GE 6: Science, Technology, and Society Module No.

MODULE NO. 1

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

MODULE OVERVIEW

This section introduces Science, Technology, and Society (STS) as a field of study. After defining
science and technology, the section traces the historical roots of STS as an academic field. It will look also at
the role of science and technology in the evolution of Philippine society.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. discuss the interactions between S&T and society throughout history ; and
2. explain how scientific and technological developments affect society and the environment.

GENERAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

Science and technology innovations are prevalent in our society. It permeates our everyday activities,
as well as the tools that we use, from the simplest to the most complex. In order for you to completely grasp
the impact of science and technology on our society, it is necessary to study some concepts related to science
and technology.

What is Science?
You have taken up science subjects since your primary school years, and the definition of science has
been repeatedly discussed since then. To give you a recall, Science comes from the Latin word scientia,
meaning ‘knowledge’. It refers to a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge
about how the universe behaves through observation, experimentation, or both. Let’s discuss the nature of
science below for you to understand it better.

The Nature of Science

The Nature of Science (NOS) was put together by the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS) which was anchored on decades of gathering information through research, investigation, and
experiment about the natural world. It is significant to understand the nature of science because it is a critical
element of scientific literacy. It enhances your understanding of science concepts and enables you to make
informed decisions about scientifically-based personal and societal issues. AAAS believes that all individuals
involved with science teaching and learning should have a shared accurate view of the nature of scientific
knowledge, thus, NOS should be taught explicitly alongside other disciplinary core ideas. The following sums
up the nature of science:

A. The Scientific World View

• The world is understandable
• Scientific ideas are subject to change
• Scientific knowledge is durable
• Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions

B. The Scientific Inquiry

• Science demands evidence
• Science is a blend of logic and imagination

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• Science explains and predicts

• Scientists try to identify and avoid bias
• Science is not authoritarian

C. The Scientific Enterprise

• Science is a complex social activity
• Science is organized into content disciplines and is conducted in various institutions
• There are generally accepted ethical principles in the conduct of science
• Scientists participate in public affairs both as specialists and as citizens

What is Technology?
Technology, the word often attached side by side with science comes from the Greek word techne,
meaning ‘art, skill or cunning of hand’. Technology is a way of knowing and is also a process of exploration and
experimentation. It involves the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human
problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires. Technology addresses the needs and wants of society
through the following fields:
• Information and Communication
• Bio-Related and Agriculture
• Medical
• Manufacturing and Construction
• Environmental
• Nanotechnology
• Transportation

It is indisputable that many of the products of technology help humans accomplish tasks that would
otherwise be very difficult or impossible to carry out. Although technology provides many benefits, it also
produces associated costs and risks.

Relationship between Science, Technology, and Society

Science, technology, and society are closely linked, especially through scientific inquiry, technological
problem-solving, and communication. Science frequently utilizes and requires tools and processes developed
by technology, and conversely, technology often employs principles, laws, theories, and processes developed
by means of science. Society, as we know it today, has been affected in many ways by science and technology.

For example, society demands for an easy-access, and extensive and frequent communication. This
leads to the research and development of an ever-widening array of mobile phone capabilities. Access to these
capabilities, in turn, influenced the way humans live. As society relies more and more on mobile phones,
additional features were continuously requested to improve like increasing the speed of phone processors, the
use of touch-enabled screens, or the implementation of mobile internet access, and the cycle continues.

HISTORICAL ROOTS OF STS AS AN ACADEMIC FIELD

As problems in science and technology continue to rise and become more observable, the need to pay
attention to their interactions with various aspects of human life, e.g. social, political, and economic, becomes
ever more necessary. How the different aspects of society shape and influence the progression and further
development of science and technology is the area of concern of a relatively new academic discipline called
Science, Technology, and Society.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a relatively young field that combines previously independent
and older disciplines, such as the history of science, philosophy of science, and sociology of science. As an

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academic field, STS, according to Harvard University’s Kennedy School (2018), traces its roots from the interwar
period and the start of the Cold War. It was during this period when historians and scientists found interest in
the interconnections of scientific knowledge, technological systems, and society. The rise of STS as an
academic field resulted from the recognition that many schools today do not really prepare students to respond
critically, reflectively, and proactively to the challenges posed by science and technology in the modern world.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF STS

STS seeks to bridge the gap between two traditionally exclusive cultures --- humanities (interpretive) and
natural sciences (rational) --- so that humans will be able to better confront the moral, ethical, and existential
dilemmas brought by the continued developments in science and technology.

STS aims to help students to develop adaptability, equipped with not only academic skills but with a range
of practical skills which will make them functional citizens. With this, STS calls for educating you (our students)
so that you will be able to apply science and technology (tools, knowledge, process, and products) to solve
problems in your environment. STS is an important academic discipline to help you apply science so as to be
skillful and useful and not just become graduates who are alien to your own society. It is expected that students
like you should become productive members of society who are self-reliant, able to grow their own food, carry-
out disease preventive measures, and well-informed on issues involving science and technology.

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN WHICH SOCIAL CONSIDERATIONS CHANGED THE COURSE OF

SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Though it is important to study scientific and technological innovations that had important societal impacts,
there would not be enough time to study them all. What we would focus on are the historical antecedents,
which, according to Quinto, et al (2019), are “factors that paved the way for the presence of advanced and
sophisticated scientific and ethnological innovations today.” This relationship of different historical antecedents
of science and technology across time is given in the figure below.

ANCIENT PERIOD

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication and
record keeping, mass production, power and energy, security and protection, as well as health, observation,
and measurement, aesthetics, engineering, and architecture. A primary challenge they faced was the
conservation of life. The early people might have been successful in harnessing the rich resources that the
world could provide but their survival posed a great problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and
man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being. Given this predicament, science and technology
played a major role in the discovery of cures, if not the prevention of illness. Moreover, in order to integrate their
needs for better transportation, establishment of structures for protection from human attacks and natural
disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructure. Furthermore, the people were not contented
on beautifying their infrastructures and surrounding but more on being able to prolong life with the mass
production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raising the quality of life.

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The rise of ancient civilizations such as Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and
Chinese paved the way for advances in science and technology. Their contributions not only allowed these
ancient civilizations to flourish, but also paved the way for the development of many other science and
technology innovations.

1. Sumerian Civilization
➢ Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia and is considered the oldest
civilization in the world.
➢ The ancient civilization of the Sumerians were the people of southern “Mesopotamia” whose civilization
flourished between c. 4100-1750 Be CE.
➢ The Sumerians lived in “Sumer” which was not a political entity but rather a region of city-states each
with its own king.

Inventions/contributions:
• Cuneiform
✓ The first writing system utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are carved on clay using
wedge instruments and then left to dry.
✓ This allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great historical value or their everyday
life.
• The Uruk City
✓ It is the first true city in the world.
✓ The Sumerians were able to build the city using only mud or clay from the river which they mixed
with reeds, producing sunbaked bricks.
✓ They used bricks to make houses that protected them from the harsh weather and to build a wall
around the city that prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders from entering.
• The Great Ziggurat of Ur
✓ It is called the mountain of God.
✓ It served as the sacred place of their chief god where only their priest were allowed to enter.
• Irrigation and Dikes
✓ Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands and at the same time
control flooding of the rivers.
✓ Through the dikes and canals, the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting,
which increased their food production.
• Sailboats
✓ These were used to carry large quantities of products and were able to cover large distances.
• Wheel
✓ The first wheels were not made for transportation but farm work and food processes.
✓ Farmers were able to mill grains with less effort in less time.
• The Plow
✓ It is used to dig the ground where seeds would be planted.
✓ Farmers could cultivate larger parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass produce food without
taking so much effort and time.
• Roads
✓ It made the flow of traffic become faster and more organized.
✓ They made the roads with the same technology they used in making the sunbaked bricks that they
laid down on the ground.
• Jewelry
✓ They are the ones who made their own jewelry using gold, silver and gems.
• Bronze Tools
✓ Sumerians tools are made of bronze to make weapons much stronger.

2. Babylonian Civilization

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➢ The Babylonian civilization emerged near the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.
➢ Babylonia was a state in ancient Mesopotamia.
➢ The city of Babylon, whose ruins are in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years ago.
➢ Known for their engineering and architecture, one of their major contributions is the Hanging Gardens
of Babylon, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, made by King Nebuchadnezzar II for Queen
Amytis.

Inventions/contributions:
• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
✓ The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were the fabled gardens which beautified the capital of the Neo-
Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE).
✓ One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, they are the only wonder whose existence is
disputed amongst historians.
• The First Map
✓ An ancient Babylonian cartographer created the world’s first map on a clay tablet in 2300 BC.
✓ The map covers a small region of Babylonia during the Akkadian Empire.
✓ The Babylonian Map of the World is circular and depicts mountains, rivers, canals, and swamps.
✓ The seven small circles on the map represent the seven Babylonian cities.
• Astrology and Horoscopy
✓ In ancient Babylon, it was thought that the celestial bodies had divine powers which directed
people’s lives.
✓ Constellations were used to determine the weather, climate, and the seasons, and to help people
decide which crops should be sown.
✓ Ancient Babylonian astronomers closely studied the sun and the moon cycles in order to predict
this.
✓ The concept of the horoscope was introduced by the Babylonians as they believed in the divinity of
the celestial bodies.
✓ They mapped the position of astronomical bodies so that they could foretell their daily lives and
those of their kings.

3. Egyptian Civilization
➢ The Egyptian civilization is in North Africa. It was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world.
➢ The ancient Egyptians excelled at the sciences and had knowledge in various fields, from astronomy
to medicine to mathematics.
➢ Many of their most famous inventions were based upon the scientific principles they discovered.
➢ They had a variety of medicines and cures for both humans and animals, along with much knowledge
of anatomy.
➢ During the Stone Age, early doctors used very primitive forms of herbal medicine.
➢ Math and numbers were used to record business transactions, and the ancient Egyptians even
developed a decimal system.
➢ The ancient Egyptians are known for their massive constructions and outstanding architecture, such as
the Great Pyramid of Giza, which is one of the Seven Wonders of the World.
➢ The first truly triangular shaped pyramids are counted among the many ancient Egyptian inventions,
although it took them several tries to achieve an ideal model and the great pyramids that the ancient
Egyptians built required some knowledge of mathematics, especially of geometry.

Inventions/contributions:
• Paper or Papyrus
✓ Papyrus is the precursor of paper.
✓ It is made from the papyrus plant (Cyperus papyrus) that grew abundantly along Nile River in Egypt.
✓ They were able to process the plants to produce thin sheets on which one could write down things.
✓ They are thinner and lighter and less breakable than clay tablets, allowing record - keeping and

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communications advantages such as sending letters or correspondences anywhere in the world

and easier safekeeping from raiders who often destroyed records of the nations they invaded.
• Ink
✓ By combining soot with different chemicals to produce inks of different colors.
✓ It was used to record history, culture, and codified laws.
• Hieroglyphics
✓ It is a system of writing using symbols (logographic system), believed by Egyptians to be provided
to them by gods.
• Calendar
✓ The ancient Egyptian calendar was originally invented based on the 12-month lunar cycle.
✓ The Egyptians devised the solar calendar by recording the yearly reappearance of Sirius (the Dog
Star) in the eastern sky.
• Cosmetics
✓ These were used for both health and aesthetic reasons.
✓ Egyptians wore Kohl, eye cosmetic created by mixing soot or malachite with mineral galena to cure
diseases.
✓ Egyptians believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty was a
sign of holiness.
• Wigs
✓ They were worn for health and wellness rather than for aesthetic purposes.
✓ They were used to protect the shaved heads of the wealthy Egyptians from the harmful rays from
the sun.
• Simple Machines
✓ The ramp and the lever were a couple of the most famous construction inventions that the ancient
Egyptians developed.
✓ The principles that guide them are still widely used in construction today.
• Water clock/Clepsydra
✓ Ancient Egyptians were also one of the first groups of people to divide days into equal parts
by timekeeping devices.
✓ To tell the time, Egyptians invented two types of clocks, obelisks and water clocks or clepsydra
(utilizes gravity that affects the flow of water from one vessel to the other. The amount of water
remaining in the device determines how much time has elapsed since it is full.)
• Shadoof
✓ It is a hand-operated device used for lifting water for the purpose of irrigating land.

4. Greek Civilization
➢ Greece is an archipelago in the southern part of Europe. It is known as the birthplace of western
philosophy.
➢ The Greeks made major contributions in mathematics like ideas about basic geometry and the concept
of mathematical proof from ancient Greek mathematicians.
➢ In science they made some of the first astronomical models trying to describe the planetary movement-
the earth axis, and the heliocentric system- a model that places the sun at the center of the solar system.
➢ In our modern society, geometry plays a vital role in the construction process itself. It helps us decide
what material and design to use.
➢ Geometry is used in mapping and mapping is an essential element in professions such as surveying,
navigation, and astronomy.
➢ Their heliocentric model helps us understand the world outside our planet, furthermore their discoveries
many scientists have discovered more than one galaxy.

Inventions/contributions:
• Alarm Clock
✓ They made use of water or small stones or sand that dropped into drums which sounded the alarm.

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✓ Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm to signal the start of his lecture.
• Water Mill
✓ It was commonly used in agricultural processes like milling of grains which was a necessary form
of food processing.
✓ Milling was made possible by the use of watermills; the mass production of rice, cereals, flours
became common.
✓ They were better than mills powered by farm animals because they required less effort and time to
operate since the farmer did not have time to raise the animals.
• Antikythera Mechanism
✓ Retrieved from Antikythera, Greece.
✓ It is like a mantel clock, with a round face and rotating hands.
✓ The movement of knobs allowed it to display celestial time.
✓ It is believed that it was used to predict astronomical positions and eclipses.
✓ It is believed to be the antecedent of the modern clockwork.

5. Roman Civilization
➢ The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west and was
considered the cradle of politics and governance.
➢ The Romans were extremely adept engineers. They understood the laws of physics well enough to
develop aqueducts and better ways to aid water flow.
➢ They harnessed water as energy for powering mines and mills and they also built an expansive road
network, a great achievement at the time.

Inventions/contributions:
• Aeolipile
✓ Also known as the Hero's engine, named after Hero of Alexandria, who demonstrated it.
✓ It is the precursor of the steam engine.
✓ It is a steam-powered turbine which spun when the water container it has is heated.
• Newspaper
✓ First called gazettes.
✓ They were made before the invention of paper.
✓ They were engraved in metal or stone tablets and then publicly displayed.
• Bound books or Codex
✓ According to sources, Julius Cesar started the tradition of stacking up papyrus to form pages of a
book.
✓ They were able to provide covers to protect the papyrus.
✓ Earlier covers were made of wax but were later replaced by animal skin, which made them stronger
and long-lasting.
• Roman Architecture
✓ This was considered a continuation of Greek architecture.
✓ Probably the biggest innovation that Roman architecture brought with it was the widespread use of
concrete.
✓ Roman architects realized that concrete was not only stronger than commonly used marble, but it
could also be decorated easily and could have various shapes sculpted onto it, as opposed to
having to be carved out of it.
✓ They were able to implement major projects such as large churches (basilicas, aqueducts,
cathedrals, coliseums, amphitheaters etc.)
• Roman Numerals
✓ Romans devised their own number system specifically to address the need for standard counting
method.
• Surgical Tools
✓ Romans pioneered precision instruments that gave birth to many modern-day surgical tools.

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✓ They were intrigued to know that such tools could also become helpful to soldiers who have been
injured in battles there and then.
✓ Roman armies had medics who were in use for any complications in the battlefield.
✓ Their prowess in the medical field doesn’t just end there, as they have also devised procedures that
can considerably reduce blood loss and even aesthetical administrations.
• War Weapons
✓ They had weapons like the ballista (catapult) and the scorpion (long range crossbow), which were
brilliantly engineered to bring down the toughest of enemies.
✓ They re-engineered the ballista and made a cost-effective version of it called the Onager that was
cheaper to make but deadly as its predecessor.

6. Mayan Civilization
➢ Two thousand years ago, the ancient Maya developed one of the most advanced civilizations in the
Americas. They developed a written language of hieroglyphs and invented the mathematical concept
of zero. With their expertise in astronomy and mathematics, the Maya developed a complex and
accurate calendar system.
➢ The Mayan civilization included southeastern Mexico and northern Central America.

Inventions/contributions:
• Crop Farming – Irrigation and Drainage.
• Hunting Equipment. The Maya did not have domesticated animals, like pigs, sheep and any others.
• Weaving – Ropes, Baskets etc.
• Cotton Spinning and Weaving - Clothing.
• Pottery.
• Trade.
• Writing – Hieroglyphs and Codices.
• Number System.
• Medicine
• Astronomy and Calendars
• Musical instruments

7. Inca Civilization
➢ A Mesoamerican civilization, it included modern-day Peru, followed by a large portion of western South
America.
➢ The Inca Empire, called Tawantinsuyu by its subjects, was the largest empire in pre-Columbian
America.
➢ The Inca built a variety of bridges including suspension bridges and pontoon bridges.
➢ One of the main forms of medicine used by the Inca was the coca leaf.
➢ The Inca developed aqueducts to bring fresh water into town.
➢ The basic unit of distance used by the Inca was one pace or a "thatki".

Inventions/contributions:
• stone-paved roads
• stone buildings strong against disasters
• irrigation system
• 12-month calendar for religious and agricultural purposes
• first suspension bridge
• quipu, system of knotted ropes to keep records
• textiles

8. Aztec Civilization

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➢ A Mesoamerican civilization located in central Mexico.

➢ Two thousand years ago, the ancient Maya developed one of the most advanced civilizations in the
Americas.
➢ They developed a written language of hieroglyphs and invented the mathematical concept of zero.
➢ With their expertise in astronomy and mathematics, the Maya developed a complex and accurate
calendar system.
➢ Aztecs used math to measure distances, lengths, and land area.
➢ Their technological advances focused on practical use, such as farming and building.
➢ The Aztecs used obsidian and copper tools to build, carve, and sculpt using stone and wood.

Inventions/contributions:
• Anti-spasmodic Medication-Passionflower
✓ The Ancient Aztecs practiced advanced medicine, using herbs and flowers to meet the wide range
of medical needs necessary to care for the Aztec citizens.
• Chinampa
✓ Sometimes referred to as "floating gardens “.
✓ Chinampas are artificial islands that were created by interweaving reeds with stakes beneath the
lake's surface, creating underwater fences.
• Calendra system
✓ Like the Mayan calendar, the Aztec calendar consisted of a ritual cycle of 260 days and a 365-day
civil cycle.
✓ The ritual cycle, or tonalpohualli, contained two smaller cycles, an ordered sequence of 20 named
days and a sequence of days numbered from 1 to 13.)
• Canoe
✓ A dugout canoe was very useful for navigating the canals and lake surrounding Tenochtitlan.
✓ These canoes were made from hollowed-out logs burned by fire.
✓ Aztec carpenters also made a flat-bottomed boat similar to a raft, consisting of planks of wood tied
together with tight fibers

9. Chinese Civilization
➢ Considered the oldest civilization in Asia.
➢ It was known as the Middle Kingdom and located in the far east of Asia.
➢ Among the earliest inventions were the abacus, the sundial, and the Kongming lantern.
➢ The Four Great Inventions, the compass, gunpowder, papermaking, and printing – were among the
most important technological advances, only known to Europe by the end of the Middle Ages 1000
years later.

Inventions/contributions:
• Paper Money
✓ Paper was invented by the Chinese as well as many interesting uses for paper like paper money
and playing cards.
✓ The first paper was invented in the 2nd century BC and the manufacture later perfected around 105
AD.
✓ Paper money was an offshoot of the invention of block printing, this replaced the use of jewels and
precious stones as currency.
• Printing
✓ Wood block printing was invented in AD 868 and then moveable type around 200 years later.
✓ This was hundreds of years before the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in
Europe.
• Silk
✓ The Chinese were the ones who developed the technology to harvest the silk and process it to
produce paper and clothing.

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• Wheelbarrow
✓ In the time of the Han Dynasty, the wheelbarrow was an amazing invention that changed the lives
of many farmers.
✓ In 231 A.D, Zhuge Liang of Shu Han in China created a single wheel cart for an efficient way of
transporting food and supplies to the front lines of battle.
✓ Han Dynasty farmers could now push their heavy loads in the wheelbarrow instead of having to
carry them on their backs, or in buckets attached to a pole on their shoulders.
• Compass
✓ The Chinese invented the magnetic compass to help determine the correct direction.
✓ They used this in city planning at first, but it became very important to map makers and for the
navigation of ships.
• Great Wall of China
✓ The largest and most extensive infrastructure that the nation built.
✓ It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the borders of China and it was made
with stone, brick, wood, earth and other materials.
• Gun Powder
✓ Known as huoyao ("fire potion").
✓ It was developed originally by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality.
✓ They mixed charcoal, sulfur and potassium nitrate but instead of creating an elixir of life they
accidentally invented a black powder that could actually generate large amounts of heat and gas in
an instant.
✓ Gun powder is widely used to propel bullets from guns and cannons which cause countless deaths.

10. Indian Civilization

➢ Indus civilization, also called Indus valley civilization or Harappan civilization.
➢ The earliest known urban culture of the Indian subcontinent.
➢ The nuclear dates of the civilization appear to be about 2500–1700 BCE, though the southern sites
may have lasted later into the 2nd millennium BCE.

Inventions/contributions:
• Metallurgical works especially Iron
✓ The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BCE and
continued well into the British Raj.
• Medicine – exemplified by AYURVEDA
✓ Exemplified by Ayurveda, who developed a system of traditional medicine still practiced today, and
the text Susruta Samhita, which described medical procedures.
✓ Ayurveda or Ayurvedic medicine is a system of traditional medicine native to India, which uses a
range of treatments, including panchakarma ('five actions'), yoga, massage, acupuncture and
herbal medicine, to encourage health and wellbeing.
• Astronomy
✓ Theories on the configuration of the universe, spherical Earth, 360-day year with 12 months, and
the text SIddhanta Shiromani, which contained astronomical topics
• Mohenjo-Daro Ruler
✓ The Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm), and these
are marked out in decimal subdivisions with incredible accuracy, to within 0.005 inches (0.13 mm).
✓ Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.
• Aryabhata
✓ Aryabhata or Aryabhata I was an Indian mathematician and astronomer of the classical age of
Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy.
✓ Aryabhata became famous as a mathematician and astronomer. In his only surviving work, Arya
Bhatiya, he covered a wide range of topics, such as extracting square roots, solving quadratic
equations, and predicting eclipses.

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• Brahmagupta
✓ Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer.
✓ He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta,
a theoretical treatise, and the Khaṇḍakhādyaka, a more practical text.
✓ Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero.
o Brahmagupta, used zero in mathematical operations like addition and subtraction. Aryabhata
introduced zero in 5th century and Brahmagupta introduced zero in calculations in around 628
BC. Therefore, it can be said that Aryabhata invented zero.
• Madhava
✓ Iriññāttappiḷḷi Mādhavan Nampūtiri known as Mādhava of Sangamagrāma was an Indian
mathematician and astronomer from the town believed to be present-day Kallettumkara, Aloor
Panchayath, Irinjalakuda in Thrissur District, Kerala, India.
✓ Madhava made pioneering contributions to the study of infinite series, calculus, trigonometry,
geometry, and algebra.

11. Middle east Civilization

➢ The earliest civilizations in history were established in the region now known as the Middle East around
3500 BC by the Sumerians, in Mesopotamia (Iraq), widely regarded as the cradle of civilization.
➢ Among some of the the technologic inventions attributed to Arab scientists and engineers are the
parachute, hang-glider, eye glasses, artificial wings, soft drinks, fine glass, modern soap, shampoo,
kerosene, mechanical clocks, and programmable humanoid robot.

Inventions/contributions:
• Al-Khwarizmi
✓ Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī, or al-Khwarizmi was a Persian polymath from Khwarazm, who
produced vastly influential works in mathematics, astronomy, and geography.
✓ Al-Khwārizmī is famous for his mathematical works, which introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals and
algebra to European mathematicians.
✓ In fact, the words algorithm and algebra come from his name and the title of one of his works,
respectively.
✓ He is known as the “father of algebra”, a word derived from the title of his book, Kitab al-Jabr.
• Refinement of the numeral system of Indians and introduction of decimal point notation
✓ The Hindu-Arabic or Indo-Arabic numerals were invented by mathematicians in India.
✓ Persian and Arabic mathematicians called them "Hindu numerals".
✓ Later they came to be called "Arabic numerals" in Europe because they were introduced to the
West by Arab merchants.
• Founding of chemistry (where some consider Jabir ibn Hayyan to be the Father of Chemistry)
✓ Abu Musa Jabir Ibn Hayyan Al-Azdi, sometimes called al-Harrani and al-Sufi, is considered the
father of Arab chemistry and one of the founders of modern pharmacy.
✓ He systematized a “quantitative” analysis of substances and was the inspiration for Geber, a Latin
alchemist who developed an important corpuscular theory of matter.
• Experimental medicine and clinical trials, contagious nature of infectious disease, and clinical
pharmacology (from Ibn Sina)
✓ Ibn Sina recognized the contagious nature of tuberculosis.
✓ Ibn-Sina introduced very advanced drug designing based on drug delivery, targeting the organ,
deposition in the site of action, pain control, wound healing, clearance after action, and supporting
the organ.

12. African Civilization

➢ Some of the earliest inventions and African technology include hand axes, fishing hooks, bows and
arrows, and even boats. Many of the African inventions in history pre-date the use of the written word
by tens of thousands of years.

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➢ Like the emergence of other civilizations, African kingdoms used their natural resources to maximize
commerce and industry, leading to centralized government, social stratification, job specialization and
the creation of notable cities and architectural wonders.

Inventions/contributions:
• Calendars
✓ The Zulu calendar is the traditional lunar calendar used by the Zulu people of South Africa.
✓ Its new year begins at the new moon of uMandulo(September) in the Gregorian calendar.
✓ The Zulu calendar is divided into two seasons, the summer iHlobo and Winter ubuSika.
• Metallurgy
✓ Some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BCE.
• Lebombo Bone
✓ The Lebombo bone is the oldest known mathematical artifact.
✓ It is a tally stick with 29 distinct notches that were deliberately cut into a baboon's fibula.
✓ It was discovered within the Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains of Eswatini.
✓ The Lebombo bone resembles a calendar stick still used in Namibia.

MIDDLE AGES

The Middle Ages, which occurred between the collapse of the Roman Empire in 5th century AD and the
colonial expansion of Western Europe in late 15th century AD, was an age which started with wars, migrations,
and population rise and fall. These events led to new technologies needed in the fields of weaponry,
transportation and navigation, mass food and farm production, and health. This is also the period of the
emergence of scientific thinking and scientific methods. Because of this, many of our technologies can be traced
back to this period.

Inventions/contributions:
• The Heavy Plow
✓ This allowed tilling of clay soil, which was more fertile but very heavy.
✓ The invention of the heavy plough made it possible to harness areas with clay soil, and clay soil
was more fertile than the lighter soil types.
• Gun Powder
✓ Gunpowder makers in the 14th and 15th centuries used black powder brought to Europe from
China.
✓ Then mixed its three ingredients together one by one: saltpeter (also known as potassium nitrate),
charcoal, and sulfur.
✓ Their explosive invention would become the basis for almost every weapon used in war from that
point on, from fiery arrows to rifles, cannons and grenades.
✓ Gunpowder made warfare all over the world very different, affecting the way battles were fought
and borders were drawn throughout the Middle Ages.
• Paper Money
✓ First paper money was introduced in medieval China in the late 10th century during the rule of the
Song dynasty (960-1279).
✓ During the Song Dynasty, the shortage of metal coins and the practical difficulties in using bronze
coins led to the development of « paper money ».
✓ It took on a major role in domestic transactions, gold and silver being used for international
transactions.
• Mechanical Clock
✓ The mechanical clock, which derived from water clock, was born in medieval Europe.
✓ The first mechanical clocks were large devices made of iron.
✓ By the fourteenth century, they were in widespread use across Europe.
✓ Mechanical clocks enabled people to measure time in ways that were not possible before.

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✓ Before the invention of the mechanical clock, there was no possibility for a precise measurement
of time.
✓ The development of mechanical clock is the antecedent of modern clockwork and changed the way
on work patterns.
• Spinning Wheel
✓ Spinning wheel, early machine for turning fiber into thread or yarn, which was then woven into cloth
on a loom.
✓ The spinning wheel was probably invented in India, though its origins are obscure.
✓ This ushered in the breakthrough in linen technology.
• Printing Press
✓ Medieval presses used a handle to turn a wooden screw that moved the platen on which the paper
was mounted; the platen squeezed the paper against the type, which was locked in place in a
frame, or form.
✓ Metal presses, developed late in the 18th century, used steam to drive a cylinder press.
✓ Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, it was a more reliable way of printing using a cast type.
✓ It was the precursor of the mechanical printing press which was eventually used all over the world.
✓ It was used to address the need for publishing books that would spread information to many people
at a faster rate.
• War Weapons
✓ For open area battles, people developed cross bows and long bows so that they could attack the
enemies at long ranges, keeping themselves safe with the protection of walls and fortresses.
✓ In close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers should wear something to protect themselves, a need
addressed by the creation of iron body armor.
✓ Weapons were the spear, sword, ax, and the bow and arrow.
✓ The sword places first on our list of the most important weapons in the Middle Ages, not just
because it was so widely used in this period, but because so many medieval cultures viewed it as
a symbol of military strength and power.

MODERN AGES

According to Quinto, et al (2019), the Modern Ages was marked with a steady increase in population that
emphasizes the “importance of increasing the efficiency of transportation, communication, and production”.
During the Modern ages, more complicated problems were created that needed more solutions and greater
risks for many aspects of human life needed to be addressed.

Inventions/contributions:
• Telescope
✓ Invented by Galileo Galilei.
✓ A telescope is a tool that astronomers use to see faraway objects.
• Microscope
✓ As far back as the 11th century, plano-convex lenses made of polished beryl were used in the Arab
world as reading stones to magnify manuscripts.
✓ However, the further development of these lenses into the first microscopes cannot be attributed to
any one person.
✓ It took the ideas and designs of many scientists and scholars to produce instruments capable of
strong magnification.
✓ Two Dutch spectacle-makers and father-and-son team, Hans and Zacharias Janssen created the
first microscope in 1590.
• Pasteurization
✓ Invented by Louis Pasteur.
✓ Pasteurization kills microbes and prevents spoilage in beer, milk, and other goods.

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✓ In his work with silkworms, Pasteur developed practices that are still used today for preventing
disease in silkworm eggs.
✓ Using his germ theory of disease, he also developed vaccines for chicken cholera, anthrax, and
rabies.
• Petroleum Refinery
✓ An oil refinery or petroleum refinery is an industrial process plant where petroleum (crude oil) is
transformed and refined into useful products such as gasoline (petrol), diesel fuel, asphalt base,
fuel oils, heating oil, kerosene, liquefied petroleum gas and petroleum naphtha.
✓ Modern times demanded better means of powering homes and transportation.
✓ Samuel M. Kier, by refining petroleum, invented kerosene, which was used at first to provide lighting
in homes (which led to it being named illuminating oil) and then was used for heating purposes.
• Telephone
✓ On February 14, 1876, Alexander Graham Bell applied for a U.S. patent for the telephone. On
March 7, 1876.
✓ The telephone came about because they were trying to improve the capabilities of the telegraph.
✓ After the telephone was invented, wealthy individuals and large corporations primarily used it as a
means of communication between specific locations.
• Calculator
✓ It is a machine for automatically performing arithmetical operations and certain mathematical
functions.
✓ It was invented to make easier way for arithmetic calculations.
✓ It resulted in the development of more complex processing machines like computer.
• Jacquard Loom
✓ Invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard.
✓ This handloom was used for weaving silk at Stonehouse in Lanarkshire in the 19th century.
✓ It has a Jacquard attachment which allows complex patterns to be woven.
✓ The punch cards used in the Jacquard mechanism laid the foundation for modern computer
programming.
• Engine-powered airplane
✓ Wilbur and Orville Wright spent four years of research and development to create the first
successful powered airplane, the 1903 Wright Flyer.
✓ It first flew at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903, with Orville at the controls.
✓ The airplane had meaning for everyone—from popular enthusiasm for the pilots and their aerial
exhibitions, to the commercial and military potential of aviation, to the broad cultural implications of
flight, to the artistic expression it inspired.
✓ The airplane is without a doubt the most influential invention of the 20th century, simply because it
shrunk the world.
• Television
✓ John Logie Baird FRSE was a Scottish inventor, electrical engineer, and innovator who
demonstrated the world's first live working television system on 26 January 1926.
✓ He went on to invent the first publicly demonstrated color television system and the first viable
purely electronic color television picture tube.
✓ The television televised outlines of objects (1924), recognizable human faces (1925), moving
objects (1926), and colored images (1928).
✓ Television contributes to our education and knowledge.

IN THE PHILIPPINES

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD
• Modern men arose on the Asian peninsula approximately 50 000 years ago, and they used stone tools
and weapons until around 40 000 years ago.

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• The colonization of the Philippines fostered the growth of science and technology in the archipelago.
Indigenous science covers a wide range of information, skills, practices, and representations drawn
from traditional knowledge and practices that govern human cultures in their interactions with nature.
• Filipino communities are already thriving and interacting with other cultures such as the Chinese,
Indonesians, and Japanese.
• Seamanship became highly developed because of the trade between other countries for porcelain,
glass beads, metal products, cotton, pearl, and nuts.
• These trades also influenced technology development in the Philippines.
• Early Filipinos also have their own system of writing, though literary tradition is still mainly oral.
• Systems of weighing, measuring of time were also present in early Filipino society.
• There exist systems of farming and animal-raising both for food production and helping in daily tasks.
• There were irrigation systems.
• They predicted weather conditions and seasons through animal behavior and celestial bodies.
• Early Filipinos classified plants and animals based on their properties.
• They prepared seeds for planting and classified g soils according to their properties and grew plants in
yards.
• In terms of health and medicine, early Filipinos have been using certain plants for their medical
properties in treating ailments and healing injuries.
• The Banaue Rice Terraces illustrate a persistence of cultural traditions and remarkable continuity and
endurance, since archaeological evidence reveals that this technique has been in use in the region for
2000 years virtually unchanged. They offer many lessons for application in similar environments
elsewhere.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

COLONIAL PERIOD

The Philippines' colonization aided the development of science and technology in the archipelago.

Spanish Colonial Period

• The Spanish colonial period is widely regarded as the beginning of modern science and technology in
the Philippines.
• During this time, Spanish colonizers changed the structure of Filipino society.
• They used reduccion to combine scattered communities into larger and fewer communities within
hearing distance of church bells.
• They established towns, making tax collection, forced labor, and economic activities easier to carry out.
• Schools were established which were primarily managed by priests and missionaries and religious
education was given focus.
• The establishment of schools introduced concepts in science and technology, which began formal
science and technology education.
• The human body, plants, animals, and celestial bodies were all highlighted in early science education.
• Early technology education focused on the use and development of everyday tools.
• Higher education was centered in cities such as Manila.
• Only a selected few have access to these institutions, such as Spaniards, mestizos, and a few select
Filipinos.
• Physics, chemistry, natural history, and mathematics are examples of science subjects for Bachelor of
Arts degrees.
• Vocational education was introduced by the latter part of 19th century.
• Engineering schools, nautical schools, and agricultural schools were few.
• In 1863, the government-initiated reforms in education where basic education and higher education will
be supervised by the government but this was not fully implemented.
• Overall, public education was not very progressive.

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• The opening of the Suez Canal allowed liberal ideas to spread from Europe to the Philippines.
• The shipbuilding industry advanced because of the Galleon trade.
• Industries such as embroidery, tobacco, and weaving flourished after the Philippines opened to foreign
trade.
• Trade and commerce also resulted in the development of public amenities like transportation, lighting,
banking, and information services.
• The colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern building
materials such as bricks and tiles.
• Churches, hospitals, and other public buildings were built.
• Hospitals became centers for research work, especially in terms of the causes and treatments of
infectious diseases, such as malaria, cholera, and leprosy.
• Herbal medicines were researched and catalogued.
• Sanitation was also given importance for public health purposes
• Laboratorio Municipal Ciudad de Manila was created in 1887 for public health concerns and medical
analysis.
• Meteorological studies were promoted by the Jesuits, who founded the Manila Observatory.
• Even though the Spaniards colonized the Philippines for over 300 years, science and technology did
not develop to their full potential due to superstitions and Catholic doctrines, as well as poor government
administration in Spain.

Filipino Scientists who contributed during the Spanish colonial period:

1. Fr. Ignacio Mercado
➢ Filipino botanist who catalogued over 200 plants in the country at that time. Born in Manila in 1648
to a Spanish father and a Filipino mother.
2. Dr. Trinidad Pardo de Tavera
➢ He was recognized as the first Filipino to publish a medical article in a professional journal, as he
wrote down La medicine a l'Ile de Luzon, Archipel des Philippine.
➢ He observed Pott's disease
➢ He was the one who recommended the establishment of the first Government medical school in
the country.
➢ Together with other doctors, he organized the Philippine Pharmaceutical-Medical School approved
in 1905, of which he was the first president.
3. Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero
➢ His penchant for botany allowed him to discover herbal cures for several ailments of Filipinos then.
➢ He was the first Filipino to become a full member of the American Pharmaceutical Association and
Chairman of the Pharmacy Board of Examiners during the American occupation.
4. Anacleto del Rosario
➢ He was a leading chemist in the Philippines during the Spanish era in Philippine history.
➢ Regarded as the "Father of Philippine Science and Laboratory".
➢ Del Rosario invented the formula for producing a pure kind of alcohol from tuba in a nipa palm. This
formula won for del Rosario the first prize during the World Fair in Paris, France in 1889.
➢ Del Rosario extracted castor oil from the palma christi, literally the "palm of Christ" (castor bean), a
native plant in the Philippines.
5. Dr. Manuel Guerrero
➢ He was a Filipino medical doctor who studied beriberi in infants in the Philippines.
6. Dr. Jose Montes
➢ Medicine Scholar
➢ He was board certified in psychiatry and treats patients 18 years of age and older.
➢ Dr. Montes enjoys spending time with his family and friends and watching.

American Colonial Period and the Commonwealth Period

• In 1901, the Americans established the public education system and established the Department of

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Public Instruction.
• By 1905, the Bureau of Science was established to foster the advancement of science and technology.
• Between 1942 and 1945, the Japanese government occupied the Philippines, effectively halting
scientific and technological development.
• The goal is to prepare the entire country and its people to meet the demands of a technologically driven
world.

BRIEF HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES:

POST-COLONIAL PERIOD
• The number of students studying physical sciences, engineering, medicine, and agriculture in the
Philippines is insufficient to meet the country's needs.
• Despite limited resources, the country concentrated on improving science and technology. By 1957,
the Science Act of 1958 was passed, but government support for science remained insufficient.

During the Marcos administration:

▪ In terms of science education, the Marcos regime encouraged the Department of Education and Culture
to promote science education.
▪ The Mindanao and Visayas campuses of the Philippine Science high schools were established and
salaries of both teachers and administrators were increased.
▪ During his term, many agencies were established such as:
➢ Philippine Textile Research Institute
➢ Plant Breeding Institute
➢ International Rice Research Institute
➢ Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (now the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic,
and Natural Resources Research and Development)
➢ During his term, many agencies were established such as:
➢ Philippine Textile Research Institute
➢ National Grains Authority (now the National Food Authority
➢ Plant Breeding Institute
➢ International Rice Research Institute
➢ Philippine Council for Agricultural Research (now the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic,
and Natural Resources Research and Development)

During Corazon Aquino's administration:

• She replaced NSTA to DOST
• She a created the Presidential Task Force for Science and Technology which came up with the first
Science and Technology Master Plan or STMP.
• The goal of STMP was for the Philippines to achieve newly industrialized country status by the year
2000.
• It was during her term that Executive Order No.128 was signed, which reorganized the National Science
and Technology Authority.

During Fidel Ramos’ administration:

• The number of science and technology personnel increased, more Philippine High Schools were
established (in Visayas and Mindanao), and health care services were given importance through
programs such as "Doctors to the Barrio Program."
• His administration also established:
➢ The Magna Carta for Science and Technology Personnel (Republic Act No. 8439),
➢ Science and Technology Scholarship Law of 1994 (Republic Act No. 7687),
➢ Inventors and Inventions Incentives Act (Republic Act No. 7459),
➢ The Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines (Republic Act No. 8293), and
➢ The Science and Technology Agenda for National Development (STAND)

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During Joseph Estrada’s administration:

• The legislation of Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999 (Republic Act No. 8749) and Electronic Commerce
Act of 2000 (Republic Act No. 8792) were made.
• He also has a full-scale program for cost-effective irrigation technologies and programs for social and
social services for those in need.
• The number of science and technology professionals grew, additional Philippine High Schools were
built, and health care services were prioritized.

During Gloria Macapagal Arroyo's administration:

• Projects for the environment and science and technology (like the “Biofuels” act) was given focus to
increase economic level.
• "Filipinnovation" was also coined to help the Philippines to be an innovation hub in Asia.
• The STI (Science, Technology and Innovation) was developed further by strengthening the schools
and education system such as the Philippine Science High School (PSHS).

During Benigno Aquino III's administration:

• He conferred four new National Scientist for their contribution in the scientific field.
➢ Dr. Gavino Trono, Ph.D. for marine biology,
➢ Dr. Angel Alcala, Ph.D. for biological science,
➢ Dr. Ramon Barba, Ph.D. for horticulture, and
➢ Dr. Edgardo Gomez, Ph.D. also for marine biology.
• He intensified the access to quality health care such as:
➢ the continuous upgrading of government health facilities; the systematic deployment of health
professionals to far-flung areas; a comprehensive program,
➢ providing free vaccination to children has been established; numerous policies to improve
financial protection in health care costs have been adopted, and universal health insurance
coverage in the Philippines.
• He approved Republic Act (RA) 10533, signing into law the K+12 program on May 15, 2013.
• During the signing ceremony, President Aquino stated that the K+12 program that “this law will empower
the next generation of Filipinos”.
• Teach for the Philippines shares that vision as we leave our mark on our country through our goal of
achieving educational equity.

During Rodrigo Duterte’s administration:

• The Philippine Development Plan (PDP) 2017-2022 is a massive undertaking aimed at improving the
country's infrastructure, increasing energy access, lowering citizen costs, maintaining economic growth,
and adhering to global climate change and sustainable growth agreements.
• On February 20th, 2017, the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Board and
President Rodrigo Duterte approved the plan.
• The pillars of the said program are
1. Malasakit: refers to the goal to regain people’s trust in public institutions and each other. These
strategies aim to promote awareness of anti-corruption measures, invigorate the public sector,
increase access to legal aid, and promoting culture sensitive governance.
2. Pagbabago: aimed at reducing inequality by increasing opportunities for growth and
transformation. The popularized term has been ‘inclusive growth’. Universal social protection, basic
education, and other social services will be improved upon while also raising the country’s status
in the global market for more opportunities.
3. Patuloy na Pag-unlad: focuses on economic growth. The Philippines have seen massive growth
in the past decade or so through their change from an agricultural economy to industry and
manufacturing focused powerhouse. The Philippines plan to focus on continued growth of their
technology, R&D, and innovation sectors.

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• In science and technology:

➢ On June 15, 2018, President Rodrigo R. Duterte institutionalized the program with RA 11035 "Balik
Scientist Act" also known as the Balik Scientist Act. Then after three (3) months, the DOST crafted
the implementing rules and regulations (IRR) and MC No. 006 of the Balik Scientist Law. The Balik
Scientist Program aims to:
1. Reverse the effect of the brain drain
2. Strengthen S & T capabilities
3. Accelerate flow of technologies
4. Promote knowledge sharing

• In agriculture:
➢ The Rice Tariffication Law (RTL) being enacted in 2019
➢ In 2019, Duterte authorized the Department of Agriculture to use tariff funds for cash assistance to
small farmers.
➢ The Sagip Saka Act was signed in 2019, promoting enterprise development for farmers and
fishermen to boost their incomes and strengthen the direct purchase of agricultural goods.

• In education:
➢ In August 2017, Duterte signed a landmark law granting free tuition at all state universities and
colleges (SUCs).
➢ He enacted laws which institutionalized the alternative learning system (ALS).
➢ He mandated free access to technical-vocational education.
➢ He granted inclusive education for disabled learners; accorded medical scholarships for deserving
students in higher education.
➢ He established a scholarship program for students on teacher-degree programs.

• Philippine Congress has also created laws that serve as legal framework for science and technology.
• Some other areas that the country is looking forwards related to science and technology include:
➢ Use of alternative and safe energy
➢ Harnessing mineral resources
➢ Finding cure for various diseases and illness
➢ Fighting climate change and global warming
➢ Increasing food production
➢ Preservation of natural resources
➢ Coping with natural disasters and calamities
➢ Infrastructure development

SUMMARY

The following learning points summarize what you have learned in this section:
• Science is a systematic and methodical activity of building and organizing knowledge about how the
universe behaves through observation, experimentation or both.

• Scientists assume that nature can be understood through systematic study, scientific ideas are open to
revision, sound scientific ideas withstand the test of time, and science cannot provide answers to all
questions.

• Technology involves the development and use of materials, tools, and approaches for solving human
problems and helping to fulfill human needs and desires.

• STS as an academic discipline is primarily concerned with how the different aspects of society shape
and influence the progression and further development of science and technology.

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• STS seeks to bridge the gap between humanities and natural sciences.

• The development of science and technology is affected by social contexts and social contexts affect
the developments in science and technology. By looking at the conditions present in a certain historical
period, we can discern the needs of humankind and these needs drive the development of science and
technology.

• Certain scientific and technological innovations are considered as historical antecedents; that is, they
are precursors of other scientific innovations. They provide solutions to existing problems and are
important foundations for the development of future products and processes.

• The Ancient Period, Middle Ages, and Modern Ages are three historical periods marked with differing
contexts and thus developed different types of technologies.

• Spain and the United States were instrumental in laying the groundwork for the country's scientific
basis. Science education is concerned with the development of individuals in science, which is at the
center of science, technology, and society.

• Numerous Filipinos have established careers as scientists and educators in a variety of scientific
disciplines over the years. These Filipino scientists produced inventions and advancements. The
Philippines' investment in science and technology initiatives and programs was motivated by the
demands of globalization, particularly the ASEAN economic agenda.

REFERENCES
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http://project2061.org
2. Bozeman Science. (2016, June 24). The Nature of Science [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkvjDZseD4k
3. Chapter 1: The Nature of Science. (n.d.). http://www.project2061.org/publications/sfaa/online/chap1.htm
4. Ihueze,C., Okpala, C., Okafor, E. & Okonkwo, U. (2015). Harnessing Science, Technology and Innovations (STI)
for Sustainable Industrial and Economic Development. p380. International Journal of Engineering and
Management Research. Vandana Publications. Retrieved from www.ijemr.net
5. Ruparanganda,F. (2016). An evaluation of the implementation of the Science-Technology and Society (STS)
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science: an encyclopedia. pp. 749-753. USA: Taylor and Francis Group. Retrieved from Zimbabwe. South
American Journal of Academic Research Special Edition. Retrieved from https://www.texilajournal.com/
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Francis Group. Retrieved from fitelson.org/probability/sarkar_philosophy_of_science_encyclopedia.pdf
7. Wakim, S. & Grewal, M. (2020). The Nature of Science. Retrieved from https://bio.libretexts.org/
8. Wolpert, L. (2005). The Medawar Lecture 1998 Is Science Dangerous? In Philosophical Transactions B.
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9. Anderson, P. (2001). More is Different—One More Time. In Ong, N. P. and Bhatt, R. N. Eds. More is Different:
Fifty Years of Condensed Matter Physics. (pp. 1-8). USA: Princeton University Press. Retrieved from:
https://www.tkm.kit.edu/downloads/TKM1_2011_more_is_different_PWA.pdf
10. IntroBooks Education. (2017, July 22). History of Technology - crash course [Video]. YouTube.
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11. Shuttleworth, M. (2008, April 15). Scientific Reductionism. Explorable.com. Retrieved from
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12. Takiya, Toshio. (2020). A History of Science and Technology for Industrialization: Technology Fusion of Orient
and Occident. Research Gate.net. Retrieved from:
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13. The Science Foundation. (2011, November 28).Stephen Colbert Interviews Neil deGrasse Tyson at Montclair
Kimberley Academy-January 29th 2010. Video file. Retrieved from
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