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Edited by
John P. Dakin
Robert G. W. Brown
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
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Series Preface ix
Preface xi
Introduction to the Second Edition xiii
Editors xv
Contributors xvii
v
vi Contents
Part VII OIL, GAS, AND MINERAL EXPLORATION AND REFINING 259
This international series covers all aspects of photonic devices, nonlinear optics, interferom-
theoretical and applied optics and optoelectronics. etry, waves, crystals, optical materials, biomedical
Active since 1986, eminent authors have long been optics, optical tweezers, optical metrology, solid-
choosing to publish with this series, and it is now state lighting, nanophotonics, and silicon photon-
established as a premier forum for high-impact ics. Readers of the series are students, scientists,
monographs and textbooks. The editors are proud and engineers working in optics, optoelectronics,
of the breadth and depth showcased by published and related fields in the industry.
works, with levels ranging from advanced under- Proposals for new volumes in the series may be
graduate and graduate student texts to professional directed to Lu Han, executive editor at CRC Press,
references. Topics addressed are both cutting edge Taylor & Francis Group (lu.han@taylorandfrancis.
and fundamental, basic science and applications- com).
oriented, on subject matter that includes: lasers,
ix
Preface
This third volume of the Handbook is a brand new case, we have attempted to cross-reference to other
addition. Its focus on applications is intended to relevant chapters, either via a summary table or
complement the preceding two volumes, which with a short paragraph or two of how it is used in
have extensively covered the basic science, key the other application area.
components, and vital enabling technology. The Due to the huge, and very rapidly growing,
new chapters here have been written by authors number of applications, it is impossible to cover
presenting their own selected overviews of real- all aspects and applications, even in what is a fairly
world engineering applications. extensive selection. To try to indicate some of the
The intention of this volume is to concentrate areas that we may have missed, most of the sec-
on a number of areas where optoelectronics is tions contain a summary table in the introduction,
either already making, or has great future pros- to give a broader picture of the field. Some opto-
pects of making, a major difference to our lives. electronic technologies, such as cameras, light-
The objective is not to describe the technology emitting diodes, and liquid crystal displays, have
in great physical detail, but rather to give a set of had extensive applications for many years, whereas
case studies. These cases focus on how the tech- others such as solar panels were previously only
nology can be used, so the scientific and engineer- economically practical for mobile or remote pow-
ing descriptions are much shorter than in earlier ering, but are now becoming used far more widely
chapters, and more examples and photographs are as costs reduce.
given. We have tried to ensure that, where feasible, The short-form treatment of other applications
descriptions are not related to an obvious commer- in these tables will inevitably leave some questions
cial product, but, where appropriate, performance unanswered, but we trust that we have presented at
data of real systems is occasionally included. least a broad cross-section of case studies, which
The structure of this volume involves splitting hopefully succeed in illustrating that optoelec-
it into major application fields, rather than tech- tronics is a major force for change in our world.
nology areas. Naturally, this means that inevitably
some enabling technologies are applicable to more John P. Dakin
than one application area. Where this is clearly the
xi
Introduction to the Second Edition
There have been many detailed technological since 2006, we have witnessed growth of various
changes since the first edition of the Handbook fundamentally new directions of optoelectronics
in 2006, with the most dramatic changes seen research and likely new component technologies
from the far more widespread applications of the for the near future. One of the most significant new
technology. To reflect this, our new revision has areas of activity has been in nano-optoelectronics;
a completely new Volume 3 focused on applica- the use of nanotechnology science, procedures and
tions and covering many case studies from an processes to create ultra-miniature devices across
ever increasing range of possible topics. Even as the entire optoelectronics domain: laser and LED
recently as 2006, the high cost or poorer perfor- sources, optical modulators, photon detectors, and
mance of many optoelectronics components was solar cell technology. Two new chapters on silicon
still holding back many developments, but now the photonics and nanophotonics and graphene opto-
cost of many high-spec components, particularly electronics attempt to cover the wide range of nan-
ones such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), lasers, otechnology developments in optoelectronics this
solar cells, and other optical detectors, optoelec- past decade. It will, however, be a few years before
tronic displays, optical fibers and components, the scale-up to volume manufacturing of nano-
including optical amplifiers, has reduced to such based devices becomes an economically feasible
an extent that they are now finding a place in all reality, but there is much promise for new genera-
aspects of our lives. Solid-state optoelectronics tions of optoelectronic technologies to come soon.
now dominates lighting technology and is starting Original chapters of the first edition have been
to dominate many other key areas such as power revised and brought up to date for the second edi-
generation. It is revolutionizing our transport by tion, mostly by the original authors, but in some
helping to guide fully autonomous vehicles, and cases by new authors, to whom we are especially
CCTV cameras and optoelectronic displays are grateful.
seen everywhere we go.
In addition to the widespread applications Robert G. W. Brown and John P. Dakin
now routinely using optoelectronic components,
xiii
Editors
John P. Dakin, PhD, is professor (Emeritus) at the Robert G. W. Brown, PhD, is at the Beckman
Optoelectronics Research Centre, University of Laser Institute and Medical Clinic at the University
Southampton, UK. He earned a BSc and a PhD at of California, Irvine. He earned a PhD in engineer-
the University of Southampton and remained there ing at the University of Surrey, Surrey, and a BS in
as a Research Fellow until 1973, where he supervised physics at Royal Holloway College at the University
research and development of optical fiber sensors of London, London. He was previously an applied
and other optical measurement instruments. He physicist at Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids, IA,
then spent 2 years in Germany at AEG Telefunken; where he carried out research in photonic ultra-
12 years at Plessey, research in Havant and then fast computing, optical detectors, and optical
Romsey, UK; and 2 years with York Limited/York materials. Previously, he was an advisor to the
Biodynamics in Chandler’s Ford, UK before return- UK government, and international and editorial
ing to the University of Southampton. director of the Institute of Physics. He is an elected
He has authored more than 150 technical and member of the European Academy of the Sciences
scientific papers, and more than 120 patent appli- and Arts (Academia Europaea) and special profes-
cations. He was previously a visiting professor at sor at the University of Nottingham, Nottingham.
the University of Strathclyde, Glasgow. He also retains a position as adjunct full profes-
Dr. Dakin has won a number of awards, includ- sor at the University of California, Irvine, in the
ing “Inventor of the Year” for Plessey Electronic Beckman Laser Institute and Medical Clinic,
Systems Limited and the Electronics Divisional Irvine, California, and as visiting professor in the
Board Premium of the Institute of Electrical and department of computer science. He has authored
Electronics Engineers, UK. Earlier, he won open more than 120 articles in peer-reviewed journals
scholarships to both Southampton and Manchester and holds 34 patents, several of which have been
Universities. successfully commercialized.
He has also been responsible for a number of Dr. Brown has been recognized for his entrepre-
key electro-optic developments. These include the neurship with the UK Ministry of Defence Prize
sphere lens optical fiber connector, the first wave- for Outstanding Technology Transfer, a prize from
length division multiplexing optical shaft encoder, Sharp Corporation (Japan) for his novel laser-
the Raman optical fiber distributed temperature diode invention, and, together with his team at
sensor, the first realization of a fiber optic passive the UK Institute of Physics, a Queen’s Award for
hydrophone array sensor, and the Sagnac location Enterprise, the highest honor bestowed on a UK
method described here, plus a number of novel company. He has guest edited several special issues
optical gas sensing methods. More recently, he of Applied Physics and was consultant to many
was responsible for developing a new distributed companies and government research centers in
acoustic and seismic optical fiber sensing system, the United States and the United Kingdom. He is a
which is finding major applications in oil and gas series editor of the CRC Press “Series in Optics and
exploration, transport and security systems. Optoelectronics.”
xv
Contributors
xvii
xviii Contributors
In this section, we present case studies of the use sensors, particularly fiber grating types, have
of optoelectronics in infrastructure. This includes numerous other potential application areas, such
applications on fixed structures, in particular, sen- as structural sensors in wind energy turbines,
sors located next to vital road and rail systems, aircraft and ships, racing yacht masts, and many
civil engineering structures, such as bridges and more.
dams, and ones built in or on the structure of Chapter 2 describes a distributed optical fiber
buildings or their foundations. (Please note, sys- acoustic/seismic sensor, which has, apart from
tems and sensors intended specifically for security for infrastructure, obvious applications in secu-
and surveillance purposes, for energy, for oil and rity and surveillance. Such sensors are currently
gas extraction, and ones fitted to moving vehicles employed extensively in the oil and gas industry,
will be described in later application sections.) and this important application is described more
In order to give a broader introduction to infra- fully by Andre Franzen in Chapter 20.
structure applications than we could possibly Chapters 3 and 4 describe camera monitors for
cover with our selected case studies, we shall first roads. These are used for monitoring and identi-
present a summary table. This will give a broader fying vehicles (via number plate readers or still
overview than possible in the more specific case photographs) and determining their speed and
study chapters. position. If the book had been structured in a dif-
As will be the practice in most chapters in this ferent way, such sensors would have been consid-
volume, we shall then present a few more detailed ered to be a part of the later sections on “transport”
case studies. Before commencing, however, it is or “security and surveillance,” but as they are fixed
perhaps appropriate to briefly emphasize where in location, we have chosen to describe them here.
sensors described in this section also have cross- Hopefully, the readers will appreciate that there
over applications to other sections in the volume. are inevitable dilemmas of where best to describe
Chapter 1 describes various forms of optical these applications and will bear with us in our
strain sensors for highways, but similar strain order of presenting them in the sections that follow.
Table I.1 Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field
2 Optoelectronics in infrastructure
Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Sensors for traffic Visible CCTV Established optoelectronics Limited to line-of- Already becoming See this section.
monitoring and cameras technology and can use sight applications. widely used. (Part 1)
control. Vehicle IR cameras relatively cheap cameras. Sophistication of
identification. Time-interval Camera information can easily networking for traffic
Detection of speeding cameras be recorded and networked. monitoring systems is
and other traffic Sophisticated video Individual vehicles can be rapidly improving.
violations. processing identified via number plates Already becoming
techniques such and acquisition of vehicle fully integrated with
as vehicle number flow statistics for high traffic traffic control
plate recognition. volumes is also possible. systems.
Inbuilt sensors for Optical fiber Long distance (~30 km) Requires significant A fairly new, but rapidly See also Part VII
road, rail, or airport distributed coverage with one sensor. in-road or railside expanding and Volume II,
traffic monitoring, acoustic/seismic Sensor can be configured along works to install. technology for Chapter 11
which are buried in sensors (DAS). any desired path. Potential cross talk highway and railway (Optical Fiber
highway, or fastened Multiple (up to many hundreds) from seismic applications, but one Sensors).
to, or located close sensing points with one signals transmitted that has been used
to, railway lines, sensing system. through the with great success in
airport runways, etc. ground from other oil and gas wells.
areas nearby.
Expensive sensors as
new sophisticated
technology.
Sensors for monitoring Optical fiber strain Optical fibers are robust and Installers need to be Involves less- See this section.
structural integrity of gauges, having immune to corrosive liquids trained in the new established (Part 1)
roads, bridges, short or long such as alkaline cements and technology. technology than
dams, buildings, etc. gauge length. road-salt solutions. electrical strain
Sensors are No conductors, so no problems gauges, but is rapidly
usually embedded with electrolytic conduction, gaining acceptance in
in construction galvanic corrosion, and/or many areas.
materials. lightning strike. (Continued)
Table I.1 (Continued) Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field
Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Very large optical Originally, these LEDs have had excellent No real Unless a revolutionary See also Volume
displays for traffic displays used reliability for many years. disadvantages. new technology I, Chapter 10
control and incandescent Most low-cost LEDs arrives, these LED (LEDs) and
providing sources, but most packages conveniently emit displays are here to Volume II,
information to road are now replaced light in a forward cone, of stay! There is, Chapter 9 (3D
and rail users (e.g., by arrays of the type needed to maximize however, potential Display
traffic lights, and high-brightness visibility to approaching competition from Systems).
overhead gantry or LEDs. drivers. Current LEDs are far large-area organic
roadside displays). brighter and more efficient displays.
than earlier types and unit
costs are falling rapidly.
Roadside solar power, Photovoltaic optical A very economical way of Needs a storage A common feature on See also
for remote to electrical providing power in locations battery and charge cross-country roads Volume II,
powering of LED energy conversion away from mains electricity controller to cover and highways. Chapter 16
road signs, traffic (often supplies. periods without Perhaps the most (Optical to
lights, speed supplemented by sun or wind! elegant and artistic Electrical
sensors, emergency small wind Batteries must be ones are those used Energy
telephones, etc. generator to replaced regularly, on French highways, Conversion:
generate at night and they could for powering Solar Cells).
and on cloudy potentially emergency
Optoelectronics in infrastructure 3
days!). discharge too far telephones!
in unsuitable
weather.
Warning strobe lights Used to employ arc LED lamps have far greater Still not as bright as As with many areas of See also
for high towers, lamps and reliability, easier drive the best arc lamps, lighting, LEDs are Volume I,
and scanned lights gas-filled flash circuitry, and can provide but can use arrays gradually taking over. Chapter 10
for lighthouses, etc. lamps, but most different colors without the of them to help to (LEDs).
Dual-pulse flash are now LED need for filters. compensate for
lamps for roadside based. this.
speed cameras. (Continued)
Table I.1 (Continued) Summary of applications of optoelectronics in the infrastructure field
4 Optoelectronics in infrastructure
Current situation
Application Technology Advantages Disadvantages (at time of writing) More reading
Road lighting system. These used to use Reliability, as very high Somewhat higher Again, unless a new See also
high- or low- lifetimes. Present LEDs are initial cost at revolutionary Volume I,
pressure arc lamps far brighter and more present, but this is technology arrives, Chapter 10
(mostly low- efficient than earlier types of falling very rapidly. they are here to stay! (LEDs).
pressure sodium lighting. Initial costs are Expect nearly all
lamps), but now falling rapidly, electricity lighting systems to
changing to white costs are reduced and soon use LEDs or
LED-based maintenance costs are very semiconductor lasers.
systems. low.
Roadside optical Optical systems for Can monitor road traffic for Expensive systems at A system developed by See Chapter 19
pollution sensors. determination of identifying vehicles that are present but costs NASA has been used (Raman Gas
pollution from emitting noxious fumes or would reduce with to monitor Spectroscopy)
vehicles, using are using illegal fuels. greater usage. automobile emissions and Part VII
spectroscopic in numerous US chapters on
analysis. states. gas sensing
for discussion
of general
concepts.
1
Overview of fiber optic sensing
technologies for structural health
monitoring
DANIELE INAUDI
SMARTEC/Roctest
5
6 Overview of fiber optic sensing technologies for structural health monitoring
free and acts as temperature reference. Both fibers in field conditions. The main interest in using Bragg
are installed inside the same pipe and the mea- gratings resides in their multiplexing potential.
surement basis can be chosen between 200 mm Many gratings can be written in the same fiber at
and 10 m. The resolution of the system is of 2 μm different locations and tuned to reflect at different
independently from the measurement basis and its wavelengths. This allows the measurement of strain
precision is of 0.2% of the measured deformation at different places along a fiber using a single cable.
even over years of operation. Typically, 4–16 gratings can be measured on a sin-
The SOFO system has been successfully used gle fiber line. It has to be noticed that since the grat-
to monitor more than 150 structures, including ings have to share the spectrum of the source used
bridges, tunnels, piles, anchored walls, dams, his- to illuminate them, there is a trade-off between the
torical monuments, nuclear power plants, as well number of gratings and the dynamic range of the
as laboratory models. measurements on each of them.
Because of their length, fiber Bragg gratings can
1.1.2 Bragg grating strain sensors be used as a replacement for conventional strain
gauges and installed by gluing them on metals and
Bragg gratings are periodic alterations in the index other smooth surfaces. With adequate packaging,
of refraction of the fiber core that can be produced they can also be used to measure strains in con-
by adequately exposing the fiber to intense ultravio- crete over a basis length of typically 100 mm.
let (UV) light. The produced gratings typically have
length of the order of 10 mm. If white light is injected
in the fiber containing the grating, the wavelength 1.1.3 Fabry–Perot strain sensors
corresponding to the grating pitch will be reflected,
while all other wavelengths will pass through the An extrinsic Fabry–Perot interferometer (EFPI) con-
grating undisturbed. Since the grating period is sists of a capillary silica tube containing two cleaved
strain and temperature dependent, it becomes pos- optical fibers facing each other, but leaving an air
sible to measure these two parameters by analyz- gap of a few microns or tens of microns between
ing the spectrum of the reflected light [3]. This is them (see Figure 1.4) [4]. When light is launched
typically done by using a tunable filter (such as a into one of the fibers, a back-reflected interference
Fabry–Perot cavity) or a spectrometer. Resolutions signal is obtained. This is due to the reflection of the
of the order of 1 με and 0.1°C can be achieved with incoming light on the glass-to-air and on the air-to-
the best demodulators. If strain and temperature glass interfaces. This interference can be demodu-
variations are expected simultaneously, it is neces- lated using coherent or low-coherence techniques to
sary to use a free reference grating that measures reconstruct the changes in the fiber spacing. Since
the temperature alone and uses its reading to cor- the two fibers are attached to the capillary tube near
rect the strain values. Setups allowing the simulta- its two extremities (with a typical spacing of 10 mm),
neous measurement of strain and temperature have the gap change will correspond to the average strain
been proposed but have yet to prove their reliability variation between the two attachment points.
Attachment points
Fabry–Perot cavity
Optical fiber
Mirros
Kedd.
Napsütés és csönd, csodálatosan tiszta délelőtt. A hó teljesen
elolvadt; mindenütt élet és fény és vidám arcok, mosolygás és
nevetés. A szökőkutakból magas ivben szálltak föl a vizsugarak a
naptól aranyosan és az ég kékjétől kékesen…
Délfelé kimentem lakásomról a városba; azóta a Tomtegaten
laktam s jó dolgom volt, hála a „Generális“ tiz koronájának. A
legvidámabb hangulatban járkáltam egész délután a
legmozgalmasabb utcákon s az embereket nézegettem. Este hét óra
előtt még elsétáltam a Szent Olaf-térre és titokban fölnézegettem a
második szám ablakaira. Egy óra mulva látni fogom! Az egész idő
alatt valami könnyü, boldog aggodalommal járkáltam. Hogyan is lesz
csak? Mit fogok mondani, mikor a lépcsőn lefelé jön? Jó estét,
kisasszony? Vagy csak mosolyogjak? Elhatároztam, hogy csak a
mosolygásnál maradok. De természetesen mélyen meg fogom
hajtani magam.
Azután tovább osontam, kissé szégyenkezve, hogy olyan korán
megjelentem; a Karl Johan-utcában járkáltam egy darabig és
folytonosan az egyetem óráját figyeltem. Pont nyolc órakor ujra
fölmentem az Egyetem-utcán. Közben eszembe jutott, hogy talán
pár perccel el is késem és amennyire csak birtam, sietni kezdtem. A
lábam még mindig sebes volt, de különben nem volt semmi bajom.
A szökőkuthoz állottam és kifujtam magam; elég sokáig vártam
már és néztem a 2. szám ablakait, de ő nem jött. Nos, hát várni
fogok tovább is, nem volt semmi sietős utam, talán föltartóztatta
valami. És megint vártam. Csak nem álmodtam talán az egészet?
Csak nem annak az éjszakának a képzelődése volt az egész első
találkozás, amikor lázban feküdtem? Gyámoltalanul gondolkozni
kezdek a dolgon és egyáltalában nem vagyok vele tisztában.
– Hm! – hallom magam mögött.
Jól hallom a torokköszörülést, hallom a könnyü lépteket is a
közelemben, de nem fordulok vissza, hanem tovább bámulok a
széles lépcsőre magam előtt.
– Jó estét, – mondja ekkor.
Elfelejtek mosolyogni, még a kalapom sem veszem le azonnal,
annyira meglep, hogy a másik oldalról jött.
– Sokáig várt? – kérdi s kissé gyorsan lélegzik a járás után.
– Egyáltalában nem, csak néhány perccel ezelőtt érkeztem, –
felelek. – Különben, ha még soká vártam volna is!? De azt hittem,
hogy a másik oldalról fog jönni.
– Mamát kisértem el egy ismerős családhoz; mama nem lesz
otthon ma este.
– Vagy ugy? – mondom.
Elkezdünk menni. Egy rendőr áll az utca szögletén és ránk néz.
– De hova megyünk tulajdonképpen? – mondja és megáll.
– Ahova akar, oda, ahova maga akarja.
– Juj, de olyan unalmas ezt magamnak kitalálni.
Hallgatás.
És akkor igy szólok, csak hogy mondjak valamit:
– Ugy látom, hogy maguknál sötétek az ablakok.
– Igen, – felel élénken. – A leány is elment. Egészen egyedül
volnék otthon.
Mind a ketten ott állunk és ugy nézünk föl a második szám
ablakaira, mintha egyikünk sem látta volna még soha.
– Nem mehetnénk föl magukhoz? – mondom végre. – Ha akarja,
el sem mozdulok az ajtó mellől egész idő alatt…
Szinte reszketni kezdtem az izgatottságtól és kétségbe voltam
esve a saját tolakodásom fölött. Hátha most megharagszik és
azonnal itt hagy? Mi lesz belőlem, ha soha többé nem fogom látni?
És ez a nyomorult öltözet, ami rajtam van! Elkeseredve várom a
feleletét.
– Egyáltalában nem szükséges, hogy az ajtó mellett üljön, – felel.
Fölmentünk.
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