SCHOOL OF ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL TECHNOLOGY

Department of
Electronics and Communication Engineering

(Academic Year 2024- 2025 EVEN Semester)

212ECE2311– ANTENNAS AND RADIATION

Bachelor of Technology
(Electronics and Communication Engineering)

III Year / VI Semester

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 BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

REGISTER NUMBER:

This is the Bonafide record of work done by

of ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
in 212ECE2311 ANTENNAS AND RADIATION during Even
semester in Academic Year 2024-2025.

FACULTY IN-CHARGE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Submitted to the practical examination held at KALASALINGAM

ACADEMY OF RESEARCH AND EDUCATION, Krishnan Koil on
.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

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 EXPERIMENT MARKS
Course
S. No Date Experiment Name Marks Teacher’s
Signature
1. Study of antenna parameter
measurement components/ Equipment
RF Sources, Antenna trainer Kit,
Detectors and meters and antenna
radiation patterns and radiation
intensity using transmitting and
receiving antennas in antenna trainer
kit
2.
Measurement of radiation pattern
parameters Introduction and
demonstration of Antenna Design
Using Simulation Software.
3. Design and simulate half wavelength
dipole antenna for FM Radio
Reception using simulation software.

4.
Design and simulate Quarter wave
monopole antenna for walkie-talkie
applications using simulation software
5. Design and simulate half wavelength
(/2) Folded dipole antenna for TV
signal reception.
6.
Design and simulate loop antenna
used in NFC devices with a simulation
software.
7.
Design and simulate rectangular patch
antenna for Bluetooth Application
using simulation software
8.
Design and simulate Yagi Uda
antenna for TV Reception.
9.
Design and Simulation of Horn
antenna used to feed DTH/Dish
antennas with antenna design
software.
10.
Design and simulate 6 –Element Yagi
Uda antenna for TV Reception with
and without folded dipole.

Total average marks

3
Pre-Laboratory Work
(Measurement of radiation pattern parameters)

FIGURE 1 BASIC ANTENNA TEST SETUP

4
 EXPERIMENT - 1

Study of antenna parameter measurement components/ Equipment RF Sources, Antenna trainer

kit Detectors and meters and antenna radiation patterns and radiation intensity using transmitting
and receiving antennas in antenna trainer kit.

Objective:

Studying antenna parameters, Radiation pattern, Pattern beamwidth, Radiation intensity,

Directivity, Gain, radiation efficiency.

Apparatus Required:

1. Antenna Trainer kit

2. Connecting chords
3. Transmitting and receiving antennas

Theoretical Background:

HPBW: is the angle between two vectors, originating at the pattern's origin and
passing through these points of the major lobe where the radiation intensity is half its maximum
FNBW: is the angle between two vectors, originating at the pattern's origin and tangent
to the main beam at its base. It is very often approximately true that FNBW≈ 2HPBW.

Procedure:

1. Mount the antenna on transmitting mast.

2. Bring the detector assembly near to the main unit and adjust the height of both Tx and Rx antenna
for same.
3. Keep detector assembly away from the main unit about 1 mts and align both of them. Ensure that
there is no reflector sort of thing in the vicinity of the experiment such as steel structure, mobile
phones etc.
4. Adjust the RF detector so that deflection in detector is approx. 30-35 microampere.
5. Align arrow mark of the disk with zero of the goniometer scale.
6. Start taking reading at the interval of 10 degree.
7. Convert the reading into dB. & Tabulate the readings.
8. Plot polar plot with all the readings and find HPBW, FNBW of antenna, Directivity and Gain.

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Result:

6
Test bench setup for studying Horn Antenna

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 EXPERIMENT - 2

Measurement of radiation pattern parameters Introduction and demonstration of Antenna Design

Using Simulation Software.

Familiarize with Dipole antenna design using CST software.

Overview
CST Studio is designed for ease of use. However, to get started quickly you will need to know the
basic concepts behind it. The main purpose of this chapter is to provide an overview of the most
important objects and dialog boxes.

User Interface
Launch CST Studio Suite from the Start menu or by clicking on the desktop icon. In the Modules
and Tools list click on 3D Simulation ->.
A new CST Cable Studio project opens with an empty Main View.

The user interface is divided into five sub-windows:

Initially the 3D view is active. Selecting the Schematic tab changes the view to CST Design Studio.
This provides access to the schematic editor and the circuit simulator. The following list gives an
overview on the meaning and usage of the two different tabs:

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Main Frame

Ribbons

Main View

Cable / 3D
Navigation Tree

Cross Section Parameter List Messages

Window Window Window

 The 3D tab presents all objects and dialog boxes necessary to define and edit cable bundles
inside a 3D metallic and insulator environment. It includes appropriate solver technology to
generate equivalent circuits, which are passed to the Schematic tab. It further enables the
hybrid methods for radiation and irradiation by exchanging the common mode currents and
voltages of a cable between the circuit simulator and the 3D transient solvers.

 The Schematic tab is used to define and edit loads on the equivalent circuit of the cable harness
with the help of a schematic editor. It further enables the circuit simulation of the whole system
in time and frequency domains, while maintaining a tight interface with the 3D transient
solvers to easily exchange impressed currents and voltages.

Result:

9
 EXPERIMENT - 3
Design and simulate half wavelength dipole antenna for FM Radio Reception
using simulation software.
Objective:
1. To design and plot the radiation pattern of Half Wave Dipole antenna using CST software.

Apparatus Required:

1. System loaded with CST software

Theoretical Background:
Dipole Antenna -
In radio and tele-communications, a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used
class of antenna. The dipole antenna is cut and bent for effective radiation. The length of the total wire,
which is being used as a dipole, equals half of the wavelength (i.e., l = λ/2). Such an antenna is called
as half-wave dipole antenna. It is also known as Hertz antenna.
The range of frequency in which half-wave dipole operates is around 3KHz to 300GHz. This
is mostly used in radio receivers.

Construction & Working of Half-wave Dipole

It is a normal dipole antenna, where the frequency of its operation is half of its wavelength.
Hence, it is called as half-wave dipole antenna. The edge of the dipole has maximum voltage. This
voltage is alternating (AC) in nature.
At the positive peak of the voltage, the electrons tend to move in one direction and at the
negative peak, the electrons move in the other direction. This can be explained by the figures given
below.

Page 10
 Fig 1 shows the dipole when the charges induced are in positive half cycle. Now the electrons
tend to move towards the char
Fig 2 shows the dipole with negative charges induced. The electrons here tend to move away
from the dipole.
Fig 3 shows the dipole with next positive half cycle. Hence, the electrons again move towards
the charge.
The cumulative effect of this produces a varying field effect which gets radiated in the same
pattern produced on it. Hence, the output would be an effective radiation following the cycles of the
output voltage pattern. Thus, a half-wave dipole radiates effectively.

Page 11
The above figure shows the current distribution in half wave dipole. The directivity of half wave dipole
is 2.15dBi, which is reasonably good. Where, ‘i’ represents the isotropic radiation.

Procedure:

1. Start a new project in CST microwave studio

2. Enter the required parameters of the antenna
3. Simulate the result
4. View the simulation results

On-laboratory:
1. Write the elaborate procedure of the antenna design with parameters.
2. Take the snapshots of the procedure.
3. Show the geometry of the antenna design.
4. Draw the 2D and 3D radiation plots of E field, H field and far field., S parameter, Impedance

Result:

Page 12
 EXPERIMENT - 4

Design and simulate Quarter wave monopole antenna for walkie-talkie applications using
simulation software.

Objective:

Design and simulate Quarter wave monopole antenna for walkie-talkie applications using
simulation software.

Apparatus Required:
1. System loaded with CST software.

Procedure:
1. Start a new project in CST microwave studio.
2. Enter the required parameters of the antenna.
3. Simulate the result.
4. View the simulation results.

On-laboratory:
1. Write the elaborate procedure of the antenna design with parameters.
2. Take the snapshots of the procedure.
3. Show the geometry of the antenna design.
4. Draw the 2D and 3D radiation plots of E field, H field and far field., S parameter, Impedance

Result:

13
 EXPERIMENT - 5

Design and simulate half wavelength (/2) Folded dipole antenna for TV signal
reception.

Objective:

Design and simulate half wavelength (/2) Folded dipole antenna for TV signal reception.

Apparatus Required:

System loaded with CST software

Theoretical Background:

A folded dipole is an antenna, with two conductors connected on both sides, and folded to form a
cylindrical closed shape, to which feed is given at the center. The length of the dipole is half of the
wavelength. Hence, it is called as half wave folded dipole antenna. The directivity of Folded dipole
Antenna is bi-directional. The input impedance is higher. Folded Dipole Antenna Frequency Range
The range of frequency in which half wave folded dipole operates is around 3KHz to 300GHz. This
is mostly used in television receivers. If the Radii of the 2 conductors are equal, then equal currents
in both the conductors, in the same direction, currents are equal in magnitude and phase in the 2
dipoles. The total power developed in folded dipole is equal to that developed in the conventional
dipoles, therefore the input or terminal impedance of folded dipole is greater than that of the
conventional dipole. It can be proved that the input impedance at the terminals of a folded dipole
antenna is equal to the square of number of conductors comprising the antenna times the impedance
at the terminals of a conventional dipole.
Dipole antennas are used in many areas, both on their own and as part of more complicated antennas
where they can form the main radiating element. They are used in many forms of radio system from
two-way radio communications links, to broadcasting broadcast reception, general radio reception
and very many more areas.

Procedure:

1. Open CST studio suite 2021, go to new template, microwave &RF, Antenna and select workflow
as a wire and the solvers for the workflow in time domain press next.
2. Set the minimum frequency as 1GHz and maximum frequency ad 15GHz.Select E-field, H- E-
Field: field and Far field monitors. Press next, Finish.
3. Now we will get cubic structure, go to modelling, select cylinder and give
Name: solid1
Orientation: Z Or:
D/2 Ir:0 XC: 0 YC: 0
Z min: -L/2, Z max: L/2
Material: PEC
Give preview, Enter D value as 0.4 Description: Diameter of pole, press ok, now enter L value as
150 and give Description as Length of dipole. Preview and click ok.
4. Assign color to solid1 if required. Now go to components give right click and select transform,
select copy and in translation in vector give X as S, give preview and enter S value as 10 and
description as spacing between poles.
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 5. Now again go to cylinder and give
Name: solid2
Orientation: Z Or:
D/2 Ir:0 XC: 0 YC: 0
Z min: -G/2, Z max: G/2
Material: Vacuum
Give preview, give G value as 2 and description as Gap, give ok now enable cut away highlighted
shape and give ok.
6. Now again go to cylinder and give
Name: solid3
Orientation: X Or:
D/2 Ir:0 XC: 0
ZC: L/2+5 Z min: S/2-0.2, Z max: S/2+0.2
Material: PEC
7. Assign color to solid3 if required now go to picks, pick face and double click on the sides of
cylinder.
8. Now select solid1 and solid3 in components and select Loft in modelling and give
Name: solid4
Low material: 0.2
Give preview and click ok. Assign color to solid4 if required.
9. Now select solid3 and solid4, give right click and select transform, click mirror, select copy and
give X:1 Y:0 Z:0 and Xo: S/2 Y0:0 Z0:0. Give preview and click ok.
10. Select solid3, solid3_1, solid4, solid4_1 and give right click, transform and select mirror then give
copy and give X:0 Y:0 Z:1 and X0: L/2 Y0:0 Z0:0. Give preview, click ok.
11. In components select solid1 and go to Boolean, select subtract and click on solid2and give enter.
12. Now go to pick point then pick circle center and give double click. Go to boundaries, ok then go
to global properties then select Hexahedral TLM.
13. Now go to discrete port and give impedance as 300, preview ok.
14. Go to setup solver, in mesh type give Hexahedral TLM. Give apply and give start. Now after
simulation analyze the results and output graph.

Result:

15
 EXPERIMENT - 6

Design and simulate loop antenna used in NFC devices with a simulation software.
Objective:
To design circular loop antenna for the given operating frequency and simulate the same
using CST software.
Apparatus Required:

1. System loaded with CST software on windows platform

Theoretical Background:

Loop antenna - RF current carrying coil is given a single turn into a loop, can be used as an antenna
called as loop antenna. The currents through this loop antenna will be in phase. The magnetic field
will be perpendicular to the whole loop carrying the current.
1. Small loop antennas are mainly of two types
2. Circular loop antennas, square loop antennas
These two types of loop antennas are mostly widely used. Other types (rectangular, delta,
elliptical etc.) are also made according to the designer specifications.

The small loop antenna is generally a linearly polarized one. When such a small loop antenna is
mounted on top of a portable receiver, whose output is connected to a meter, it becomes a great
direction finder.), although their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of the
center frequency. The elements of yagi antenna are Directors, Reflector.
and Driven element. It is used as a TV receiving antenna. The radiation pattern of these antennas
will be same as that of short horizontal dipole antenna.

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The radiation pattern for small, high-efficiency loop antennas is shown in the figure given above.
The radiation patterns for different angles of looping are also illustrated clearly in the figure. The
tangent line at 0° indicates vertical polarization, whereas the line with 90° indicates horizontal
polarization.
Advantages:

 Compact in size
 High directivity
Disadvantages:
 Impedance matching may not be always good
 Has very high resonance quality factor.
Applications:
 Used in RFID devices
 Used in MF, HF and Shortwave receivers
 Used in Aircraft receivers for direction finding
 Used in UHF transmitters.

Result:

17
 EXPERIMENT - 7

Design and simulate rectangular patch antenna for Bluetooth Application using
simulation software.

Objective:
To design patch antenna for the given operating frequency and simulate the same using CST
software.

Apparatus Required:

1. System loaded with CST software on windows platform

Theoretical Background:

Patch antenna - A patch antenna or microstrip antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna. It is

also-called printed antenna. It has two-dimensional physical geometry. The simplest patch antenna
uses a patch which is one-half wavelength long, so that the metal surface acts as a resonator similarly
to the half-wave dipole antennas. A patch antenna is usually fabricated by mounting a shaped metal
sheet on an insulating dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal
layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane. Hence it is easy to
design and inexpensive to manufacture. Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric substrate and
instead made of a metal patch mounted above a ground plane using dielectric spacers. The resulting
structure is less rugged but has a wider bandwidth. Patch antennas can be designed from the UHF
band to as high as 100 GHz

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Advantages:
High accuracy in manufacturing, the design is executed by Photo etching. Easy to integrate with
other devices.
Small sized applicable for handheld portable devices. We can obtain high directivity using
microstrip arrays.
An array of microstrip antennas can be used to form a pattern that is difficult to synthesize using
a single element.
Smart antennas when combined with phase shifters or PIN-diode switches.
Disadvantages:
Narrow band width (1%), while mobiles need (8%).
Low efficiency, especially for short circuited microstrip antenna.
Some feeding techniques like aperture and proximity coupling are difficult to fabricate. An array
suffers presence of feed network decreasing efficiency.

Outline of the Procedure:

1. Start a new project in CST microwave studio

2. Enter the required parameters of the antenna
3. Simulate the result
4. View the simulation results

Result:

19
 EXPERIMENT - 8

Design and simulate Yagi Uda antenna for TV Reception.

Objective:
To design and simulate Yagi Uda antenna using CST software.

Apparatus Required:

1. System loaded with CST software on windows platform

Theoretical Background:

Yagi Uda antenna - The Yagi-Uda antenna or vagi Antenna is simple to construct and has a high
gain, typically greater than 10 dB. The Yagi-Uda antennas tepidly operate in the HF to UHF bands
(about 3 MHz to 3 GHz), although their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent of
the center frequency. The elements of yagi antenna are Directors, Reflector and Driven element. It is
used as a TV receiving antenna.

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Advantages:
I. High gain is achieved.
2. High directivity is achieved.
3. Ease of handling and maintenance.
4. Less amount of power is wasted.
5. Broader coverage of frequencies.
Disadvantages:
I. Prone to noise.
2. Prone to atmospheric effects.
Applications:
I. Mostly used for TV reception.
2. Used where a single-frequency application is needed.

Outline of the Procedure:

1. Start a new project in CST microwave studio

2. Enter the required parameters of the antenna
3. Simulate the result
4. View the simulation results.

Result:

21
 EXPERIMENT – 9
Design and Simulation of Horn antenna used to feed DTH/Dish antennas with
antenna design software.

Objective:
Design and Simulation of Horn antenna used to feed DTH/Dish antennas with antenna design
software.

Apparatus Required:

1. Horn Antenna test bench setup

2. Two Horn Antenna of identical type
3. Turn table and accessories.

Theoretical Background:

Horn Antenna - In microwave communications, the transmission and reception of microwave power
to/from space, is a primary necessity. The process is affected by an impedance transformer between
the space and source, known as antenna. The basic characteristics of an antenna are expressed in
terms of field pattern, directivity, bandwidth and gain. A transmission line shall act as an antenna if
its output end is well matched to space. Such an antenna because of having shapes like horns are
known as horn antenna.

If a waveguide which is propagating a signal is left with an open end, some of the signal energy will
escape into space (Fig. 1). Some will be reflected because the end is not well matched to free space,
so a VSWR of about 2 will typically result. Let us consider first the energy which does get radiated
or transmitted into space. Suppose the transmitted power is P t. If it were radiated in all directions
equally, then at a distance r from the source the total power P t would be spread evenly across the
surface of a sphere of surface area 4πr2. A receiving antenna occupying area A of that sphere would
receive a proportion of the transmitted power,

Pr = 𝑃𝑡𝐴
4𝜋𝑟2

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 When it is required to transmit energy efficiently into space antenna is used. The horn is a very simple
form of antenna, being no more than a flare out of the shape of the waveguide walls. It improves the
match between the waveguide and free space, and narrows the angle over which energy is radiated
(Fig. 2). By concentrating the radiation in a particular direction, the power radiated in that direction
is increased (at the expense of reduced power in other directions). The factor by which it is increased
is called the ‘gain’ of the transmitting antenna. Thus, the power
received by the receiving antenna of area.
Pr = 𝑡
4𝜋𝑟2

Fig. 1 Energy radiated and reflected from an open waveguide end

The gain G is often expressed in decibels as:

10 log10 G dBi
where the ‘i’ refers to an isotropic radiator; one which radiates equally in all directions.
Fig. 2 shows the planes used for a rectangular waveguide, designated E-plane and H-plane because
they contain the directions of the electric and magnetic field respectively.

Fig. 2 End-view of waveguide showing E- and H- planes

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Radiation Pattern - The Radiation pattern of an antenna is a diagram of field strength. Here the
directional characteristics of an antenna would ideally be shown as a three-dimensional graph in
which, for each direction, the radius from a central point is proportional to the power density at a
given distance. For practical reasons the radiation pattern is normally shown by two dimensional
graphs which show a section or sections of the three-dimensional pattern (Fig. 3).
As shown in Fig. 4, a radiation pattern usually has several ‘lobes’. Generally, most energy is
concentrated into the main lobe. Radiation in side and back lobes represents a waste of power.

Fig.3 Energy radiated from a horn antenna (more concentrated in one direction)

Fig. 4 Two sections of a 3-D radiation pattern

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 3-dB Beam Width - ‘3-dB beam width’ is often used as a measure of the directivity of an antenna.
It is the angle ( θ in Fig. 4) between the two points on the main lobe at which the radiated power
density is half the maximum.
The gain is generally the highest if the beam width is narrow and the side lobes are small,
so that all the power is sent in the desired direction. An antenna which has all these characteristics
will also generally be an efficient receiver of radiation.

Far-Field Pattern - The radiation pattern differs when measured close to the antenna and at a
distance. It is usually the latter condition which is of interest, referred to as the ‘far-field’. For
practical purposes, and in the case of a simple horn antenna, the far-field may be taken to start at a
distance 2𝐷2/𝜆0 from the horn, where D is its larger dimension at the opening, and
λ0 is the free-space wavelength.
Radiation measurements are easily disturbed by reflections from the ground and other objects. These
problems are avoided as far as possible in practice by using clear areas out of doors, or by using
‘anechoic’ rooms having walls specially designed to absorb radiation.

Procedure:

A. Radiation Pattern Plotting:

1. Set the components and equipment as shown in Fig. 5.
2. Same type of transmitting and receiving antenna (horn antenna) are used, keeping the axis of both
antennas in the same axis line. To satisfy the ‘Far-field Pattern’ a space of about 150 cm between
antennas may be tried at the start.
3. The variable attenuator is set accordingly for maximum deflection at the VSWR Meter.
4. The amplifier (Klystron or Gunn diode) is set for maximum sensitivity.
5. Align the antennas at 00 directions. Notice that antennas must be similarly ‘polarized’.
6. Attenuator is adjusted for deflection near maximum (possibly at 0-dB).

Result:

25
 EXPERIMENT – 10

Design and simulate 6 –Element Yagi Uda antenna for TV Reception with and
without folded dipole.

Objective:
Design and simulate 6 –Element Yagi Uda antenna for TV Reception with and without folded dipole.

Apparatus Required:

1. System loaded with CST software on windows platform

Theoretical Background:

Yagi Uda antenna - The Yagi-Uda antenna or Vagi Antenna is simple to construct and has a high
gain, typically greater than 10 dB. The Yagi-Uda antennas tepidly operate in the HF to UHF bands
(about 3 MHz to 3 GHz), although their bandwidth is typically small, on the order of a few percent
of the center frequency. The elements of yagi antenna are Directors, Reflector and Driven element.
It is used as a TV receiving antenna.

26
 Advantages:
I. High gain is achieved.
2. High directivity is achieved.
3. Ease of handling and maintenance.
4. Less amount of power is wasted.
5. Broader coverage of frequencies.
Disadvantages:
I. Prone to noise.
2. Prone to atmospheric effects.
Applications:
I. Mostly used for TV reception.
2. Used where a single-frequency application is needed.

Outline of the Procedure:

1. Start a new project in CST microwave studio.

2. Enter the required parameters of the antenna.
3. Simulate the result.
4. View the simulation results.

Result:

27