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Data Structure and Algorithms
Using C++
Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener (martin@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Phillip Carmical (pcarmical@scrivenerpublishing.com)
Data Structure
and Algorithms Using C++
A Practical Implementation
Edited by
Sachi Nandan Mohanty
ICFAI Foundation For Higher Education, Hyderabad, India
and
Pabitra Kumar Tripathy
Kalam Institute of Technology, Berhampur, India
This edition first published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
© 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 978-1-119-75054-3
Cover image: Pixabay.Com

Cover design by Russell Richardson
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface xi
1 Introduction to Data Structure 1
1.1 Definition and Use of Data Structure 1
1.2 Types of Data Structure 2
1.3 Algorithm 3
1.4 Complexity of an Algorithm 6
1.5 Efficiency of an Algorithm 7
1.6 Asymptotic Notations 8
1.7 How to Determine Complexities 9
1.8 Questions 13
2 Review of Concepts of ‘C++’ 15
2.1 Array 15
2.1.1 One-Dimensional Array 16
2.1.2 Multi-Dimensional Array 17
2.1.3 String Handling 20
2.2 Function 26
2.2.1 User Defined Functions 26
2.2.2 Construction of a Function 27
2.2.3 Actual Argument and Formal Argument 31
2.2.4 Call by Value and Call by Reference 32
2.2.5 Default Values for Parameters 34
2.2.6 Storage Class Specifiers 35
2.3 Pointer 37
2.3.1 Declaration of a Pointer 37
2.3.2 Initialization of a Pointer 37
2.3.3 Arithmetic With Pointer 38
2.3.4 Passing of a Pointer to Function 39
2.3.5 Returning of a Pointer by Function 40
2.3.6 C++ Null Pointer 41
v
vi Contents
2.4 Structure 42
2.4.1 The typedef Keyword 46
2.5 Questions 47
3 Sparse Matrix 49
3.1 What is Sparse Matrix 49
3.2 Sparse Matrix Representations 49
3.3 Algorithm to Represent the Sparse Matrix 51
3.4 Programs Related to Sparse Matrix 52
3.5 Why to Use Sparse Matrix Instead of Simple Matrix? 56
3.6 Drawbacks of Sparse Matrix 57
3.7 Sparse Matrix and Machine Learning 57
3.8 Questions 58
4 Concepts of Class 59
4.1 Introduction to CLASS 59
4.2 Access Specifiers in C++ 60
4.3 Declaration of Class 60
4.4 Some Manipulator Used In C++ 62
4.5 Defining the Member Functions Outside of the Class 64
4.6 Array of Objects 64
4.7 Pointer to Object 66
4.8 Inline Member Function 67
4.9 Friend Function 69
4.9.1 Simple Friend Function 69
4.9.2 Friend With Inline Substitution 70
4.9.3 Granting Friendship to Another Class
(Friend Class) 71
4.9.4 More Than One Class Having the Same
Friend Function 73
4.10 Static Data Member and Member Functions 75
4.11 Constructor and Destructor 78
4.11.1 Constructor 78
4.11.1.1 Empty Constructor 79
4.11.1.2 Default Constructor 79
4.11.1.3 Parameterized Constructors 80
4.11.1.4 Copy Constructor 81
4.11.2 Destructor 83
4.12 Dynamic Memory Allocation 84
4.13 This Pointer 86
4.14 Class Within Class 87
4.15 Questions 89
Contents vii
5 Stack 91
5.1 STACK 91
5.2 Operations Performed With STACK 91
5.3 ALGORITHMS 93
5.4 Applications of STACK 96
5.5 Programming Implementations of STACK 106
5.6 Questions 126
6 Queue 129
6.1 Queue 129
6.2 Types of Queue 129
6.3 Linear Queue 129
6.4 Circular Queue 134
6.5 Double Ended Queue 138
6.6 Priority Queue 139
6.7 Programs 142
6.8 Questions 165
7 Linked List 167
7.1 Why Use Linked List? 167
7.2 Types of Link List 167
7.3 Single Link List 168
7.4 Programs Related to Single Linked List 177
7.4.1 /* Creation of a Linked List */ 177
7.4.2 /* Insert a Node Into a Simple Linked List at
the Beginning */ 178
7.4.3 /* Insert a Node Into a Simple Linked List at
the End of the List */ 180
7.4.4 /* Insert a Node Into a Simple Linked List
When the Node Is Known */ 182
7.4.5 /* Insert a Node Into a Simple Linked List
Information Is Known and Put After Some
Specified Node */ 184
7.4.6 /* Deleting the First Node From a Simple
Linked List */ 187
7.4.7 /* Deleting the Last Node From a Simple
Linked List */ 189
7.4.8 /* Deleting a Node From a Simple Linked
List When Node Number Is Known */ 191
7.4.9 Deleting a Node From a Simple Linked List
When Information of a Node Is Given 193
viii Contents
7.4.10 /* SEARCH A NODE INTO A SIMPLE LINKED

LIST WITH INFORMATION IS KNOWN*/ 197
7.4.11 /* Sorting a Linked List in Ascending Order */ 199
7.4.12 /* Reversing a Linked List */ 202
7.4.13 Program for Student Data Using Linked List 203
7.5 Double Link List 210
7.6 Programs on Double Linked List 216
7.6.1 /* Creation of Double Linked List */ 216
7.6.2 /* Inserting First Node in the Doubly
Linked List */ 218
7.6.3 /*Inserting a Node in the Doubly Linked List
When Node Number Is Known*/ 220
7.6.4 /*Inserting a Node in the Doubly Linked List
When Information Is Known*/ 223
7.6.5 /* Delete First Node From a Double Linked List */ 226
7.6.6 /*Delete the Last Node From the Double
Linked List*/ 229
7.7 Header Linked List 231
7.7.1 /* Inserting a Node Into a Header Linked List */ 233
7.8 Circular Linked List 235
7.9 Application of Linked List 239
7.9.1 Addition of Two Polynomial 239
7.9.2 /* Polynomial With Help of Linked List */ 240
7.9.3 Program for Linked Queue 241
7.9.4 Program for Linked Stack 243
7.10 Garbage Collection and Compaction 245
7.11 Questions 247
8 TREE 249
8.1 Tree Terminologies 249
8.2 Binary Tree 251
8.3 Representation of Binary Tree 253
8.3.1 Array Representation of a Tree 253
8.3.2 Linked List Representation of a Tree 254
8.4 Operations Performed With the Binary Tree 254
8.4.1 /*Creation of a Tree*/ 255
8.5 Traversing With Tree 256
8.5.1 /* Binary Tree Traversal */ 259
8.6 Conversion of a Tree From Inorder and Preorder 262
Contents ix
8.7 Types of Binary Tree 265

8.8 Expression Tree 265
8.9 Binary Search Tree 268
8.10 Height Balanced Tree (AVL Tree) 272
8.11 Threaded Binary Tree 277
8.12 Heap Tree 279
8.13 Huffman Tree 282
8.14 Decision Tree 286
8.15 B-Tree 287
8.16 B + Tree 292
8.17 General Tree 293
8.18 Red–Black Tree 293
8.19 Questions 294
9 Graph 295
9.1 Graph Terminologies 295
9.2 Representation of Graph 301
9.3 Traversal of Graph 305
9.3.1 Breadth First Search (BFS) 305
9.3.2 Depth First Search 311
9.4 Spanning Tree 315
9.4.1 Kruskal Algorithm 315
9.4.2 Prim’s Algorithm 318
9.5 Single Source Shortest Path 322
9.5.1 Bellman–Ford Algorithm 323
9.5.2 Dijkstra’s Algorithm 327
9.6 All Pair Shortest Path 335
9.7 Topological Sorting 345
9.8 Questions 347
10 Searching and Sorting 349
10.1 Linear Search 349
10.2 Binary Search 351
10.3 Bubble Sort 355
10.4 Selection Sort 359
10.5 Insertion Sort 361
10.6 Merge Sort 363
10.7 Quick Sort 366
10.8 Radix Sort 369
10.9 Heap Sort 372
10.10 Questions 389
x Contents
11 Hashing 391
11.1 Hash Functions 391
11.2 Collisions 393
11.3 Collision Resolution Methods 393
11.4 Clustering 394
11.5 Questions 395
Index 397
Preface
Welcome to the first edition of Data Structures and Algorithms Using C++.
A data structure is the logical or mathematical arrangement of data in
memory. To be effective, data has to be organized in a manner that adds to
the efficiency of an algorithm and also describe the relationships between
these data items and the operations that can be performed on these items.
The choice of appropriate data structures and algorithms forms the funda-
mental step in the design of an efficient program. Thus, a deep understand-
ing of data structure concepts is essential for students who wish to work
on the design and implementation of system software written in C++, an
object-oriented programming language that has gained popularity in both
academia and industry. Therefore, this book was developed to provide
comprehensive and logical coverage of data structures like stacks, queues,
linked lists, trees and graphs, which makes it an excellent choice for learn-
ing data structures. The objective of the book is to introduce the concepts
of data structures and apply these concepts in real-life problem solving.
Most of the examples presented resulted from student interaction in the
classroom. This book utilizes a systematic approach wherein the design of
each of the data structures is followed by algorithms of different operations
that can be performed on them and the analysis of these algorithms in
terms of their running times.
This book was designed to serve as a textbook for undergraduate engi-
neering students across all disciplines and postgraduate level courses in
computer applications. Young researchers working on efficient data storage
and related applications will also find it to be a helpful reference source to
guide them in the newly established techniques of this rapidly growing
research field.
Dr. Sachi Nandan Mohanty and

Prof. Pabitra Kumar Tripathy
December 2020
xi
1
Introduction to Data Structure
1.1 Definition and Use of Data Structure

Data structure is the representation of the logical relationship existing
between individual elements of data. In other words the data structure is a
way of organizing all data items that considers not only the elements stored
but also their relationship to each other.
Data structure specifies
• Organization of data
• Accessing methods
• Degree of associativity
• Processing alternatives for information
The data structures are the building blocks of a program and hence the
selection of a particular data structure stresses on
• The data structures must be rich enough in structure to

reflect the relationship existing between the data, and
• The structure should be simple so that we can process data
effectively whenever required.
In mathematically Algorithm + Data Structure = Program

Finally we can also define the data structure as the “Logical and mathe-
matical model of a particular organization of data”
Sachi Nandan Mohanty and Pabitra Kumar Tripathy. Data Structure and Algorithms Using C++:
A Practical Implementation, (1–14) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
1
2 Data Structure and Algorithms Using C++
1.2 Types of Data Structure

Data structure can be broadly classified into two categories as Linear and
Non-Linear
DATA STRUCTURE
LINEAR NON LINEAR
ARRAY QUEUE STACK TREE GRAPH TABLES SETS
Linear Data Structures

In linear data structures, values are arranged in linear fashion. Arrays,
linked lists, stacks, and queues are the examples of linear data structures in
which values are stored in a sequence.
Non-Linear Data Structure

This type is opposite to linear. The data values in this structure are not
arranged in order. Tree, graph, table, and sets are the examples of non-
linear data structure.
Operations Performed in Data Structure

In data structure we can perform the operations like
• Traversing
• Insertion
• Deletion
• Merging
• Sorting
• Searching
Introduction to Data Structure 3
1.3 Algorithm
The step by step procedure to solve a problem is known as the ALGORITHM.
An algorithm is a well-organized, pre-arranged, and defined computational
module that receives some values or set of values as input and provides a
single or set of values as out put. These well-defined computational steps
are arranged in sequence, which processes the given input into output.
An algorithm is said to be accurate and truthful only when it provides
the exact wanted output.
The efficiency of an algorithm depends on the time and space complex-
ities. The complexity of an algorithm is the function which gives the run-
ning time and/or space in terms of the input size.
Steps Required to Develop an Algorithm

• Finding a method for solving a problem. Every step of an
algorithm should be defined in a precise and in a clear man-
ner. Pseudo code is also used to describe an algorithm.
• The next step is to validate the algorithm. This step includes
all the steps in our algorithm and should be done manually
by giving the required input, perform the required steps
including in our algorithm and should get the required
amount of output in a finite amount of time.
• Finally implement the algorithm in terms of programming
language.
Mathematical Notations and Functions

Floor and Ceiling Functions
Floor function returns the greatest integer that does not exceed
the number.
Ceiling function returns the least integer that is not less than
the number.
no denotes the floor function
no denotes the ceil function
Ex :
5.23 = 5 5.23 =6
Remainder Function
To find the remainder “mod” function is being used as
A mod B
To find the Integer and Absolute value of a number

INT(5.34) = 5 This statement returns the integer part of
the number
INT(- 6.45) = 6 This statement returns the absolute as well
as the integer portion of the number
Summation Symbol
To add a series of number as a1+ a2 + a3 +…………+ an the
symbol Σ is used
n
Σ ai
i=1
Factorial of a Number
The product of the positive integers from 1 to n is known as
the factorial of n and it is denoted as n!.
0! = 1
Algorithemic Notations
While writing the algorithm the comments are provided with in [ ].
The assignment should use the symbol “: =” instead of “=”
For Input use Read : variable name
For output use write : message/variable name
The control structures can also be allowed to use inside an algorithm but
their way of approaching will be some what different as
Simple If
If condition, then:
Statements
[end of if structure]
If…else
If condition, then:
Statements
Else :
Statements
If…else ladder
If condition1, then:
Statements
Else If condition2, then:
Statements
Else If condition3, then:
Statements
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
…………………………………………
Else If conditionN, then:
Statements
Else:
Statements
LOOPING CONSTRUCT
Repeat for var = start_value to end_value by
step_value
Statements
[end of loop]
Repeat while condition:

Statements
[end of loop]
Ex : repeat for I = 1 to 10 by 2
Write: i
[end of loop]
OUTPUT
1 3 5 7 9
1.4 Complexity of an Algorithm

The complexity of programs can be judged by criteria such as whether
it satisfies the original specification task, whether the code is readable.
These factors affect the computing time and storage requirement of the
program.
Space Complexity
The space complexity of a program is the amount of memory it needs to
run to completion. The space needed by a program is the sum of the fol-
lowing components:
• A fixed part that includes space for the code, space for sim-
ple variables and fixed size component variables, space for
constants, etc.
• A variable part that consists of the space needed by com-
ponent variables whose size is dependent on the particular
problem instance being solved, and the stack space used by
recursive procedures.
Time Complexity
The time complexity of a program is the amount of computer time it needs
to run to completion. The time complexity is of two types such as
• Compilation time
• Runtime
The amount of time taken by the compiler to compile an algorithm is

known as compilation time. During compilation time it does not calculate
for the executable statements, it calculates only the declaration statements
and checks for any syntax and semantic errors.
The run time depends on the size of an algorithm. If the number of
instructions in an algorithm is large, then the run time is also large, and if
the number of instructions in an algorithm is small, then the time for exe-
cuting the program is also small. The runtime is calculated for executable
statements and not for declaration statements.
Suppose space is fixed for one algorithm then only run time will be con-
sidered for obtaining the complexity of algorithm, these are
• Best case
• Worst case
• Average case
Best Case
Generally, most of the algorithms behave sometimes in best case. In this
case, algorithm searches the element for the first time by itself.
For example: In linear search, if it finds the element for the first time by
itself, then it behaves as the best case. Best case takes shortest time to exe-
cute, as it causes the algorithms to do the least amount of work.
Worst Case
In worst case, we find the element at the end or when searching of elements
fails. This could involve comparing the key to each list value for a total of
N comparisons.
For example in linear search suppose the element for which algorithm
is searching is the last element of array or it is not available in array then
algorithm behaves as worst case.
Average Case
Analyzing the average case behavior algorithm is a little bit complex than
the best case and worst case. Here, we take the probability with a list of
data. Average case of algorithm should be the average number of steps but
since data can be at any place, so finding exact behavior of algorithm is
difficult. As the volume of data increases, the average case of algorithm
behaves like the worst case of algorithm.
1.5 Efficiency of an Algorithm

Efficiency of an algorithm can be determined by measuring the time, space,
and amount of resources it uses for executing the program. The amount of
time taken by an algorithm can be calculated by finding the number of
steps the algorithm executes, while the space refers to the number of units
it requires for memory storage.
1.6 Asymptotic Notations

The asymptotic notations are the symbols which are used to solve the dif-
ferent algorithms and the notations are
• Big Oh Notation (O)

• Little Oh Notation (o)
• Omega Notation (W)
• Theta Notation (q)
Big Oh (O) Notation

This Notation gives the upper bound for a function to within a constant
factor. We write f(n) = O(g(n)) if there are +ve constants n0 and C such
that to the right of n0, the value of f(n) always lies on or below Cg(n)
Omega Notation (W)

This notation gives a lower bound for a function to with in a constant fac-
tor. We write f(n) = Ωg(n) if there are positive constants n0 and C such that
to the right of n0 the value of f(n) always lies on or above Cg(n)
Theta Notation (q)

This notation bounds the function to within constant factors. We say f(n) =
θg(n) if there exists +ve constants n0, C1 and C2 such that to the right of n0
the value of f(n) always lies between c1g(n) and c2(g(n)) inclusive.
Little Oh Notation (o)

F(n) = o(g(n)) iff f(n) = O(g(n)) and f(n) != Ωg(n).
Introduction
An important question is: How efficient is an algorithm or piece of code?
Efficiency covers lots of resources, including:
CPU (time) usage
Memory usage
Disk usage
Network usage
All are important but we will mostly talk about CPU time
Be careful to differentiate between:
Performance: how much time/memory/disk/... is actually used

when a program is running. This depends on the machine, compiler, etc.,
as well as the code.
Complexity: how do the resource requirements of a program or algorithm

scale, i.e., what happens as the size of the problem being solved gets larger.
Complexity affects performance but not the other way around. The time
required by a method is proportional to the number of “basic operations”
that it performs. Here are some examples of basic operations:
one arithmetic operation (e.g., +, *).
one assignment
one test (e.g., x == 0)
one read
one write (of a primitive type)
Note: As an example,
O(1) refers to constant time.
O(n) indicates linear time;
O(nk) (k fixed) refers to polynomial time;
O(log n) is called logarithmic time;
O(2n) refers to exponential time, etc.
n² + 3n + 4 is O(n²), since n² + 3n + 4 < 2n² for all n > 10. Strictly speaking,
3n + 4 is O(n²), too, but big-O notation is often misused to mean equal to
rather than less than.
1.7 How to Determine Complexities

In general, how can you determine the running time of a piece of code?
The answer is that it depends on what kinds of statements are used.
1. Sequence of statements
statement 1;
statement 2;
...
statement k;
Note: this is code that really is exactly k statements; this is not

an unrolled loop like the N calls to addBefore shown above.)
The total time is found by adding the times for all statements:
total time = time(statement 1) + time

(statement 2) + ... + time(statement k)
If each statement is “simple” (only involves basic opera-

tions) then the time for each statement is constant and the
total time is also constant: O(1). In the following examples,
assume the statements are simple unless noted otherwise.
2. if-then-else statements
if (cond) {
sequence of statements 1
}
else {
sequence of statements 2
}
Here, either sequence 1 will execute, or sequence 2 will execute.

Therefore, the worst-case time is the slowest of the two possi-
bilities: max(time(sequence 1), time(sequence 2)). For exam-
ple, if sequence 1 is O(N) and sequence 2 is O(1) the worst-case
time for the whole if-then-else statement would be O(N).
3. for loops
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
sequence of statements
}
The loop executes N times, so the sequence of statements also

executes N times. Since we assume the statements are O(1), the
total time for the for loop is N * O(1), which is O(N) overall.
4. Nested loops
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < M; j++) {
}
}
The outer loop executes N times. Every time the outer loop
executes, the inner loop executes M times. As a result, the
statements in the inner loop execute a total of N * M times.
Thus, the complexity is O(N * M). In a common special case
where the stopping condition of the inner loop is j < N

instead of j < M (i.e., the inner loop also executes N times),
the total complexity for the two loops is O(N2).
5. Statements with method calls:
When a statement involves a method call, the complexity of
the statement includes the complexity of the method call.
Assume that you know that method f takes constant time,
and that method g takes time proportional to (linear in) the
value of its parameter k. Then the statements below have the
time complexities indicated.
f(k); // O(1)
g(k); // O(k)
When a loop is involved, the same rule applies. For example:

for (j = 0; j < N; j++) g(N);
has complexity (N2). The loop executes N times and each

method call g(N) is complexity O(N).
Examples
Q1. What is the worst-case complexity of the each of the following code
fragments?
Two loops in a row:

for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
}
for (j = 0; j < M; j++) {
}
Answer: Th
e first loop is O(N) and the second loop is O(M). Since you
do not know which is bigger, you say this is O(N+M). This can
also be written as O(max(N,M)). In the case where the second
loop goes to N instead of M the complexity is O(N). You can
see this from either expression above. O(N+M) becomes O(2N)
and when you drop the constant it is O(N). O(max(N,M))
becomes O(max(N,N)) which is O(N).
Q2. How would the complexity change if the second loop went to N
instead of M?
A nested loop followed by a non-nested loop:
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
for (j = 0; j < N; j++) {
}
}
for (k = 0; k < N; k++) {
}
Answer: Th
e first set of nested loops is O(N2) and the second loop is
O(N). This is O(max(N2,N)) which is O(N2).
Q3. A nested loop in which the number of times the inner loop executes
depends on the value of the outer loop index:
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) {
for (j = i; j < N; j++) {
}
}
Answer: W
hen i is 0 the inner loop executes N times. When i is 1 the
inner loop executes N-1 times. In the last iteration of the outer
loop when i is N-1 the inner loop executes 1 time. The number
of times the inner loop statements execute is N + N-1 + ... + 2 +
1. This sum is N(N+1)/2 and gives O(N2).
Q4. For each of the following loops with a method call, determine the
overall complexity. As above, assume that method f takes constant time,
and that method g takes time linear in the value of its parameter.
a. for (j = 0; j < N; j++) f(j);

b. for (j = 0; j < N; j++) g(j);
c. for (j = 0; j < N; j++) g(k);
Answer: a. E
ach call to f(j) is O(1). The loop executes N times so it is N x
O(1) or O(N).
b. The first time the loop executes j is 0 and g(0) takes “no oper-
ations.” The next time j is 1 and g(1) takes 1 operations. The
last time the loop executes j is N-1 and g(N-1) takes N-1 oper-
ations. The total work is the sum of the first N-1 numbers and
is O(N2).
c. Each time through the loop g(k) takes k operations and the
loop executes N times. Since you do not know the relative size
of k and N, the overall complexity is O(N x k).
1.8 Questions
1. What is data structure?
2. What are the types of operations that can be performed with
data structure?
3. What is asymptotic notation and why is this used?
4. What is complexity and its type?
5. Find the complexity of 3n2 + 5n.
6. Distinguish between linear and non-linear data structure.
7. Is it necessary is use data structure in every field? Justify
your answer.
2
Review of Concepts of ‘C++’
2.1 Array
Whenever we want to store some values then we have to take the help of a
variable, and for this we must have to declare it before its use. If we want
to store the details of a student so for this purpose we have to declare the
variables as
char name [20], add[30] ;
int roll, age, regdno ;
float total, avg ;
etc……
for a individual student.
If we want to store the details of more than one student than we have to
declare a huge amount of variables and which are too much difficult to access
it. I.e/ the programs length will increased too faster. So it will be better to
declare the variables in a group. I.e/ name variable will be used for more than
one student, roll variable will be used for more than one student, etc.
So to declare the variable of same kind in a group is known as the Array
and the concept of array is used for this purpose only.
Definition: The array is a collection of more than one element of same

kind with a single variable name.
Types of Array:
The arrays can be further classified into two broad categories such as:
• One Dimensional (The array having one boundary

specification)
• Multi dimensional (The array having more than one bound-
ary specification)
Sachi Nandan Mohanty and Pabitra Kumar Tripathy. Data Structure and Algorithms Using C++:
A Practical Implementation, (15–48) © 2021 Scrivener Publishing LLC
15
2.1.1 One-Dimensional Array

Declaration:
Syntax :
Data type variable_name[bound] ;
The data type may be one of the data types that we are studied. The
variable name is also same as the normal variable_name but the bound is
the number which will further specify that how much variables you want
to combine into a single unit.
Ex : int roll[15];
In the above example roll is an array 15 variables whose capacity is to
store the roll_number of 15 students.
And the individual variables are
roll[0] , roll[1], roll[2], roll[3] ,……………..,roll[14]
Array Element in Memory

The array elements are stored in a consecutive manner inside the memory.
i.e./ They allocate a sequential memory allocation.
For Ex : int x[7];
Let the x[0] will be at the memory address 568 then the entire array can
be represented in the memory as
x[0] X[1] X[2] X[3] X[4] X[5] X[6]

568 570 572 574 576 578 580
Initialization:
The array is also initialized just like other normal variable except that
we have to pass a group of elements with in a chain bracket separated by
commas.
Ex : int x[5]= { 24,23,5,67,897 } ;
In the above statement x[0] = 24, x[1] = 23, x[2]=5, x[3]=67,x[4]=897
Review of Concepts of ‘C++’ 17
Retrieving and Storing Some Value From/Into the Array

Since array is a collection of more than one elements of same kind so while
performing any task with the array we have to do that work repeatedly.
Therefore while retrieving or storing the elements from/into an array we
must have to use the concept of looping.
Ex: Write a Program to Input 10 Elements Into an Array and

Display Them.
#include<iostream.h>
void main()
{
int x[10],i;
;
cout<<“\nEnter 10 elements into the array”;
for(i=0 ; i<10; i++)
cin>>x[i];
cout<<“\n THE ENTERED ARRAY ELEMENTS ARE :”;
for(i=0 ; i<10; i++)
cout<<” “<<x[i];
}
OUTPUT
Enter 10 elements into the array
12
36
89
54
6
125
35
87
49
6
THE ENTERED ARRAY ELEMENTS ARE : 12 36
89 54 6 125 35 87 49 6
2.1.2 Multi-Dimensional Array

The array having more than one boundary specification is known as multi
dimensional array. The total number of elements to be stored in side a
multi dimensional array is equals to the product of its boundaries.
But we do use the two dimensional array to handle the matrix opera-
tions. The two dimensional array having two boundary specifications.
Declaration of Two-Dimensional Array

The declaration of the two dimensional array is just like the one dimen-
sional array except that instead of using a single boundary we have to use
two boundary specification.
SYNTAX
data_type variable_name[boundary1][boundary2];
Ex : int x[3][4];
In the above example x is the two dimensional array which has the capacity
to store (3x4) 12 elements. The individual number of elements are
x[0][0] x[0][1] x[0][2] x[0][3]
x[1][0] x[1][1] x[1][2] x[1][3]
x[2][0] x[2][1] x[2][2] x[2][3]
INITIALIZATION
The array can also be initialized as like one dimensional array.
Ex: int x[3][4] = {{3,5,7,8}, {45,12,34,3}, {56,89,56,23}};
OR
int x[3][4] = {3,5,7,8,45,12,34,3,56,89,56,23};
After the above initialization
x[0][0]=3 x[0][1]=5 x[0][2]=7 x[0][3]=8
x[1][0]=45 x[1][1]=12 x[1][2]=34 x[1][3]=3
x[2][0]=56 x[2][1]=89 x[2][2]=56 x[2][3]=23
Processing of a Two-Dimensional Array

While processing a two-dimensional array we have to use two loops.
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lies open; where investigation must be crowned with success. No
manuscripts in this great library have perished; they all exist as
legible, as accessible as ever. Moreover, personal investigation must
be made by every student in order to understand the results of the
investigations of others. Wherever our home is, there lie all the
materials which we need for the study of the entire globe. Humboldt
hints at this when he says in his Kosmos: “Every little nook and
shaded corner is but a reflection of the whole of Nature.” The
roaring mountain brook is the type of the thundering cataract; the
geological formations of a single little island, suggest the broken
coast lines of a continent; the study of the boulders which are so
thickly scattered in token of a great primeval deluge from the north,
reveals the structure of whole mountain chains. The digging of every
well may contribute to our knowledge of the earth’s crust; the
excavations made in the building of railroads may, without the loss
of time, labor, and expense, be a ceaseless source of instruction. In
the structure of a spear of grass, of a rush, of a single
monocotyledon, may be studied in miniature the palm-tree, prince of
the tropics; in the mosses and lichens on our walls, the stunted
growths of mountain tops may be investigated. A small range of hills
may be taken as the type of the loftiest Cordillera. The eye may be
easily trained to see all the greater in the less. The study of our own
district is the true key to the understanding of the forms and the
phenomena of foreign lands. Whoever has wandered through the
valleys and woods, and over the hills and mountains of his own
State, will be the one capable of following a Herodotus in his
wanderings over the globe. He, and he alone, will be able, with true
appreciation, to accompany travelers through all foreign lands. The
very first step in a knowledge of geography is to know thoroughly
the district where we live.
Unfortunately the text-books which we now possess do not
discuss, with any approach to exhaustiveness, the districts where
their readers live; and hence they cannot give any true inductive
generalization of the large and the remote. In ancient times, the
study of geography began with the world of nature, not with the
world of books. Herodotus, being 444 years B. C., became, by virtue
of his investigations on his wanderings, the first critical geographer
of the Greeks. Polybius traveled through the Alps and Pyrenees, Gaul
and Spain, to be able to write the history of Hannibal’s campaigns.
He explored the Black Sea and Egypt, in quest of facts. He is the
father of all military geography; the greatest strategists have busied
themselves with writing commentaries on Polybius. Strabo, the most
industrious geographer of his age, did not write till he had traveled
from the Caucasus to the Rhone, and from the Alps to Ethiopia.
Philip Cluver, of Dantzig, who died in 1623, the true founder of
classical geography, collected, by personal investigations, the
materials of his great work on Germany, Italy, and ancient Sicily, all
of which countries he traversed thoroughly, the classic authors in his
hand.
Alexander von Humboldt has become, by his thorough studies of
nature in Europe, Asia, and America, the founder of Comparative
Geography. He was thoroughly acquainted with every geographical
form in the neighborhood of his home, before he traveled into
foreign lands. These examples show that personal investigation is
one of the most reliable of all sources of geographical knowledge.
The second class of these sources is the accounts given in the
published memoirs of travelers. In more primitive days than these,
when very little was known regarding the earth, personal
examination was easily completed, with a good degree of fullness,
by almost any tourist. With the advance of knowledge, the narratives
of travelers have increased, and the sum total of facts observed has
become unwieldy; and, where facts have been wanting, the
imagination has amply supplied their place. Of course, a single life
soon became too short for the personal examination of every quarter
of the globe; the narratives of those who had thoroughly explored
any one were accepted as authoritative, and these accounts soon
became the most generally available of all the sources of
geographical knowledge. Yet, with this limitation, that now their
abundance and their exactness tend to repress and almost to
destroy any personal inquiry whatever. Nothing can take the place of
some exploration and investigation on the part of the student of
geography.
To the accounts of scientific travelers, may be added those maps
and globes which indicate the contour and the vertical elevations
and depressions of the earth or its divisions. The demand for perfect
accuracy in these is now very great. The map must be a portrait, not
a caricature. In its way, the map has a certain dictatorial authority; it
is so decisive in its very character, that errors in it are far more
dangerous than in the letter-press of books. The English excel in the
beauty of their maps: there are none in the world engraved with the
rare excellence of theirs; but their care to secure accuracy is not
commensurate. The French and the Germans vie for the honor of
perfectly transcribing nature.
The Sciences illustrative of Geography.

The sciences which are called in to illustrate the thorough study of
geography have largely increased in number within the past few
years. They are, for the most part, the same which illustrate history;
to which may be added mathematics and natural history. It is a very
great mistake to suppose that all that bears upon geography can be
crowded within the covers of a single book. It is commonly supposed
that geography is a matter of memory. Even in its elementary forms,
it is capable of a constructive treatment. Many a teacher, who has
not paid special attention to this department, dreams that he can
qualify himself by running through a single text-book. No philologist
would dream that, with a grammar and dictionary, he could grasp
any constructive theory of language. There must first be the study,
comparatively, of the great classes. And in geography, the personal
study of the earth, with critical closeness, and in the comparative
method, is the true way.
Another very common error is, that geography must subsidize
what is most striking in other sciences, and thereby gain its charms
and attain its uses. Thus geography becomes everything—history,
statistics, statecraft, physics, a catalogue of all the possessions of
natural history, in all its kingdoms. It takes on all colors, and
meanwhile loses its own. It merges all its individuality in other
provinces. In no way can it escape this disintegrating force, unless
by holding fast to some central principle of being; and that is the
relation of all the phenomena and forms of nature to the human
race. It cannot exist, if it is to be merely an aggregate of all science,
a mosaic of all colors. It is to use the whole circle of sciences to
illustrate its own individuality, not to exhibit their peculiarities. It
must make them all give a portion, not the whole, and yet must
keep itself single and clear.
For the comprehension of mathematical geography, a knowledge
of the elements of mathematics and astronomy is indispensable. For
determining localities, and for using many needed instruments, there
must be some skill in practical astronomy; for measuring distances,
for projecting maps and charts, and locating geographical districts
upon them, there must be some familiarity with trigonometry and
the higher mathematics. No one can thoroughly study geography in
foreign lands, and leave all astronomical instruments behind.
Political geography demands an acquaintance with history, and the
same helps which the study of history requires. The civil status of no
country can be determined without this. Büsching’s “Europe” was a
master-piece of its time. But it was impossible for even that book to
compress within its covers the whole history of that continent in its
relation to the geography of Europe.
The study of Man is, of course, in most intimate alliance with
geography. It is only since the opening of this century that
ethnography has become a prominent and clearly defined province
of science, and enabled to become a great tributary of geography; in
fact, the greatest tributary. Other departments are also drawn upon;
there can be no close study of the soil, the structure of mountains
and plains, without mineralogy and geology. Meteorology, too, the
science which discusses the climatic conditions of countries and the
effects of climate upon the organization of plants, animals, and man,
is of no mean value in illustrating geography. Nor can one be a great
geographer who does not understand the flora of the world. Not that
he needs to be familiar with the myriads of plants, but the laws of
growth and the characteristics of localization must be known. The
geographer does not need to repeat in detail where the cereals and
the palm-tree thrive. The general conditions which control the
growth of plants are all that he has to concern himself with. The
main auxiliary for this is furnished in the botanical garden, where the
eye sees the products of all localities, arranged, according to their
grouping, in the countries where they are indigenous. Botany and
zoology and mineralogy are among the sciences most valuable in
throwing light upon geography; they display best what wealth each
country holds in store for the uses of man; for they are closely
connected with the development of industry, the arts, and trade.
This brings us to the last province, commerce, the science of
interchange. The study of minerals, of the distribution of plants and
animals, is of little advantage, aside from commerce and its uses to
man. It is the interchange of the products of one region for those of
another which has had, on the whole, the greatest influence on the
human race. Think, for an instant, of the transfer of the potato from
America to Europe, of maize to Asia; of the far more ancient
introduction of wheat and rice from Asia into Europe; and not these
alone, but almost all the fruits. Think of the carrying from Asia to
America, and, in fact, to all tropical lands, such products as sugar,
coffee, and cotton. Think, too, of the results of the search for gold,
ivory, and slaves in the interior of Africa, and of gold in California
and Australia, opening such immense districts to settlements. The
search after platina has disclosed the most guarded recesses of the
Cordilleras and the Ural chain; while the need of copper first gave us
our complete knowledge of the great system of American lakes.
Without the expeditions to secure the whale, the walrus, and the
seal, as well as the fur-bearing animals, the polar world would be
still untraversed. The discovery of coal on a hundred shores
otherwise unknown, led to the settlement of man in colonies from
India and China southward to the Antarctic Continent, and
northward to Nova Zembla, Spitzbergen, and Greenland.
And not the continents only, seas and oceans have been
thoroughly studied, in order to secure a safe pathway for man to the
regions which contain his spoils. In the furtherance of this, the
highest praise must be awarded to the British government. Through
its enterprise and liberality, almost every island group has been
examined, a thorough study of marine currents undertaken, careful
soundings made in all waters, and a most extensive chartography
accomplished. The charts published by the English admiralty already
are counted by thousands.
Yet the French have not been backward in like investigations.
Understanding the value of commerce, their Dépôt de la Marine has
not been inactive. Scandinavia has also done her part. The United
States has accomplished one of the most thorough coast surveys
ever undertaken by any nation; its difficulties are only to be
measured by its extent. In fact, the whole civilised world has sent its
messengers to the ends of the earth, and have united in this grand
crusade of our age, the enriching of all men by a liberal system of
interchange of the commodities of all climes.
COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY.
PART I.
THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED IN
ITS MOST GENERAL RELATIONS.
The Spheroidal Form of the Earth.

The measurements of, and investigations into the figure of the
earth, have led, as already stated in the introduction, to no
absolutely certain conclusion; yet they have made it certain that the
earth is, in a general sense, a spheroid. There are many
discrepancies, as were then stated, from the perfectly spheroidal
shape; still it is in this sense a spheroid, that the polar diameter is
not of the same length with the equatorial diameter.
The globular form of the earth, using that word in a loose sense,
has been established with certainty since Newton’s time. The
experience of circumnavigators, the uniform shield-shape of the
shadow of the earth during eclipses of the moon, are witnesses to
this. The gradual emerging and disappearance of objects, such as
ships on the sea, in coming and going, caravans on the desert, of
mountains as they are approached, establish the fact. These proofs
are so well known that we but touch on them and pass to what is
not so obvious.
As soon as the fact was established that the earth was a
subordinate member of a system, it was brought into analogy with
other planets, and their uniformly spherical shape was considered
another valid reason for attributing the same to our globe. The
discovery of the rotation of the earth on its axis was still another
argument in the same direction. Mathematical measurements and
observations of the pendulum, taken at different stations, have
confirmed the same result.
To measure a spherical body, it is only necessary to take the
length of a degree in one of its great circles, and to multiply its
length by 360, the number of degrees. The method of measuring a
degree on the earth’s surface is by taking two stars, just one degree
apart, dropping, by astronomical and mathematical means, vertical
lines upon the earth from them and measuring the distances apart
of the points where those lines impinge upon the globe. This can be
done with perfect accuracy. Such investigations show that the
degrees are not all of equal length, as they would be were the earth
a perfect sphere. Nearer the poles they are longer, nearer the
equator they are shorter. The curvature of the earth is therefore
greater as you approach the equatorial line, and less as you recede
from it. In general terms, then, the earth is an oblate spheroid, as it
would be a prolate spheroid were the lengths of its diameters
reversed. By the most accurate measurements, those of the
astronomer Bessel, if the equatorial diameter were divided into 289
equal parts, the polar diameter would measure 288 of them, being
¹⁄₂₈₉ shorter.
To this must be added what was said in the introduction, that the
surprising accuracy of modern instruments and modern
investigations, applied to meridian circles and parallels of latitude,
have determined the fact that the spheroid is not a perfect one, (just
as so often in nature the ideal is rather striven after than attained,)
but an irregular polyhedron of an indeterminate number of sides.
Still for all practical purposes, these minute inquiries have no value,
and it is enough to treat of the earth as a perfect globe, so far, at
least, as map-drawing is concerned. The deviation from a perfectly
spherical shape is so inconsiderable that in an artificial globe of
eighteen inches diameter it would hardly amount to the thickness of
a sheet of paper; still, small as this is represented on a miniature
scale, it has, doubtless, great importance on the great scale of a
world like this, both in affecting somewhat the perturbation of other
heavenly bodies which depend on the earth, as well as the
perturbations in the earth’s own motion. Besides this, which is really
not a small point in consideration of the possible results which the
minutest perturbation of one little planet may have on the universe,
there is one other, more appreciable in its results, the probable
influence of this spheroidal, or rather polyhedrons form, in producing
the unequal division of land and water upon the surface of the earth.
The apparent want of any principle or reason for this inequality has
long perplexed geographers, and there seems to be no more
satisfactory solution than the one to which I have just alluded. In
the course of future investigations into the yet undetermined exact
mathematical form of the earth, the law which controls the division
into land and water will be more thoroughly understood.
Unquestionably the position of the great oceans depends upon their
distance from the center of the globe, and although the present
proportion of land and water seems fortuitous, undoubtedly it has a
uniformly acting, and a thoroughly appreciable law.
The Threefold Covering of the Earth.

What may in the largest and most general sense be called the
superficies of the earth, is threefold in character, and yet one in
function; consisting of a highly elastic body, the atmosphere, water,
and the solid ground. These three forms are variously proportioned;
the more elastic is universal, the fluid form is more restricted, and
the solid one prevails still less. The more dense the body, the nearer
it is found to the center of the earth. The lightest of all floats over
the entire periphery of the globe like a graceful mantle of cloud.
Man, and in fact all organisms, live by contact with all three of these
forms. The investigation of the elements, and phenomena of the air,
regarded in themselves, is the province of meteorology. The
mercury-column is the true language of the atmosphere, and tells us
in distinct tones of all the changes there. Mineralogy and geology
make us acquainted with all the qualities and all the elements of the
soil, not in their relation to man, but regarded in themselves.
Geography deals with the conflict of all these bodies, their relations
to each other, their mutual action and reaction. Meteorology gives
occasion for the study of climate, and for the observation of the
phenomena of the lower strata of the atmosphere,—the fall of rain
and snow, for example. Geology and mineralogy give rise to the
study of plains and mountain formations, as well as of volcanic
phenomena, affecting the surface of the earth as they do in
earthquakes, upheavals of whole districts, and the opening of hot
springs. Thus, geography has it own province clearly defined, and
uses all this and studies it in relation to the organic world, and to
man foremost of all.
The most highly elastic covering of the earth is unbroken, the
other two are sundered, and each only occupies a part of the
surface. Formerly, in most ancient times, the water seems to have
covered the entire earth. The study of this is, however, within the
domain of geology. We have to do only with the historic period
which followed. We have to look at the earth in its present relations,
and as the home of man. Now, the portions covered with water are,
by far, the largest part of the surface; a little less than three-fourths
are water, a little more than one-fourth land. The whole water-mass
is composed largely of the oceans, which, in one sense, constitute a
continent of their own: in looking at them as we do now, we are not
to regard them as ceasing at the outlines of the great land-masses,
but as penetrating these as far as to the springs which feed the
rivers; for the world of waters, embracing springs, brooks, rivers,
lakes, seas, and oceans, is one, and but one.
The water is, in some respects, a form between the other two; its
peculiarities, weight, density, freedom of movement, and
changeableness of form, are a mean between the opposing
extremes of air and the ground. Water can pass to a more fluid or a
more solid state; it can become vapor or ice. The measurement of
the depth of the world of waters has lately been so clearly
connected with the needs of civilization, that geographers have
made many exceedingly accurate investigations. Formerly, this was
much neglected; up to Captain Cook’s time 1500 feet was the
greatest depth ascertained; in the course of the Arctic discoveries
7000 feet limited the plummet’s descent; Captain Ross sounded,
near St. Helena, to a depth of 30,000 feet; and Captain Denhorn, in
the South Atlantic, reached a point 46,000 feet from the surface—
about twice the height of the loftiest mountains. And not single
points alone, but entire ocean districts have been traversed; the
temperature of these great depths has been studied, the currents,
the density, in fact all the features which must be known
preliminarily to the laying of great lines of submarine telegraphs,
such, for example, as that proposed between North America and
Europe.
The atmosphere, too, is by no means thoroughly known to us. It
rises to a height between 85 and 95 miles from the earth, of which
man has explored in balloons only about five miles, or the height of
the loftiest mountains. At loftier heights than we can live, the bright
light of mid-day even fades into a dim kind of twilight, and meteoric
masses of iron are seen in full glow, there being oxygen enough
even there to support their combustion, and very little resistance to
overcome from the density of the atmosphere. Astronomers,
Benzenberg in particular, have calculated the distance of the meteors
to range from 23 to 100 miles from the earth, and have studied
them[2] in respect to the time when they were visible, their locality,
and their direction. The limits of the atmosphere must be at that
point where the expansive power of air and the attractive influence
of the globe neutralize each other. The form of the atmospheric body
is therefore, like the earth, spheroidal, but far more oblate than the
earth, in consequence of its much greater fluidity. At the poles, the
distance is therefore much less from the surface of the earth to the
confines of the atmosphere than at the equator. The effect of this
upon the refraction of light must be very great.
The investigation of the interior of the earth is more difficult to us
than that of the atmosphere even. We cannot say that we know
thoroughly more than we can learn by penetrating ¹⁄₆₀₀₀ part of the
distance to the center of the globe. Deeper than that our lowest
shafts have not sunk. The coal mines of England penetrate perhaps
the farthest below the sea level; for the deep mines in Germany, in
the Hartz district, for instance, have their entrance hundreds of feet
above it. One coal mine near Durham, England, descends to a depth
of about 1584 feet, and reaches a point where the thermometer is
79° Fahrenheit. The deep coal mines of England have, however, one
rival, in a shaft at Liege, which is sunk 1800 feet.
The modern Artesian well has gone to still greater depths, in the
effort to procure brine for the manufacture of salt, or fresh water for
the use of cities. At Rehme, in Porta Westphalica, a point 2160 feet
from the surface has been reached, and water brought up at a
temperature of 90° Fahrenheit, containing four per cent. of salt. By
an ingenious application of mechanics to the process of well boring,
doubtless a depth of 5000 feet could be attained. At Mondorf, in
Luxemburg, a bore has been made through sandstone and the
mineral formations lying beneath it, for a distance of 2700 feet, and
water reached at 82° Fahrenheit.
The great upheavals caused by earthquakes and volcanoes
disclose still vaster depths. In the eruptions of the latter, immense
masses of the inner contents of the earth are thrown out, sometimes
enough to form a not insignificant mountain, and to desolate large
regions with their debris. As a general thing, the original mineral
forms are lost and indistinguishable in the molten mass. Yet not
seldom perfect specimens are hurled out, imbedded in lava and
cinders; not always minute fragments, sometimes huge blocks,
testifying not with any degree of completeness, yet clearly, to a
certain extent, of the composition of the region bordering on the
great inner sea of molten matter. Yet most of our knowledge upon
this subject is hypothetical, and what we know only indicates
painfully the great extent of that of which we are entirely ignorant.
The uniform increase of temperature, as we descend into the
earth, at the rate of about 24° Fahrenheit for every 100 feet, the
heat of some mineral springs, leads to the conclusion that, could we
advance to a place about twenty-three miles from the surface, we
should attain the limits where all becomes a molten mass. The cold
surface, on which we walk in such security, seems, by all analogies,
to envelop a liquid caldron which has been seething from the
morning of the world. This internal mass is, of course, the source of
all volcanic eruptions, and of all the phenomena to which I have
alluded above. A distinguished geologist has well said that “light and
heat are the two extremes of being: the farther man goes away from
the earth’s surface, he encounters light; the farther he recedes
inwardly from its surface, he encounters heat.” It is true we are not
absolutely certain that the rate of increase is uniform, at the rate of
one degree Fahrenheit for every 45 feet; but if it is, we should reach
the boiling point of water at less than 10,000 feet from the surface,
and the melting point of iron (22° Fahrenheit) a little over 120,000
feet. The relation of this thickness to the entire diameter of the earth
is about as 1 to 344, about the ratio of the thickness of an egg-shell
to the egg.
The Superficial Dimensions of the Land and

Water on the Globe.
The equatorial diameter of the earth, 7925·6 miles, multiplied into
the circumference, 24898·8, equals 197,339,590, the number of
square miles on the earth’s surface, reckoning as if of a true sphere.
The deduction to be made, in consequence of its spheroidal shape,
has not yet been estimated with any approach to nicety. The sum
indicated above is exact enough to satisfy geographical purposes;
enough to lead to the laws of relative rather than to a minute
individualization. The proportion even of land to water has not been
determined, except with approximate accuracy. It has been
commonly stated that two-thirds are water and one-third land;
others have computed three-fifths to be water and two-fifths land.
The most accurate measurements, those instituted by Humboldt,
have left it in this statement, that if the whole be taken as one, the
sea occupies ·734, the land ·265, or, reduced and simplified in
almost unchanged form, a little more than three-quarters water, a
little less than one-quarter land. Of course it is impossible, as yet, to
attain to accuracy in these estimates, as our knowledge is imperfect
regarding the polar regions; there are about 17,000,000 square
miles unexplored.
The ascertaining of superficial areas with exactness is one of the
most costly operations undertaken in the interest of science. The
first mathematical survey of France, one hundred and fifty years
ago, undertaken by Cassini, cost four millions; the second sixteen
millions; a third, still more costly, has been made within the present
century. Still, it must be said that few countries have expended
money in this direction with as much prodigality as France. In
Turkey, for instance, so little accuracy has been attained, that the
survey of that country, undertaken by Beauchamp early in this
century, resulted in establishing the Sultan in possession of 17,000
square miles which he had supposed were covered by the Black Sea.
The recent surveys of Prussia have rectified similar mistakes, and, in
the constantly increasing accuracy, have given hundreds of square
miles to the Crown. Many countries, and in truth the most, have
never been subjected to a strict mensuration. The jagged coast lines
of islands and continents have been so great a barrier, that we have
to speak with great uncertainty of the superficial contents which
they inclose. The statements of these make no pretense, therefore,
to accuracy. We must be content, at present, with the rudest
approximation. This accounts for the discrepancy in our geographical
compendia; no two of them agree, unless one servilely copies the
other. The statistics relating to the superficial contents of continents,
and of separate countries, must be taken with a great deal of
allowance. The evil cannot be remedied at present; it will be,
doubtless, at some future day. The discrepancies which it occasions
will be seen, from the fact that the area of Europe has been
computed to be between 3,254,800 and 3,870,500 square miles;
that of Asia between 16,180,000 and 16,831,600; that of Africa
between 11,257,200 and 11,513,600; that of America between
12,140,400 and 15,963,600; that of Australia between 2,756,000
and 3,201,200 square miles.
According to this, Asia is five times as large as Europe, and almost
six times as large as the continent of Australia. Africa is three times
as large as Europe. America is four times as large as Europe, and is
as large as Africa and Australia combined. Europe would make about
one-third of Africa, one-quarter of America, one-fifth of Asia. Our
present knowledge does not allow us to speak more definitely nor
exactly.
Contrast of the Land and Water Hemispheres.

Whether we divide the globe into northern and southern or
eastern and western hemispheres, their relative amounts of land and
water will be different The northern hemisphere contains (speaking
approximatively as above) 38,541,600 square miles of land, and
59,619,700 of water; the southern, 12,847,200 of land, and
85,526,100 of water. The eastern hemisphere contains 36,760,800
square miles of land, and 61,401,000 of water; the western,
14,628,000 of land, and 83,533,300 of water.
Besides the division quantitatively, the division in respect to
symmetry of shape is entirely irregular. Symmetry, as we usually use
the word, consists in the arrangement of parts at equal distances, or
two sides at least, from some central point or line. Mineral crystals
are regarded in relation to the point where crystallization began;
plants are viewed in relation to the stem-axis; animals in relation to
the symmetry of the entire structure. A similar law of symmetry is
entirely wanting to the globe; its arrangement is altogether unlike
this; it is not nearly so perceptible at first glance, yet it is far more
profound in design and comprehensive in its relations.
The land is broken up into masses, varying in size, and called,
arbitrarily, continents and islands. Strictly speaking, there are but
two continents, the old world forming one, the new world the other.
Australia may be called the smallest continent or the largest island; it
is the connecting link between the forms, and shows at a glance the
arbitrary distinction. We might easily go further and call New Guinea,
Borneo, Sumatra, Great Britain, and Java, continents, and, on the
other hand, we might designate the old and the new world as
islands. There is nothing absolute here but the usage of speech.
The continents and islands lie mainly in the northern hemisphere,
(38,341,600 square miles,) scarcely a third part of their superficies
(12,847,200 square miles) being in the southern.
The continents are so situated also that the eastern contains by
far the largest body of land, (36,760,800 square miles,) the western
being only about one-third as large, (13,628,000 square miles.)
America, the western, it will be seen, has no first-class island lying
near it; it stands isolated.
It is seen by this that the greatest mass of land lies in the
northern hemisphere, dividing the earth in one way, and in the
eastern dividing it in another; the smallest mass in the southern and
the western. In the northeast the watery realm is the most
contracted, in the southwest the least. We are thus enabled to speak
of the land side of the globe, the land hemisphere, and a water side,
the water hemisphere.
The central point of the water hemisphere is at the island of New
Zealand. Toward this the points of all the continents are directed.
The center of the land hemisphere is in the northwest of Europe, at
a point near southeast of England, the northeast of France, and the
coast of Holland. The dwellers around the North Sea are the
antipodes of the New Zealanders. Great Britain is the country which,
as a whole, is the middle point of the continental world. In the
oceanic world, the islands lie like scattered dots, insignificant in
respect to area, in comparison with the waste of waters which
surrounds them, while, on the other hand, the land hemisphere is so
solidly compacted, that even the Arctic Ocean becomes merely a
broad channel.
Thus arises the first great contrast which we have to study: the
first, and next to the great primary distinction between the North
and South, the most important. The division into land and water,
aside from commerce, must exercise the strongest influence on the
distribution of heat and cold, affecting the temperature of all the
zones. This influence has been fully noticed and brought before the
world by Alexander von Humboldt. It is sufficient to refer to it now
as a well-determined fact in physical geography.
The heat equator is a little farther north than the mathematical
equator, because the land hemisphere has a greater heat capacity (if
we may use an awkward but apt word) than the water hemisphere.
All other isothermal lines are modified in their greater or less
coincidence with the parallels of latitude as they advance from the
heat equator toward the maximum of the land hemisphere, or, in
general terms, as they go northward. In the western hemisphere the
isothermal lines follow much more exactly the parallels of latitude
than in the eastern, which is pre-eminently the land hemisphere. In
America the proximity of immense masses of water causes a
perceptible reduction of the heat from that of the eastern where the
land form prevails. And the heat diminishes more as we advance
toward the South Pole, than toward the North, in consequence of
the greater deficiency of land in the southern hemisphere; while in
Lapland, Greenland, and in Siberia, even within the polar circle itself,
men find sustenance and trees live, in the same latitude, at the
South Pole, no vegetable life, worth mentioning, is found. The frigid
zone and the temperate zone of the southern hemisphere are not
coincident with those of the northern. The icebergs which are
formed at the South Pole are carried much nearer to the equator
than those found at the North Pole.
An important phenomenon, first pointed out by A. von Humboldt
and Dove, is closely connected with what has just been said. The
Atlantic shores of the old world are warmer than those in the same
latitude of the new world. Norway, England, and France are warmer
than Labrador and Canada; Spain, Portugal, and Morocco are
warmer than Florida; Congo and Benguela are warmer than Brazil,
although the countries brought in contrast all lie on the same
parallel.
A similar analogy is drawn from the west shore of America:
Northern California is warmer than Japan and Corea, which are in
the same latitude. It is true, other factors are at work to produce
this, such as winds, marine currents, elevations of land, etc., of
which more will be said hereafter.
Both of the two great land divisions of the earth, it will thus be
seen, have their peculiarities. But there is a great equalizer of their
diversities, found in a great coast-belt, of which I must briefly speak.
It passes from the Cape of Good Hope northeasterly at an angle of
45°, passing through the Mozambique channel, thence skirting the
entire southeastern and eastern coast of Asia, taking in China,
Corea, Japan, and South Kamtckatka; thence it turns southward,
following the whole western shore of America to Cape Horn. This
belt is broken at only two points—a brief break at the north, at
Behring’s Straits, and a large one between Cape Horn and the Cape
of Good Hope; in other words, at the points nearest to the North
and the South Poles respectively. This coast belt has a relation to the
habitable world similar to that held by the temperate zone as a
mediator between the torrid and the frigid. It partakes of the
character of the sea and the land, and shows the advantages of
both. It does not run parallel with the lines of latitude, but crosses
them diagonally, in the same direction with the ecliptic, though at a
more acute angle. This belt moderates all extremes. Coincident with
it are the paths of the sea and land winds, the course of the
monsoons, the most fertile shores of the whole globe. It divides the
surface of the globe into three great divisions, the two great bodies
of water, and the great, and, comparatively speaking, unbroken (for
the break at Behring’s Straits is of little importance) land-mass. On
the great coast line referred to above is the center of the great
natural acclivities of the globe. It is the most varied, the most
stimulating, and the most productive in all departments of the
vegetable and animal kingdoms. The Atlantic coast belt, which also
has great influence on the eastern districts of the new world and the
western districts of the old, crosses the great coast belt at almost
right angles at the place of its great sundering between Cape Horn
and the Cape of Good Hope.
If the contrast between the sea and the land has the effect
indicated above on the general development of organic life, it must
of course have great effect also on the life and character of man.
Man eminently depends upon the conditions amid which his lot is
cast. The inhabitant of one of the Pacific islands dwelt in a world
whose utmost possibilities to him lay in the adjacent islands within
view, and which his canoe could reach in a few hours’ sail. The
difference in culture between him and those whose range of
observation has been greater, must be immense. The compacted
land division of the globe, the solid cluster of continents, must be
the source of stimulus and culture, of which the isolated inhabitant
of the Pacific islands knew nothing, till commerce had at length
linked the world together. Only with the improvements in navigation
could civilization reach him. The European had to carry his culture to
the New Zealander, his antipode.
The ancients had little suspicion of all this. Yet the contrast
between the land world and the water world did not escape Strabo’s
keen glances, and he hints at its effects on man. It is glanced at in
one passage of his 15th Book. He is speaking of the effect of the
moist air of India in contrast with the dry air of Libya, and shows
that he appreciates that these are not without their influence on the
constitution of the Indian and of the Ethiopian. “Some,” he says,
“rightly ascribe it to the sun, that, in the absence of moisture in their
air, the rays burn so deeply into the body of the African; the Indian,
on the other hand, is not jet black and curly-haired, because, in his
country, he enjoys the moisture in the atmosphere.”
The Position of the Continents and its

Influence on the Course of History.
Besides the three great forms spoken of above—the compacted
land-mass, the great water-mass, and the subordinate water-mass—
the position of the continents leads us to another discovery of prime
importance.
The question arises, What relation have the continents, taken
separately, to the entire mass which they constitute? What relation
do they bear to each other? What influence does the proximity of
great land forms exercise? What influence their remoteness from
each other? Is the arrangement of the continents fortuitous, or
adapted to great ends always held in view by the Creator? Has
Nature been left in this to a wild, passionate caprice, or has she
been subjected to law, and been compelled to subserve the interests
of humanity? And is it not worthy of study, worthy of science, to
investigate these things, to master their law, and observe here the
workings of the Divine Mind?
In the solar system, we have for a long time minutely studied
matters of size and distance, the approach and receding of planets,
and observed the effects of all these things with an accuracy which
could not be too thorough. In the study of our Earth, this has been
neglected, because heretofore those great tracts of land and water
have seemed of little mutual influence; because they are fixed
forms. Yet they have a greater influence, perhaps, on this very
account. Although there is in them no law of gravitation to study, yet
there is in them the display of forces no less surprising than those of
attraction, and which are to be read in the light, not of mathematics,
but in the light of history. It indeed seems self-evident that a
grouping of these great forms cannot be without an influence on the
progression or retarded development of nations; on the amount of
population, the progress of colonization, and the union of States in
offensive and defensive alliance. Should a higher Power throw the
continents out of their present position and relation to each other, a
new history of the world would date from this day.
Here, then, is the primary element of history; the laws of
continental arrangement are the starting-point. Mathematics has
thrown a network of meridians and parallels over the surface of the
globe; but these lines exercise little influence over the course of
history. The symmetry and regularity which they suggest do not
belong to the earth; the earth is not bounded, like a crystal, by right
lines. There is a freer play than that mathematical mark of parallels
and meridians suggests; there is an interdependence of the great
land districts of the globe that these regular lines do not indicate; a
higher law of order, evolving the most perfect results from elements
seemingly the most discordant.
The Pyramidal Forms of the Great Land-

masses, and their Southward Direction toward
the Oceanic Hemisphere.
The great land-mass of the globe accumulates in size as we
advance toward the North Pole. South of 55° S. lat., the continental
form disappears, and the tracts discovered of late years in the
neighborhood of the South Pole are apparently islands, or rather
long ice-coasts, whose continental form is very doubtful. The great
land division, embracing both the old and the new worlds, reaches
to about 80° N. lat., and the extreme points come even yet nearer to
the Pole. The distances of one body from another, as, for instance,
from Greenland to Iceland, are very small, in comparison with the
immense spaces which divide the southern points of the continent,
where the hundreds of miles of separation at the north expand into
thousands. Expansion of the land-mass is the law at the north,
contraction at the south. The great land formations terminate in
wedge-shaped extremities, a fact observed by Lord Bacon, J. R.
Forster, and Steffens; America ending at Cape Horn, 55° S. lat.,
Australia, which may be considered to embrace Tasmania or Van
Diemen’s Land, at the southern extremity of the latter, 45°, and
Africa, at the Cape of Good Hope, 35° S. lat., respectively. Humboldt
gave the name of “Pyramidal Structure” to this cone-shaped form of
the great land-mass, which, it will be observed, all are directed
toward the south. This pyramidal structure contributes very much,
unquestionably, to the diminished heat of the southern hemisphere,
and has given a great predominance to the population of the
northern in comparison with the southern; and not in respect to
number alone, but also to mental and moral force of character.
But not the southern extremities alone of the continents exhibit
this wedge-like form; it is repeated also in the northern countries of
Europe and Asia. In Europe we discover the working of the law in
the peninsulas of Spain, Italy, Greece, the Morea, and the Crimea,
and also in the great Scandinavian peninsula. The same
phenomenon is repeated on a scale far more imposing in Asia, in the
great countries of Arabia, India, and Farther India, Corea, and
Kamtchatka; also in both halves of America. Exceptions are rare. In
Great Britain, the pointed extremity is toward the north, and the
greatest breadth at the south; but this is a peculiar case, and has its
exceptional causes; and perhaps with reason, for this island has
hitherto maintained an individual and exceptional character in the
development of modern civilization.
Various explanations have been offered for the almost star-shaped
figure which the combined body of great peninsulas assume,
radiating, as it were, from the center of the land hemisphere. This is
seen very strikingly in looking at a horizontal projection of the
northern hemisphere, viewed from the North Pole. There has been
evidently the working out of some great design in this, and the
forces employed must have been of the first order of magnitude.
Clöden attributes it to the rotation of the earth in its plastic,
formative-state. Link ascribes it to electrical forces, generated at the
time the earth’s crust was hardening into its present consistency. J.
R. Forster finds an explanation in the theory, that formerly great
currents, now not existing, passed, or sought to pass, from south to
north or northwest. He attributes to these the parallelism of the
great gulfs which indent the coast-line of the old world, the uniform
abruptness of the shores at the south, and the gradual widening of
all the great land-masses as we go north. The Atlantic is a channel
cleft by those great currents. Behring’s Straits is a smaller one; but
everywhere else the effort was incomplete, and no opening was
effected, except in the straits of minor importance, which separate
island from island, or from the main land. The fossils discovered by
Pallas seemed to favor this theory, but later investigation has
showed that they do not.
Link overthrew Forster’s theory, yet the phenomenon is worthy of
study. Viewed on a map of the land hemisphere, constructed
according to Mercator’s projection, it is a storehouse of interesting
observations and studies, and is to be recommended to the student’s
careful attention. We must pass over the theories; scholars disagree
as to the cause; Pisis ascribes it to a hidden law of geometric
construction; Necker, Brewster, and Dana, to magnetism. We must
simply accept the facts for the present.
A careful study of the land surface of the globe suggests
interesting comparisons with what we know of the heavenly bodies,
Jupiter, for example, and our moon. Unquestionably, the entirely
different grouping of what seem to be the great features of that
luminary must have had an influence on the whole course of history
there. We will not enter into speculations regarding this, however,
referring the reader rather to the thorough investigations of Beer
and Mädler.
Situation of the Continents in their Relation to

Each Other and to their Collective Whole.
The relation which the continents bear to each other arises,
primarily, from their position in reference to the cardinal points of
the compass. This has been a principle from the earliest times, and
the great laws of population may, in their working, be referred to
this simple law of grouping.
Asia was known as the Orient, or, in the apt and beautiful German
phrase, the Morgenland, or Land of the morning; Europe and the
northern rim of Africa, as the Occident, or, in the German, the
Abendland, or Land of the evening. In the south lay the torrid
regions of the Ethiopians, in the chill north the country of the
Hyperboreans. This fourfold division of the earth was for many
centuries the only one known; the division into continents being
made, according to Herodotus, by the Phenicians. And in very truth,
a great principle lay in that rude and primitive division; it was in
entire harmony with nature, and, up to the latest times and the
opening of a new world, in entire harmony with history also. With
Asia, the Orient, is connected indissolubly the development of the
ancient world; with Europe, that of the modern. The contrast
between these two great divisions is wonderfully analogous to that
of morning and evening. The whole culture of the West had its root,
its beginnings at the East. The East is not merely the place where
the sun begins his daily course; it is the cradle of man, of nations, of
dynasties of every sort, in politics, religion, and science. All the old
royal houses came into Europe from the East; they are all “children
of the sun,” no less than the princely families of India and Persia.
The West merely witnesses the progress of what was begun in the
East. From the most ancient times onward through the Middle Ages,
—from Homer to Dante’s “Purgatorio,”—the West is associated with
the kingdom of the dead, with “Hades,” and the “islands of the
blest.” And within these two great divisions of Orient and Occident
are comprised smaller ones, adapted to more limited conceptions of
the extent of the earth, but growing out of the same root with the
larger division. Bactriana and India constituted the Orient to the
inhabitants of Western Asia, Syria their Occident; Asia Minor was the
Orient of the Greeks, Italy and Sicily their Hesperia; while the
Romans called Spain theirs.
Between the Orient and Occident, and yet to the south of both,
lay the Libya of the ancients, exposed to the sun’s direct rays. In the
very middle of the earth, on both sides of the equator, and not at
the South Pole, is the true South. There we must seek the
phenomena of the tropical world in their culminations. As high noon,
the middle point in the hour, is the consummation of the day, so the
torrid climes of the equatorial belt, at the very middle of the earth,
afford the extremes of luxuriant growth.
The broad tracts of land at the northern polar regions formed the
true physical contrast to the Orient and the Occident, as well as to
the great South of central Africa. They lay around the North Pole like
a vast shield of earth, unbroken except by the comparatively
insignificant seas and gulfs of that region. And even where the water
has broken its way and severed those northern lands, a submarine
volcanic activity is, even now, constantly at work to restore the
break, and bind the coasts together. At about 70° N. lat., all the
countries of the north are brought into great nearness, and that
parallel is a highway of little else than land crossing the North Cape
of Europe, Cape Chelagskoy, in Tchooktchee, at the northeastern
extremity of Asia, and touching Cape Bathurst, and the Fury and
Heckla Straits of North America. North of this highway and of the
Georgian Archipelago begins the great group of circum-polar islands.
The break between Asia and North America, at Behring’s Straits, is
but fifty-six miles wide; it is the mere outlet of the Sea of
Kamtckatka into the Arctic Ocean. The space between the northeast
of America and the northwest of Europe is much greater indeed, but,
in comparison with the distance between the southernmost points of
the old and the new world, insignificant. The distance from northern
Norway to Greenland is but about 940 miles.
It is noteworthy that, at the north of the great continental land-
mass, where minor seas and channels break through, great volcanic
forces are constantly at work, as hinted at above, to restore the
unity. In the Sea of Kamtchatka lie the Aleutian islands, extending
more than 950 miles, and forming what has been happily termed a
bridge from the old world to the new. It consists of more than a
hundred rocks and islands, some of which have been thrown up
within the memory of man. In 1806, von Langsdorf and Tilesius
witnessed the emergence of one of these, with a cone-shaped
center, and about twenty miles in circumference. Grewingk has
counted more than fifty volcanoes in activity within the limits of this
island chain. The Curile islands, more to the south, form another
similar volcanic group, extending from Japan to Kamtchatka. In this
range there are known to be at least ten volcanoes, 10,000 feet in
height.
The same high degree of volcanic activity must have formerly
existed between Europe and America, for the traces of it are still
visible. And not the traces alone, but a part of the same activity. And
doubtless the shallowness of the waters between those continents
hints at the same. More accurate explorations, then, will probably
reveal multitudes of mountains, thrown up by these submarine
forces, but not far enough to emerge and bear the name of islands.
Yet many have emerged—those which fringe the shores of Norway,
Scotland, and Ireland; the Orkneys, Shetland, and Hebrides islands;
the Färoe group, with their blistered surface, their recesses, and
volcanic rocks; Iceland, with its hot springs; and Mount Heckla; Jan
Mayen, with its frightful craters, and the eastern coast of Greenland;
one island, Sabrina, in the midst of the Azore group; which has had
three upheavals within two hundred years, in 1638, 1723, and 1811,
—all these plainly indicate the presence of tremendous forces, active
in the past as well as in the present.
We thus fix the character of the arctic polar lands to be a close
drawing together. Europe has, fortunately for itself, the least share in
those inhospitable regions; only her pointed northern shores fringe
the shores of the polar sea, leaving the great bulk of the great land-
mass of the north to the broad shores of Asia and North America,
with their neighboring island groups.
This polar world, as we may call it, in contradistinction to the
Orient and the Occident, is not separated from more southerly
regions by any great physical line of demarkation. The arctic circle is
a mere mathematical line 66½° N. lat.; it has no geographical
character whatever. The true polar world reaches in some places far
beyond this mathematical barrier, bringing all its characteristics with
it; while, on the other hand, it withdraws, at a few other places,
nearer to the Pole. Were the polar world more broken up than it is
by inland seas, and separated from the great land-mass by broad
channels, it would be far more isolated in its whole character than it
is. It is this immediate contiguity of the polar world with the great
land-mass which opens it to whatever civilization it may be able to
receive. And there is the same unity in the polar world that there is
in the tropical world. The same phenomena which appear in one
part of it are repeated in every other part. There are, of course,
subordinate modifications found, but everything essential, which is
discovered in one part, is discovered in every other part. There is no
distinction into “new world” and no “old world;” the new world and
the old coincide amid the arctic pole.
The characteristic of the polar world, next to this of unbrokenness,
is the simplicity, or what might be called the monotony of its
productions and all its features; the uniform reproduction of the
same plants and animals, as well as of geological forms. Even
Lapland, which is the farthest removed from the Pole of all the arctic
regions, manifests, in its rounded and polished granite and gneiss
and its deep and sharply-defined cuts, the same uniformity. The
syenite found at Lake Imandra displays the same characteristics as
that found on the islands in the White Sea, and on the shores of
Greenland. The tops of the mountains, instead of being green, are
all white with the lichen, commonly known as reindeer moss. And as
with the geological formations and the vegetable kingdoms, so with
the animal kingdom. Elsewhere are found bears, foxes, reindeer,
seals, and walruses; the feathered tribes partake of the general
monotony of structure, and man not less. The range of his
development is extremely limited, and his character little different,
whether in northern Asia or northern America.
America forms the real West of the great land-mass, the true
Occident of the earth, young as yet, but to receive as its gift the
entire culture of the East, and to advance by giant steps to a
position of independent influence. Already it has far surpassed Asia
in industry and civilization. The old world was the preparation for the
new. Almost everything which the new world enjoys and values was
the gift of the old. Its most ancient monuments of religion,
architecture, and art are closely linked to those of the old world.
Hieroglyphics have been found among the Peruvians and the
Mexicans. In like manner embalming of princes, the engraving of
astronomical data upon rocks, were borrowed from the East.
The historic character of America is more striking in respect to
newness than the physical features of the water hemisphere. Buffon
supposed that the American continent is of more recent formation
than the old world, assigning for his opinion that it is more
submerged, because smaller in area, than the eastern land-mass;
because, also, the plants which demand moisture are predominant
over those which depend on a dry climate; and because the forms of
homologous animals—the elephant, rhinoceros, crocodile, turtle,
apes, and serpents, for instance—do not attain the same size as in
Asia and Africa. But waiving this, we use the name New World, only
with significance in its connection with history.
With the discovery of America begins a new period in the history
of man and of nations in their civil relations. The enlargement of
territory occasioned by it was not greater than the enlargement of
the bounds of thought. The old world had been developed earliest,
had gone as far as it could go; it had to wait till another great step
should be taken before it could go on in its course. The highest
progress of the human race, the complete development of its
possibilities, was not possible till man should, in his wanderings from
east to west, compass the globe, and take possession of it, not for a
day, but for all time. The primitive settlements in Mexico, Peru, and
Yucatan could not sustain themselves in consequence of their
isolation; navigation was in its rudest stages, and it needed to be in
its highest before the world should be bound together closely
enough to advance in all its parts toward the goal of a perfect
civilization. Those primitive colonies perished therefore, as Canaan
perished before Israel, and were replaced by others. The reason of
this lay in the isolation of the land-masses of the earth. Had America
been discovered and made accessible to the old world before the
diffusion of the Gospel and the establishment of the Christian
Church, it would have been too early, and heathenism might have
had its grandest triumph and its loftiest temples in the new world.
The way was not open as yet for the high moral development of the
race; and the highways of civilization were not made till the most
modern times, when all was in readiness for the great advance
which we are witnessing now.
The contrast to the great continental hemisphere is found in
Australia, a land-mass of no insignificant size, situated at the center,
or very nearly at the center of the great oceanic hemisphere, and
surrounded by hundreds of groups of islands, generally of quite
unimportant magnitude. The name Australia was fitly chosen; it
indicates its true relations to the Southern or Austral ocean. As Africa
is the true South to the eastern hemisphere, Australia is the true
South to the great continental land-mass of the whole globe. As the
earth has two magnetic north poles, and two north poles of cold,
one of the former in Siberia, north of Lake Baikal, and east of Cape
Taimura, 110° east of Greenwich; the other in the neighborhood of
Melville Island, in North America, 102° west longitude from
Greenwich, so there are, in a physical sense, two south poles, (we
do not refer to the magnetic ones and the poles of cold,) a
continental south pole in Africa, a marine or maritime south pole in
Australia.
This country, the largest of islands or the smallest of continents as
we may choose to designate it, the most remote of all the great
divisions from the center of the land hemisphere, has been the last
to feel the pulses of civilization. There, therefore, is to-day the most
rapid, the most amazing advancement to be witnessed on the earth;
it has crowded centuries into decades, and with its shores adorned
even now, in its youth, with states and cities, it cannot longer be
called a land left behind in the world’s advance. It has inherited all
that was finished in the knowledge and culture of the continental
world; what the people of that world have toiled for years to win,
becomes at once the birthright of the Australians. It is only an
instance of the truth of Humboldt’s remark, that the more full the
world is of ideas, the more rapid is its progress—a remark which
throws the strongest light upon the connection of geography with
history.
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7.4.10 /* SEARCH A NODE INTO A SIMPLE LINKED

8.7 Types of Binary Tree 265

Dr. Sachi Nandan Mohanty and

1.1 Definition and Use of Data Structure

• The data structures must be rich enough in structure to

In mathematically Algorithm + Data Structure = Program

1.2 Types of Data Structure

LINEAR NON LINEAR

ARRAY QUEUE STACK TREE GRAPH TABLES SETS

Linear Data Structures

Non-Linear Data Structure

Operations Performed in Data Structure

Steps Required to Develop an Algorithm

Mathematical Notations and Functions

no denotes the floor function

no denotes the ceil function

 To find the Integer and Absolute value of a number

Repeat while condition:

1.4 Complexity of an Algorithm

The amount of time taken by the compiler to compile an algorithm is

1.5 Efficiency of an Algorithm

1.6 Asymptotic Notations

• Big Oh Notation (O)

Big Oh (O) Notation

Omega Notation (W)

Theta Notation (q)

Little Oh Notation (o)

Performance: how much time/memory/disk/... is actually used

Complexity: how do the resource requirements of a program or algorithm

1.7 How to Determine Complexities

Note: this is code that really is exactly k statements; this is not

total time = time(statement 1) + time

If each statement is “simple” (only involves basic opera-

Here, either sequence 1 will execute, or sequence 2 will execute.

The loop executes N times, so the sequence of statements also

where the stopping condition of the inner loop is j < N

When a loop is involved, the same rule applies. For example:

has complexity (N2). The loop executes N times and each

Two loops in a row:

a. for (j = 0; j < N; j++) f(j);

Definition: The array is a collection of more than one element of same

• One Dimensional (The array having one boundary

2.1.1 One-Dimensional Array

Array Element in Memory

To find the Integer and Absolute value of a number