivalent in Norton theorem, those two elements are
current source in parallel with the resistor. Now, let us try to understand this point from the
illustration.
Here, we have shown a complex network as a black box and we have a load resistor connected to it.
According to Thevenin, we can find out the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the complex network. It is
represented over here as two element equivalent, V_TH and R_TH are the terms we're using. V_TH
is for the Thevenin equivalent voltage source and R_TH stands for Thevenin equivalent resistor
value. Similarly, a complex network can be represented by two element equivalent using the Norton
equivalent circuit. In Norton equivalent circuit, we have I_N as the current source, which is termed as
the Norton's current source. We have the parallel resistor R_N, and this is termed as Norton's
resistance value. The load resistor value would remain the same.

What we can do is to understand this particular Thevenin equivalent circuit walk through a very
simple example. In this circuit, we have a particular complex network termed as Network A, and we
have load resistor being termed as a Network B. We want to simplify the Network A, and we want to
find out the effect of this Network A on the Network B. For that, we can use different techniques in
order to simplify the Network A. I can use this source transformation to begin with, I can do multiple
times the source transformation in order to simplify the Network A.

Over here, we have 18 volt voltage source in series with six ohm resistance. That can be
represented by an equivalent current source, that is the three ampere current source in parallel with
six ohms.

Two six ohm resistance are in parallel, giving us the combination as three ohm. This is in parallel
with the three ampere current source.
Again, we can use the source transformation to convert it into the voltage source, nine volt voltage
source in series with three ohms.

Now we have three ohms and 15 ohms in series, that makes us as 18 ohms. Now the circuit or the
Network A has got reduced to two elements. We have nine volt voltage source and we have 18
ohms resistor value, or that load resistor is the Network B part for us. Now, how this particular
network help us is to find out the effect on the load resistor, or we can say that we can find out the
maximum voltage when we can get with a particular value of load resistor, or what is the value of
load resistor which will give us the maximum current through the load.

If we find out that the value of R_L is too large or the value of R_L is equal to infinity, then the
voltage across that load resistor would be equal to the nine volt, which would be maximum value.
similarly, if I take the load resistor values too small or equal to zero, then I would have the maximum
current flowing through the load, which would be nine by 18 amperes. In this way, the reduction of
the Network A into two element equivalent helps me to find out these parameters faster.
Now, let us try to do this similar thing by using the Norton's theorem. Can we find out the Norton
equivalent of this given circuit? Whatever is pointed out in the box is the network that we want to
reduce, and the load resistor is considered as a Network B. Can you find out the two element
equivalent according to the Norton circuit over here? We will again use the multiple source
transformations in order to reduce the Network A. If you do the source transformation multiple times,
you will get the value as 1.5 amperes in parallel with the six ohm value, and that would be your two
element equivalent of this particular network.

Now let us try to understand how we do this using the Thevenin theorem. In Thevenin theorem, we
have certain steps to follow. The first step in the Thevenin theorem is to identify the Network A and
Network B. We have said that a Network B in general, is a load resistor. But we can also have a
certain part of the network being termed as a Network B, and a complex network can be termed as a
Network A. The Network A is to be reduced into two element equivalent. To do that, the next step in
the Thevenin theorem is to disconnect the Network B from Network A. When we disconnect it, we'll
get open circuit terminals are there. What we need to find out is the voltage across those open circuit
terminals that can be termed as V_OC, or we can call it as the V_TH itself. The next step in the
Thevenin theorem is to find out R_TH, that is the Thevenin equivalent resistance. For that all the
independent sources in the Network A are to be turned off or zeroed out. We will get an inactive
Network A, and from that, we can find out the resistor value.
 Now let us see how do we apply the steps over
here. We have already identified the network A and network B. Now we have disconnected the
network B and we have the open-circuit terminal over there. V_OC is the value which we need to
find out. That would be the same value as that of V_TH. How do we do that? We have only one loop
over here where the current is flowing. In this resistor, there would be no current flowing since it's an
open circuit. Now, we can find out the voltage across the six ohm value by taking the product of
current and this six ohm resistance, 18 by 12 is your current which is flowing, and the six ohm
resistance will give you the value of the voltage, which is equal to nine volts. This nine volt is the
same value as V_OC or V_TH.

In the next step, what we need to do is to turn off the independent source, so 18 volt would become
zero volt, it would become a short circuit and we will have a circuit like this. Now we have two
six-ohm resistance in parallel, giving the parallel combination equal to three ohm. Three ohm is in
series with 15 ohm, giving us the total value of R_TH from this terminal equal to 18 ohms. We have
got the value of R_TH equal to 18 ohms here.

We can have the two element equivalent circuit represented like this, nine volt voltage source in
series with the 18 ohms. The circuit B, or network B is to be now connected with this equivalent
circuit. Looking at this circuit now it would be very easy to find out the load parameter for the different
value of load. In this video, we have learned how to use the Thevenin theorem in order to simplify
the Network A and make it into two element equivalent. We have seen that the Network A can get
reduced to a voltage source in series with the resistance, and then the Network B can be connected
to that. Now we can easily find out the effect on the Network B from the Network A.
Practice Quiz: Thevenin and Norton
Theorem: Part 1
Thevenin and Norton Theorem: Part 2
Video 6

In this video, we will learn how to find Thevenin as well as Norton equivalent circuit from the given
circuit. In the Thevenin equivalent, we get the two elements equivalent that is the voltage source in
series with the resistor. With Norton theorem, we again get to element equivalent, that is the current
source in parallel with the resistor. For Thevenin theorem, we need to identify V_OC or V_TH. For
that, we identify network A and network B. We disconnect the network B, we get the open-circuit
terminal, whatever is the voltage across that open-circuit terminal is known as V_OC or V_TH.

In the Norton theorem, again, we will identify the network A and network B. We will short circuit the
terminals from the network A to B, and we will find out the short-circuit current in that branch that
would be termed as l_SC or I_N that is the Norton equivalent current source value. The way to
identify the R_TH is same in both the theorems. What we need to do is turn off or zero out the
independent sources in the network A and find out the value of a resistor from the network B point of
view.
Now let us see how we can do that with our example here. We need to identify Thevenin as well as
Norton equivalent from the given circuit. We have two sources over here, one voltage source and a
current source. There are a number of resistors which are shown. Let us consider that these two
ohm is a network B for us or a simple load resistor. We need to identify the Thevenin and the Norton
equivalent, from this point of view.

What we can do is to start with the Thevenin theorem first. For that, we will be removing the load
resistor or the network B, and we have got open circuit terminals there. Now we need to identify this
value of V_OC. We can use different techniques in order to find a V_OC. We can probably go with
the superposition theorem since we have two independent sources over here and we can find out
partial responses, let's say V_OC dash, and V_OC double dash with one source at a time. Let us
begin with the voltage source. We have 10 voltage source active, and a current source has been
turned off. When the current source has been turned off, it became the open circuit for us again.
Now, V_OC dash value is nothing but equivalent to 10 volt because there is no current in this loop.
It's an open circuit, here. So 10 volt will appear directly across the open-circuit terminal, and that is
V_OC dash for us. With the current source, we will be turning off the voltage source. The value of
the voltage source would become zero. It will become a short circuit. Now we have to again identify
this. There is no current in this branch because it is open circuit. The entire current is flowing in this
loop, two amperes through the four ohm resistance and that will give us the voltage here. V_OC
double dash would be equal to eight volts. Now, V_OC totally would be nothing but V_OC dash plus
V_OC double dash and that would be equal to 18 volts. This is our value of V_TH. That is the value
of one element has been identified.
Now we need to find out R_TH. For that all the independent sources in the network, it has to be
turned on. Once we do that, we get a circuit like this. The voltage source has become short-circuit
again, the current source has become open circuit. We have two resistors which are in series and
value of R_TH would be nothing but their summation that is 10 ohm. Now here we can say the two
elements equivalent is nothing but 18 volt voltage source in series with the resistor, which has the
value of 10 ohm. This is our Thevenin equivalent circuit here.

Now let us see how do we identify the Norton equivalent circuit from the same example. Again, over
here, we have to find out network A and network B. It is our network B two-ohm resistance and we
need to have this particular two-ohm value to be removed. Whatever are the terminals over here,
this would be shorted and we will call this current through the branch as l_SC.
Now, here we need to find out the value of l_SC that would be the same value as I_N. Again, we can
invoke the superposition theorem in order to find out the partial responses. From that we can find out
the total response. Now let us try to do this. We have the 10 volt voltage source to be considered
first and a current source to be removed that is turned off. We will have this value as four-ohm and
six-ohm. We will have the current l_SC. Let us label it as l_SC dash, since it's a partial response.
What is the value that we are getting? The current value over here would be equal to one ampere.
Now, with the current source in place, we will have the two ampere current source, and the voltage
source would be turned off.

Again, re-label this correctly. Let's call it as l_SC double dash. This is our four-ohm and a six-ohm
value. What would the value of l_SC double dash here? This will be nothing but two amperes into
four-ohm divided by the 10 ohms, that is the total resistance value. That gives us the value of l_SC
double dash as 0.8 amperes. Total value of l_SC is nothing but 1.8 amperes. The two element
equivalent can now be simply represented like this as 1.8 amperes in parallel with the resistance.

Now, the value of the resistance we need to find out, it is the same step as that of the Thevenin. Turn
off the independent sources, find out the equivalent resistance value. It again comes out to be
10-ohms here. This would be the value of RN in case of the Norton equivalent circuit. Now, the
interesting point over here that we can identify is that this circuit can be converted into the voltage
source equivalent by using a source transformation,and this would become nothing but equal to 18
volts in series with the 10-ohm resistance and that is the Thevenin equivalent circuit for us. In this
video, what we have learned is to find out Thevenin as well as Norton equivalent circuit from the
complex circuit which has been given to us. There are different ways of identifying the V_OC and
l_SC, as well as R_TH. Any of these methods can be used in order to find out the Thevenin and
Norton equivalent. For example, I can find out the V_OC and find out the l_SC. The ratio of V_OC
and l_SC is nothing but R_TH. There are different ways in which the equivalent circuits can be found
out. But the two element equivalent helps us a lot in finding out its effect on the network B or a load
resistor.
Practice Quiz: Thevenin and Norton
Theorem: Part 2
Thevenin with Dependent Sources Present
Video 7

In this video we'll be learning how to use the Thevenin Theorem when a dependent source is
present in the circuit. Thevenin Theorem, we first identify a network A and network B. Then the
network B is to be disconnected from network A. Across the open-circuit terminal, we find out the
VOC. In the step 2, we need to identify the value of RTH by turning off all the independent sources in
the network A. Now, if we have a dependent source present in the network A, it has to be kept
untouched. We now get an inactive circuit which has a dependent source and probably number of
registers being available. How do we represent this circuit in a simple single element equivalent that
is RTH? For this, there is a work-around that we can find out the value of ISC first, and then say that
VOC by ISC is what gives us the value of RTH. Now, in this way, we can find out two element
equivalent VOC in series with RTH. Now let us try to do this by using one example here.

We have a circuit shown on the slide, which has a voltage source, and there is a dependent source
present. It's a voltage controlled current source, and a variable of controlling here is the Vx, which is
same as the open circuit voltage.

Now, let's first try to find out the VOC. To find out the VOC, we can use a simple KVL here. There is
no current flowing in this branch, the current is in this loop and we can identify as the current I. Now,
if I write the KVL, I can say that this is -4+2*I plus the value of Vx and equal to zero. Now the value
of I here is nothing but minus Vx by four. Since it is in the opposite direction of this source, by
substituting this here, we get the value of Vx as equal to 8 volts.

Now next, if we go for finding out RTH, we have to turn up the voltage source here. It will become
short circuit, and we will get inactive circuit for us, which would be the network A. To find out RTH
from this, we said that we will go for finding out ISC. We will short-circuit the terminals. When we
short-circuit the terminal, we need to find out the ISC current through this particular branch. When
we have short-circuited this the value of Vx became equal to zero? Because of this, we can now say
that this particular current source has the zero value and it got open circuited. Now, we can find out
ISC very easily. This would be nothing but four by five that is equal to 0.8 MPS. Now, the value of
RTH can be found out by taking VOC by ISC. We add the value of VOC as equal to 8 volts, and we
have the value of ISC as 0.8 MPS, which gives us the value of RTH equal to 10 ohms. We can say
the equivalent or here is nothing but 8 volts in series with the 10 ohms. This is the way of finding out
Thevenin Equivalent.

Now, let us consider in another example where we have only dependent source present in the
network A, and we need to represent this again in our equivalent circuit. In this case, what is the
difficulty for us that if we find out the value of VOC, the value of VOC would be equal to zero volts,
since we have the dead network or inactive network. Again, if we find out the value of ISC by
short-circuiting this branch, we get the value of ISC equal to zero because there is no source to
function in this particular circuit. How do we now find out the equivalent circuit here is by using what
is called as a test source.
Now here we are applying the test source of one ampere. We can apply the voltage source also has
a test source. We can choose different values of the current source and voltage source as well. But
in this case, as we have connected the current source here, we can find out the value of V test.
What we will be ultimately doing is that the V test divided by the current value, that is one ampere,
will give us the RTH equivalent of this particular circuit. For this we can probably go for the nodal
analysis here. We can write the equation for this node. This we can represent as V test itself in this
case, and the equation can be written like this. The V test -2I divided by 3 ohms plus V test by 2
ohms, which is equal to the current value for us, that is one MPL. Now here, the value of the current
I is nothing but equal to minus one. We can substitute I equal to minus one ampere here in order to
find out the value of V test. We'll get the value of V test, nothing but equal to 0.4 volts. RTH or here is
nothing but V test divided by the value of the current source that is equal to one. We get the value of
RTH as 0.4 ohms.

Now, this inactive network is being represented by a single element equivalent that is 0.4 ohms.
Remember that the value of VOC as well as ISC is zero here, so we have only one element
equivalent of this particular circuit. In this video, we have learned how to find out the Thevenin
equivalent circuit when the dependent source is present. When the dependent source is there, we
will find out the ratio of VOC by ISC in order to get the value of RTH. When only dependent source is
present, we can use the test source and the equivalent over here would become a single element
equivalent which would be a resistive value.
Reading: Application of Thevenin Theorem
and Norton Theorem
Reading Objective
In this reading, you will learn how to represent a given complex network into two elements equivalent
network.
Main Reading Section:
Application of Thevenin Theorem and Norton Theorem
Consider that the circuit/network that can be divided into two parts. One is termed Network A, and
another termed Network B. If we are interested in analyzing the effect of Network A on Network B,
we can do that by separating Network A and Network B and then simplifying Network A.
As per Thevenin, Network A consisting of multiple independent sources and resistors can be
simplified to two elements equivalent circuits. These two elements are voltage sources in series with
a series resistor. The value of the voltage source is denoted as VTH, and the value of the resistor is
denoted as RTH. Thevenin has provided steps to obtain these values. The steps are as follows:
1. Identify Network A and Network B. Disconnect Network B from Network A.
2. Network A will have two open terminals, denoted as open circuit terminals.
3. Find the voltage across these open terminals. Any circuit analysis and simplification method
can be used here to obtain this open circuit voltage termed as VOC. This VOC is nothing but
VTH in the Thevenin theorem.
4. Now, turn off all independent sources in Network A and determine the equivalent resistor of
the (inactive) circuit from the open circuit terminals. This resistor value is denoted as RTH in
Thevenin theorem.
5. Network A now can be represented by two element equivalent, Voltage source VOC in series
with resistor RTH. We can connect Network B to this circuit and find the responses in
Network B.
Norton’s Theorem –
Norton has also suggested the steps to simplify and represent the complex Network A into two
element equivalent. According to Norton, the two elements are the current source with the value IN
in parallel with the resistor RN. Norton has provided steps to obtain these values. The steps are as
follows:
1. Identify Network A and Network B. Disconnect Network B from Network A.
2. There will be two open terminals of Network A. Connect these terminals with a wire.
3. Find the current through the short circuit branch (formed after connecting the terminals
together). Any method of circuit analysis and simplification can be used here to obtain this
short circuit current termed ISC. This ISC is nothing but IN in the Norton’s theorem.
4. Now, turn off all independent sources in Network A and determine the equivalent resistor of
the (inactive) circuit from the two open circuit terminals of Network A. This resistor value is
denoted as RN in Norton theorem.
5. Network A can now be represented by two equivalent elements, current source ISC in
parallel with resistor RN. We can connect Network B to this circuit and find the responses in
Network B.
Note – As seen from these steps, the process for finding the equivalent resistor is the same in both
theorems. Also, it can be observed that the Thevenin theorem represents Network A as voltage
source VOC in series with resistor RTH, while Norton’s theorem represents it as ISC in parallel with
resistor RN. Using the source transformation, we can easily convert one type of source
representation into another. In fact, if we wish to obtain the Norton theorem, we can use the
Thevenin Theorem to obtain the two-element equivalent (VOC in series with RTH) and later use
source transformation to convert it into ISC in parallel with RN. Value of ISC = VOC/RTH and RN= RTH
itself.
There is another way available; we can obtain VOC as per Thevenin theorem and ISC as per Norton
theorem. The ratio of VOC/ISC gives us the value of the resistor, which can be used in either of the
representations. This method is applicable when Network A has a dependent source. One has to
make sure that, when a dependent source is present in the network, its controlling variable is also
part of the same network.
Also, let’s look at the special case when we have a network with only dependent source (along with
resistors) present, but no independent source. As the independent source or a forcing function is
absent, the network does not have any active component. So, in the equivalent representation, there
would be no component such as VOC or ISC. Obtaining an equivalent resistor is difficult, as both VOC
and ISC are essentially zero.
In such a case, we need to apply a test source at open terminals to energize the network and obtain
the response. We can connect any type of independent source, either a current source or a voltage
source. If we apply a current source, we need to observe the voltage drop across its terminal. The
ratio of the voltage to current gives us the equivalent resistor of the network in the study.
The value of the applied source is not important here, as the scaling of the applied current will scale
the voltage also with the same proportion in a linear network. If one applies the voltage source as a
test circuit to the network, the current drawn from the source must be found. The ratio of V to I gives
the required equivalent resistor of the network. The network will have representation as only one
component, i.e., the resistive component. It can be called either Thevenin or Norton equivalent!
Practice Quiz: Thevenin with Dependent
Sources Present
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Video 8

In this video, we'll be learning a theorem termed as maximum power transfer theorem. We might be
interested in finding out what is the power value being delivered to the load. Or we may want to
know what is the value of load resistor for which the maximum power is being delivered from the
circuit to the load. By load here, we mean a simple load resistor. We know how to find out the value
of the power delivered to the load. We can use the equation as I square R. In this particular circuit,
we have termed the parameters of the load as VL that is the voltage across the load resistor, l is the
current through the load resistor. And PL is the power being delivered to the load. We can find it out
as I square R or the current I itself is nothing but VS divided by RS+RL. So the equation would be
via square RL divided by RS+RL whole square. Now, if we want to find out the value of RL which
takes the maximum power, we can take the derivative of it with respect to the RL. And this is what
the derivative will give us. This derivative is to be equated to 0, in order to find out the RL for which
the maximum power will be delivered. A simple derivation over here tells us that the value of RL
when it is equal to RS, then the maximum power will be delivered to the load.

When we have an independent voltage source in series with the series resistance RS, it will deliver
the maximum power to the load resistor RL. When the value of RS is equal to RL, same thing can be
said about the current source as well. In a practical current source in parallel to the resistance RP, it
will deliver the maximum power to the load when the value of load resistor RL is equal to RP. Again,
consider the circuit shown over here, we have the voltage source in series with the resistance as 2
ohms, now this particular source will deliver the maximum power to the load. When the load of 2
ohm is connected to that, can you find out the value of that power here,will get the current equal to 3
amperes and the value of power will be equal to 18 watts that with the maximum power value
delivered to the load. In the next circuit, we have the current source in parallel with the resistor
again, the value 2 ohm. Here also if we connect the load resistor equal to 2 ohm, we will get the
maximum power being delivered to that load. Again here, the value of the current is equal to 3
amperes and power value is equal to 18 watts.

From here,
we can actually relate the maximum power transfer theorem with the thevenin theorem as well. In
the thevenin theorem, we had tried to find the two elements equivalent of a complex network. The
two elements equivalent would be a voltage source in series with the resistance. Now, if we have the
two element equivalent of the circuit, we can say the value of load resistance is to be made equal to
thevenin resistance of this circuit. In that situation, we will have maximum power being delivered to
the load. So here we can substitute the value of RL equal to RL and can find out the power value
being delivered to the load which will be the maximum power value. In this video, we have learned
for what particular value of RL a maximum power would be delivered from the circuit to the load.
Thevenin theorem is a very useful theorem in such scenario because the Thevenin theorem uses
two element equivalent which is equivalent to a practical voltage source. Voltage source in series
with the resistance, the value of lower resistance has to be matched with this series resistance or the
Thevenin resistance. In order to find out the maximum power being delivered to the load.
Reading Objective
In this reading, you will learn how to determine the value of the load resistor for maximum power
transfer to the load.
Main Reading Section:
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Thevenin theorem is important when we have to determine the value of load resistor RL
​

to be connected to Network A, which permits the maximum power delivery to the load resistor. By
writing the expression of power dissipated in the load resistor and doing elementary calculus, we
obtain that the value of RL has to be equal to RTH for the maximum power transfer to the load.
​

Power delivered to the load is then given as

Pmax ∣deliveredtoload=
Practice Quiz: Maximum Power Transfer
Theorem
Question 1
For the given circuit, find the value of RL (to be connected at terminals A and B) for which the
maximum power would be delivered to this load. Also, find the value of the maximum power
delivered to the load.
Module Wrap-Up: Useful Circuit Analysis
Techniques
Video 9

Hello everyone, in this video, we'll be summarizing what we have learned in the module. We have
seen a number of techniques to do the circuit analysis, we began our discussion with the
Superposition theorem. A superposition theorem is the one which gives us the individual contribution
to the total response. We may have various independent sources present in the circuit, we take one
source acting at a time and find out the partial response. We repeat this experiment for every
independent source present in the circuit and the number of partial responses are to be added
together to get the total response.

We have then seen the source transformation in the source transformation, we can transform a
voltage source into a current source or vice versa. This transformation might be required number of
times in the circuit in order to reduce the circuit. We may be able to use the nodal or the mesh
analysis once the circuit is simplified enough.
Then we have seen the important Thevenin and the Norton theorems. In Thevenin theorem, a
complex network can be simplified to, two element equivalent that is the voltage source in series
with the resistor. And in Norton theorem again, the complex network can be simplified to two element
equivalent a current source in parallel with the resistors.

The important outcome of the Thevenin and Norton theorem is the Maximum power transfer
theorem. When we want to find out the value of load resistance for which the maximum power would
be delivered by the circuit to the load. The circuit, we can simplify to two element equivalent and find
out the value of R L which is to be equated with R TH.

Now, we may wonder which technique to use at what time it depends on what exactly we want to
analyze in the circuit. We may not be interested in deciphering the complete electrical circuit every
time. For example, in the Thevenin theorem, we are interested in finding out the effect of one part of
the network on the another part of the network. Inside the network we may not be interested in
finding out a particular parameter. In the Maximum power transfer theorem we are interested in
finding out the value of R L which gives us the maximum power being delivered to that particular
load. So we have to use the technique according to the problem statement that we have at hand.
Reading: Useful Circuit Analysis Techniques
Lesson 1: Various Approaches to Find Responses in Given Circuits
Topic: Application of Superposition Theorem
Title: Essential Reading Material – Superposition Theorem
In this reading you will gain an understanding of the superposition theorem. In electric circuits
consisting of multiple independent sources, you can invoke the superposition theorem. You can find
individual responses due to each independent source acting alone and then combine the responses
to get the total response.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.1-Linearity and Superposition.
Duration: 15 min
Topic: Utilization of Source Transformation to Simplify Circuits
Title: Essential Reading Material – Source Transformation
In this reading, you will gain an understanding of the source transformation methods. You will learn
to transform the practical current source into the practical voltage source, and vice-versa using
source transformation, to simplify the circuit.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.2-Source Transformation.
Duration: 15 min
Topic: Superposition Theorem with Dependent Source Present
Title: Essential Reading Material – Superposition theorem
In this reading, you will gain an understanding of the superposition theorem. In an electrical circuit,
you will learn about dependent sources present along with multiple independent sources. While
applying the superposition theorem in such cases, you will explore more about the dependent
sources have to be kept untouched in every experiment. It means that the dependent sources would
not be turned-off or zeroed out. Care needs to be properly taken to label the controlling variable, the
value of the dependent source, and the individual response in every experiment.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis.
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.1 - Linearity and Superposition.
Duration: 15 min
Lesson 2: Use Network Theorems in Presence of Dependent Sources
Topic: Source Transformation with Dependent Source in the Circuit
Title: Essential Reading Material – Source Transformation
In this reading, you will gain an understanding that the source transformation can be easily applied
to dependent sources as well.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.2 - Source Transformation.
Duration: 15 min
Lesson 3: Representing Complex Electrical Circuits in a Simple Two-Element Equivalents
Topics: Thevenin and Norton Theorem, and Thevenin with Dependent Sources Present
Title: Essential Reading Material – Thevenin Theorem and Norton Theorem
In this reading, you will learn about Thevenin's theorem and Norton theorem. According to
Thevenin’s theorem, a complex circuit/network can be represented by a simple two-element
equivalent. These two elements are voltage sources with the value VTH in series with the resistor
RTH. Thevenin theorem provides steps to obtain these values.
Norton has also suggested simplifying and representing the complex network into a two-element
equivalent. According to Norton, the two elements are the current source with the value IN in parallel
with the resistor RN. Norton has also provided steps to obtain these values.
The Thevenin equivalent can be converted into Norton equivalent and vice-versa using source
transformation. We can apply these theorems even when we have dependent sources present in the
circuit. If a circuit that needs to be simplified has only dependent sources present, then we can use
test sources to find the resistive value of the given circuit.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.3 - Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuit.
Duration: 60 min
Topic: Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Title: Essential Reading Material –Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
In this reading, you will gain an understanding of the maximum power transfer theorem. In certain
cases, you might be interested in determining the value of load resistor RL that permits the maximum
power delivery to load resistor. You will learn to use Thevenin theorem or Norton theorem to find the
two-element equivalent of a given circuit. When the value of load resistor RL is taken to be equal to
RTH, the maximum power transfer takes place in the circuit to the load.
Book: William, H. Hayt, Jr., Jack E. Kemmerly, and Steven M. Durbin. Engineering Circuit Analysis,
Eighth Edition. Chapter-5, Section 5.4 – Maximum Power Transfer.
Duration: 60 min