GENERAL BIOLOGY 1

WEEK 1 – CELL THEORY

ZACHARIAS JANSSEN: developed the first compound microscope in 1590

ROBERT HOOKE:

- July 18, 1635 – March 3, 1703

- Discovers cells in cork, then in living plant tissue using an early compound microscope. He coined

the term cell (from Latin cella, meaning “small room”)

- Like a Honey-comb

- Like compartments

ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK:

- 24 October 1632 – 26 August 1723

- Dutch Scientist

- Teaches himself to make lenses leading to the invention of his own basic optical microscopes.

Using his microscope, he was able to draw protozoa, such as Vorticella from rain water, and bacteria from

his own mouth.

- a Dutch Naturalist who was an expert in grinding lenses and the one who discovered the tiny living

organisms which he called “animalcules” from the drop of rain water. These animalcules are known as

bacteria. Through his experiments, he was the first to relatively determine their size.

- Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as unicellular organisms, although he observed

multicellular organisms in pond water. He was also the first to document microscopic observations of

muscle fibers, bacteria, spermatozoa, red blood cells, crystals in gouty tophi, and blood flow in capillaries.
ROBERT BROWN:

- 21 December 1773 – 10 June 1858

- Scottish botanist

- Identified nuclei in plant cells.

- Discovered the nucleus of the cell

- Introduced the phenomenon called Brownian movement.

FÉLIX DUJARDIN:

- 5 April 1801 – 8 April 1860

- was a French biologist born in Tours

- Discovered the semi-transparent living substance known as Sarcode, in which later on was

changed in protoplasm, the colorless materials comprising the living part of the cell.

MATTHIAS JAKOB SCHLEIDEN:

- 5 April 1804 - 23 June 1881 (aged 77)

- was a German botanist and co-founder of cell theory, along with Theodor Schwann and Rudolf

Virchow.

- He proposed on his studies about the entire parts of the plant and concluded that all plants are

made out of cell.

THEODOR SCHWANN:

- 7 December 1810 – 11 January 1882

- was a German physician and physiologist. His most significant contribution to biology is

considered to be the extension of cell theory to animals.

RUDOLF LUDWIG CARL VIRCHOW:

- 13 October 1821 – 5 September 1902

- Polish Scientist

- Father of Modern Pathology

- Stated that new cells come from pre-existing cells by cell division.

- Latin Phrase “Omnis cellula e cellula” in his essay Cell Pathology

- His work became the main foundation of the Cell theory

CELL: (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of

all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life”

CELL THEORY:

- historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells,

that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-

existing cells.

- Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.

- With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced

enough to discover cells in the 17th century.

- This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific study of cells, known

as cell biology.

3 TENETS TO THE CELL THEORY:

1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.

3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

MODERN CELL THEORY:

1. All living organisms are composed of trillions of cell in their body.

2. Cell is fundamental and building blocks of all living organisms.

3. Cells come from the other cells by cell division.

4. The cell consists of genetic material which is passed from generation up to the last generation.

5. All cells are made up of the same in chemical composition.

WEEK 2 – CELL

CELL: Basic and fundamental unit of life, it possesses a highly organized structure that enables it to carry
out its vital functions.

TYPES OF CELLS:

PROKARYOTIC: EUKARYOTIC:
Lack a defined nucleus Have a defined nucleus

PROKARYOTIC: PLANT: ANIMAL: PROTIST: FUNGAL:

Dispersed genetic Cellulose cell Rigid cell wall; may They can have a Chitin Cell Wall;
material wall; have flagella. cell wall, without they are
differentiated heterotrophs.
in the cytoplasm. chloroplasts
tissues.
and vacuoles.

COMPOSED OF SEVERAL FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENTS:

CELL NUCLEUS RIBOSOME ROUGH GOLGI APPARATUS

MEMBRANE ENDOPLASMIC
RETICULUM

MITOCHONDRIA CHLOROPLASTS LYSOSOME AND CENTRIOLE MICROTUBULES

PEROXISOME

STRUCTURE AND BASIC FUNCTIONS: These components work together to maintain cellular

homeostasis and perform essential life activities.

CELL MEMBRANE: surrounds the cell and is a selective barrier between the interior and the exterior.

- Its primary role lies in regulating the passage of substances, including nutrients and waste

materials

- Within it, specialized proteins play a crucial role in facilitating molecular transport and cellular

communication.

- Is composed of lipid bilayer (phospholipids and associated proteins (Integral and Peripheral

protein) together with oligosaccharide side chains.

FUNCTIONS:

1. It envelopes the cell

 2. To maintain the structures and functions

3. Has a sensory device that permits the cell to recognize and be recognized by the other cells and

macromolecules.

CYTOPLASM: Pertains to the fluid portion of the cell which contains the three main Structural components:

a. cytoskeleton b. organelles c. inclusions

- Also called as “soup” of the cell

CELL NUCLEUS: a membrane-bound organelle that contains genetic material (DNA) of eukaryotic

organisms.

- serves to maintain the integrity of the cell by facilitating transcription and replication processes

- the largest organelle inside the cell taking up about a tenth of the entire cell volume

PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS:

NUCLEAR ENVELOPE: a highly regulated membrane barrier that separates the nucleus from the

cytoplasm in eukaryotic cells

NUCLEOPLASM: is a type of protoplasm that is made up mostly of water, a mixture of various molecules,

and dissolved ions. It is completely enclosed within the nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope. The main

function of the nucleoplasm is to serve as a suspension substance for the organelles inside the nucleus

NUCLEOLUS: the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. It is best known as the site of

ribosome biogenesis

CHROMOSOMES: It is bounded protein which serves as packaging for Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and

controls the hereditary characteristics.

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES: Enclosed with specialized subunits located inside the cell performing

individual tasks. Individual organelle is usually enclosed within its own lipid bilayers. Each little organ that is

suspended in the cytoplasm has its own structural characteristics.

RIBOSOME: Site for protein synthesis. Found attached to rough ER or floating freely in the cytosol.

Produced in the nucleolus.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: Is a complex network of flattened sacs and tubes extending from the

nuclear membrane to the plasma membrane. It transports substance through the inside of the cell,

synthesizes lipids, enzymes and proteins.

TWO TYPES:

Rough ER: an ER with ribosomes on its surface.

Smooth ER: an ER without ribosomes on its surface.

GOLGI APPARATUS: Are flattened stacks of membranes that modify the proteins (polypeptides) and lipids

then packages into a small, membrane-enclosed organelle called “vesicle”.

ENERGY SUPPLY: To carry out vital functions and necessary metabolic processes essential for the proper

functioning of the cell and/or organism.

MITOCHONDRIA: powerhouse of the cell

- This is the location wherein energy produces ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).

VACUOLE: Single membranous sac that plays important roles in storage of materials, releasing of cellular

waste products, conducts intercellular digestion, maintaining hydrostatic pressure.

SMALLER VACUOLE: ANIMAL CELL LARGER VACUOLE: PLANT CELL

CELLULAR DIGESTION: It involves breaking down molecules and unwanted materials, enabling the

recycling of nutrients and cellular maintenance.

LYSOSOMES: Is a small membrane bordered structure that contains powerful enzymes necessary for

cellular digestion.

- Garbage disposal of cells.

- “Scavengers of the cell”

GLYCOCALYX: It is known to be the cell coat that is located in the outer part of the animal cell, its function

is for cell recognition and cellular adhesion.

PEROXISOMES: Are membrane-bound organelles that contain an abundance of enzymes for detoxifying

harmful substances and lipid metabolism.

SUPPORT AND MOVEMENT: Maintaining cellular shape, enabling cellular movement and division, are

essential for its functioning and survival.

CYTOSKELETON: It is composed of collective network of protein filaments (microtubules, microfilaments,

and intermediate filaments) and provides support and enables movement in eukaryotic cells.

- Its specific functions encompass stability, intracellular transport, and contraction. Furthermore, it

regulates cellular shape and plays a role in division.

PLASTIDS: Largest organelle in plant cells.

- These are disk-shaped pigment containing storage organelles found only in plant cells and some

photosynthetic protists.

- The largest, rounded membranous organelles that conatins DNA usually located in plant cell but

not common in animal cell for coloring pigments in plants.

DIFFERENT PLASTIDS AND THEIR COLORING PIGMENTS:

CHLOROPLASTIDS: green pigment

CHROMOPLASTIDS: colored pigment like red, yellow and orange

LEUCOPLASTIDS: white and colorless pigments

CENTROSOME: is an organelle that is the main place where cell microtubules are organized.

- Also, it regulates the cell division cycle, the stages which lead up to one cell dividing in two.

CENTRIOLE: is a cylindrical organelle composed mainly of a protein called tubulin. Centrioles are found in

most eukaryotic cells.

- A bound pair of centrioles, surrounded by a shapeless mass of dense material, called the

pericentriolar material, makes up a structure called a centrosome.

WEEK 3 – EUKARYOTIC AND PROKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTES: means “before the nucleus” (Bacteria, archaea)

- All prokaryotes are single cell organisms that are the smallest and metabolically diverse forms of life.

EUKARYOTES: organisms that consist of free-living cells; capable of becoming independent, the others

also made up of trillions of cells working together as a team or as a unit. (Animals and plants)

- A eukaryotic cell contains visible organelles and evidently a true nucleus.

PROKARYOTIC CELLS EUKARYOTIC CELLS

CELL TYPE Unicellular Multicellular

NUCLEUS Absent Present

NUMBER OF Contain of nucleic acid, one-but not true With nucleic acid and protein,
CHROMOSOMES chromosome; plasmids more than one

FEATURES OF Not organized, DNA molecules are packed Organized, packed into
GENETIC MATERIAL in a region, nucleoid but not the nucleus chromosomes located inside the
DNA nucleus

NUCLEAR Absent Present

MEMBRANE

ORGANELLES Incomplete organelles; lack of Complete organelles

mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, golgi
apparatus, lysosomes

SEXUAL No meiosis, transfer of DNA fragments, Meiosis and fusion of gametes

REPRODUCTION absent conjugation

CELL WALL Usually chemically complexes, contain Only in plant cell and fungi,
muriatic acid chemically simplest without
muriatic acid

CHLOROPLAST Absent chlorophyll scattered in the Present only in plants and

cytoplasm photosynthetic protists
 FLAGELLA Composed of only one fiber Usually arranged with nine
submicroscopic in size, lack of tubular doublets, bounded membranes
feature. microscopic in size.

WEEK 4 – SPECIALIZED CELLS (HUMAN CELLS)

SPECIALIZED CELLS: Cells designed to carry out a certain role

- Cells which have specific components and a specific structure

WHAT IS IT? HOW IS IT ADAPTED TO ITS ROLE?

- cells found in the blood - The disc shape increases surface area, so more
oxygen can be absorbed in the lungs
RED BLOOD - They contain hemoglobin
CELL which carries oxygen - There is no nucleus, which allows more space to
around the body carry oxygen

- White blood cells are part - Have an irregular shape so they can squeeze out of
of the immune system blood vessels and get to the site of infection
WHITE BLOOD
CELL - They help the body fight - Some can change shape to surround and engulf
infection and disease pathogens

- Are thin and very long, so they can carry messages

over long distances in the body

- They have branched connections allowing them to

NERVE CELL Transmit electrical signals
pass messages all over the body
in the nervous system
- They are surrounded by a fatty myelin sheath
which increases the speed that messages can travel

Osteoblasts form new bones and add growth to

existing bone tissue. Osteoclasts dissolve old and
BONE CELL Help your bones grow and
damaged bone tissue so it can be replaced with new,
develop
healthier cells created by osteoblasts.

Cells responsible for Mainly responsible for the production of collagen

cartilage formation and the extracellular matrix that will lead to the
CHONDROCYTES
maintenance of cartilaginous tissues within joints.

A type of cell that

contributes to the
FIBROBLAST Secrete collagen proteins that help maintain the
formation of connective
 tissue structural framework of tissues

Cells which are found in - Muscle cells are able to contract and relax
bundles which make up
- They can be found in many locations e.g. cardiac
muscles throughout the
muscle in the heart, skeletal muscles which are joined
MUSCLE CELLS body
to bones and smooth muscles such as the cells which
line the stomach

- Can expand to store more fat.

FAT CELL Store energy in the form of - Have few mitochondria as fat cells need very little
fat energy.

- Fat acts as soft elastic padding to protect organs.

- Cells which are found in

the airways to move
mucus and dust out
Have tiny hairs on top of them called cilia which beat
- They are also found in
in a rhythm.
CILIATED CELL the oviducts to move the
egg cell from the ovaries
to the uterus

WEEK 5 – CELL MODIFICATION

MAJOR CELL STRUCTURE:

CELL MEMBRANE: composed of a very thin layer of lipids and protein materials that partly divides the cell

elements from its environment. It functions like a wall with gates that controls the passage of molecules in

and out of the cell

CYTOPLASM: the most functional part of the cell wherein cytoplasmic materials are working together and

considered as the machinery of the entire cytoplasm. Each little organ performs a specific task.

NUCLEUS: control center of a cell. It plays the central role in cellular reproduction and in conjunction with

the environment; it directs the metabolic activities of the cell.

CELL MEMBRANE OR PLASMA MEMBRANE:

CELL IDENTIFICATION FUNCTION

FEATURE

CILIA Relatively short projection extending from the cell For the cell movement, allow the
surface and consists of two central and nine pairs materials to move on surface of
of peripheral microtubules. some tissues

FLAGELLA Long tail/whip-like appearance, made up two Cell locomotion, allows the
 central and nine pairs of peripheral mictrotubules sperm cells propels to reach the
final destination

MICROVILLI Minute finger-like projection Sites of osmosis where fluid may

pass in and out of the cell

PINOCYTIC In pockets of the cell membrane where filled up of Engulfs a droplet of water, cell is
VESICLE water able to drink

CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES:

CELL FEATURE IDENTIFICATION FUNCTION

RIBOSOMES Small rounded dark bodies workbenches of protein material

MITOCHONDRIA Sausage like organelle, elongated powerhouse of the cell, builder of

threadlike bodies energy known ATP for cell cellular
respiration

CYTOSKELETON Forming the network of microtubules, maintain cell shape motility, forms
intermediate fibers and microfilaments the internal framework

ENDOPLASMIC Highly variable network of membrane that Protein and membrane synthesis,
RETICULUM extend throughout the cytoplasm intercellular transport vesicles of
protein materials

Smooth ER No ribosomes on its surface Detoxification of drugs, synthesis of

lipids

Rough ER Ribosomes stud on the surface Membrane and protein manufacture

GOLGI BODY Stacks of flattened membranous sacs Packaging and the center storage of
protein
PLASTIDS Double-membrane sac enclosed internally Plant pigments or nutrient storage
by thylakoid membranes; chloroplasts center.
contain green pigment known as chlorophyll

LYSOSOMES Membranous sacs that are present in Powerful digestive enzyme storage,
animals secretions, waste

PEROXISOMES Membranous sacs containing a variety of Site of many diverse metabolic

enzymes reactions

VACUOLE Membrane-enclosed cavities filled with Expel excess water and waste from
either fluid of granular structure of material the cell known as contractile
vacuoles; food vacuoles contain
food, maintain hyrdostatic pressure.

CYTOSKELETON:

CELL FEATURE IDENTIFICATION FUNCTION

MICROTUBULES Tubular shape that made up of tubulin Give structural support, cell
protein mobility, for cellular division

MICROFILAMENTS Rod-shape tubules, solid rounded-like For the movement of cytoplasmic

shape that contain tubulin protein organelles, responsible for cell
division, gives support

INTERMEDIATE Microscopic thin thread structure, hairy- Helps to make the cell to become
FILAMENTS like that made up of protein fibers strong, maintaining the cell
shape.

CENTRIOLES Pair of rounded tubular bodies, located Forms spindle fibers during
behind the nucleus cellular division, of the movement
of cytoplasmic organelles, for cell
reproduction