Unit IV

Operational Techniques and Technologies

UNIT – IV : Operational techniques and technologies

Adjusting the parameters of a system, Fixed Channel assignment schemes,

Non Fixed Channel assignment algorithms, Coverage hole filter, Cell Splitting,

and small cells (Micro cells), Narrow Beam concept.

4 Adjusting the Parameters of a System

4.1 Increasing the Coverage for a Noise-Limited System

In a noise-limited system, there is no cochannel interference or

adjacent-channel interference.This means that either

(1) no cochannels and adjacent channels are used in the system or

(2) channel reuse distance is so large that the interference would be

negligible.

The following approaches are used at the cell site to increase the coverage.

Usually, increasing the transmitted power

of each channel results in coverage of a larger area.

When the power level is doubled, the gain increases by 3 dB, increase in

covered area can be found as follows.

The received power can be obtained from the transmitted power , where

is a function of the cell radius.

Let the received power be the power received in an original cell of a radius

of r then,
 .

▶ In general, the 6 dB/oct rule applies to the cell-site antenna height in a

flat terrain, that is, doubling the antenna height causes a gain increase

of 6 dB.

▶ If the terrain contour is hilly, then an effective antenna height should be

used, depending on the location of the mobile unit.

▶ Sometimes, doubling the actual antenna height results in a gain

increase of less than 6 dB and sometimes more. This phenomenon was

described in Chap. 8.

▶The gain and directivity of an antenna increase with the received

level— the same effect seen with an increase of transmitted power.

▶ When the threshold level is lowered, the acceptable received power is

lower and the radius of the cell increases [Eq. (12.1-3) applies].

▶ The increase in service area due to a lower received level can be

obtained from Eq. (12.1-8). Let Pt2 = Pt1 , and Pr2 = 0.25Pr1 (i.e., − 6 dB).

Then A2 = 2A1. The received level is reduced by 6 dB, and the service

area is doubled.
 ▶ The thermal noise level is − 129 dBm.

▶ In a noise-limited environment, if the front-end noise of the receiver is

low and the received power level remains the same, the carrier-to-noise

ratio becomes large in comparison to a receiver with a high front-end

noise.

▶ This low-noise receiver can receive a signal from a farther distance

than can a high-noise receiver.

▶ A diversity receiver is very useful in reducing the multipath fading.

▶ When the fading reduces, the reception level can be increased.

▶ With a given actual antenna height and a given transmitted power,

coverage area can be increased if we can select a proper site.

▶ Of course, in principle, for coverage purposes, we always select a high

site if there is no risk of interference.

▶ However, sometimes we need to cover an important area within the

coverage area; in such cases it is necessary to move around the site

location.

This is discussed in coverage hole filler.(next)

The technique of engineering the

antenna patterns can be used to cover a desired service area.

 12.1.2 Reducing the Interference

In most situations, the methods mentioned in above Sec.

1. .

2. .

3. 3. .

. .

5. .

6. .

8.
 Methods for reducing the interference are as follows.

1. . From the total channels of an AMPS

system shown in Fig. 12.1 as an example, there are 21 sets of channels in the

chart. In each channel set, the neighboring frequency is 21 channels away.

No interference can be caused within a set of 16 channels.

2. . In order to assign the 21 sets in a =7

frequency reuse pattern and to avoid the interference problems from

adjacent-channel or cochannel interference, an intelligent frequency

assignment in real time is needed.

3. .

Depending on the current situation, some idle channels may be noisy, some

may be quiet, and some may be vulnerable to channel interference. These

factors should be considered in assignment of frequency channels.

4. .

In some directions, a strong signal may be needed; in other directions no

signal may be needed. The design tool should include the findings of signal

requirements on the basis of antenna direction.

5. . To confine the energy within a small area, we may

use an umbrella-pattern omnidirectional antenna or downward tilting

directional antenna.

6. . We can use this method because reducing

interference is more important than radio coverage.

7. . In certain circumstances, reducing

transmitted power can be more effective in eliminating interference than

reducing the height of the antenna.

8. . The propagation prediction model described

in Chap. 8 can be used to select cell-site locations for eliminating

interference.

▶ Adjacent-Channel Assignment
 ▶ Channel Sharing and Borrowing

12.2.1 Adjacent-Channel Assignment

Adjacent-channel assignment includes neighboring-channel assignment and

next-channel assignment.

The near-end– far-end (ratio) interference, can occur among the neighboring

channels (four channels on each side of the desired channel).

Therefore, within a cell we have to be sure to assign neighboring channels in

an omnidirectional-cell system and in a directional-antenna-cell system

properly.

In an omnidirectional-cell system, if one channel is assigned to the middle

cell of seven cells, (cluster) next channels cannot be assigned in the same

cell.

Also, no next channel (preferably including neighboring channels) should be

assigned in the six neighboring sites in the same cell system area (Fig. 12.2 ).

In a directional-antenna-cell system, if one channel is assigned to a face, next

channels cannot be assigned to the same face or to the other two faces in the

same cell.

Also, next channels cannot be assigned to the other two faces at the same

cell site (Fig. 12.2 ). Sometimes the next channels are assigned in the next

sector of the same cell in order to increase capacity.

12.2.2 Channel Sharing and Borrowing

Channel sharing is a short-term traffic-relief scheme.

A scheme used for a seven-cell three-face system is shown in Fig. 12.3.

▶ There are 21 channel sets, with each set consisting of about 16

channels.

▶ Figure 12.3 shows the channel set numbers. When a cell needs more

channels,

▶ To obey the adjacent-channel assignment algorithm, the sharing is

always cyclic. Sharing always increases the trunking efficiency of

channels.
 ▶ Since we cannot allow adjacent channels to share with the nominal
channels in the same cell.

▶ In channel-sharing systems, the channel combiner should be flexible in

order to combine up to 32 channels in one face in real time.

▶ Channel borrowing is usually handled on a long-term basis.

▶ The extent of borrowing more available channels from other cells

depends on the traffic density in the area.

▶ Channel borrowing can be implemented from one cell-site face to

another face at the same cell site.

▶ In addition, the central cell site can borrow channels from neighboring
cells.

▶ The channel borrowing scheme is used primarily for slowly-growing

systems.

▶ It is often helpful in delaying cell splitting in peak traffic areas. Since

cell splitting is costly, it should be implemented only as a last resort.

12.2.3 Sectorization

▶ The total number of available

channels can be divided into sets (subgroups) depending on the

sectorization of the cell configuration: the 120◦ -sector system, the

60◦-sector system, and the 45◦-sector system.

▶ A seven-cell system usually uses three 120◦ sectors per cell, with the
total number of channel sets being 21.

▶ In certain locations and special situations, the sector angle can be

reduced (narrowed) in order to assign more channels in one sector

without increasing neighboring-channel interference.

▶ In addition, channel coordination to avoid cochannel interference is

much easier in sectorization than in cell splitting.

 There are three basic types.

1. is used for both transmitting and receiving

sectorization. Each sector has an assigned a number of frequencies.
Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs.
2. cell is used for both transmitting and receiving sectorization.
Changing sectors during a call requires handoffs. More handoffs are
expected for a 60◦ sector than a 120◦ sector in areas close to cell sites
(close-in areas).

3. The 120◦- or 60◦-sector cell is used for receiving sectorization only.

In this case, the transmitting antenna is omnidirectional. The number of

channels in this cell is not subdivided for each sector. Therefore, no handoffs

are required when changing sectors. This receiving-sectorization-only

configuration does not decrease interference or increase the / ratio; it only

allows for a more accurate decision regarding handing off the calls to

neighboring cells.

12.2.4 Underlay-Overlay Arrangement3

In actual cellular systems cell grids are seldom uniform because of varying

traffic conditions in different areas and cell-site locations.

To permit the two groups to reuse the channels in two

different cell- reuse patterns of the same size, an “ underlaid” small cell is
sometimes established at the same cell site as the large cell (see Fig. 12.4 ).
The “ doughnut” (large) and “ hole” (small) cells are treated as two
different cells. They are usually considered as “ neighboring cells.”
The use of either an omnidirectional antenna at one site to create two subring
areas or three directional antennas to create six subareas is illustrated in Fig.
12.4 . As seen in Fig. 12.4, a set of frequencies used in an overlay area will
differ from a set of frequencies used in an underlay area in order to avoid
adjacent-channel and cochannel interference. The channels assigned to one
combiner— say, 16 channels— can be used for overlay, and another combiner
can be used for underlay.

The antenna of a set-up channel is usually omnidirectional. When an

incoming call is received by the set-up channel and its signal strength is

higher than a level , the underlaid cell is assigned; otherwise, the overlaid

cell is assigned. The handoffs are implemented between the underlaid and

overlaid cells.
In order to avoid the unnecessary handoffs, we may choose two levels 1 and

2 and 1 2 as shown in Fig. 12.4 .

When a mobile signal is higher than a level 1 the call is handed off to the

underlaid cell. When a signal is lower than a level 2 the call is handed off to

the overlaid cell. The channels assigned in the underlaid cell have more

protection against cochannel interference.

12.3.1 Description of Different Algorithms

The fixed channel assignment (FCA)

algorithm is the most common algorithm adopted in many cellular systems.

In this algorithm, each cell assigns its own radio channels to the vehicles

within its cell.

In dynamic channel assignment (DCA),

no fixed channels are assigned to each cell. Therefore, any channel in a

composite of N radio channels can be assigned to the mobile unit. This

means that a channel is assigned directly to a mobile unit. On the basis of

overall system performance, DCA can also be used during a call.

Hybrid channel assignment (HCA) is a

combination of FCA and DCA. A portion of the total frequency channels will

use FCA and the rest will use DCA.

Borrowing channel assignment (BCA)

uses FCA as a normal assignment condition. When all the fixed channels are

occupied, then the cell borrows channels from the neighboring cells.

In forcible-borrowing

channel assignment (FBCA), if a channel is in operation and the situation

warrants it, channels must be borrowed from the neighboring cells and at the

same time, another voice channel will be assigned to continue the call in the

neighboring cell.
Because the ground is not flat, many water puddles form during a rainstorm;

for the same reason, many holes (weak spots) are created in a general area

during antenna radiation. There are several methods for filling these holes.

12.4.1 Enhancers (Repeaters)

An enhancer is used in an area that is a hole (weak spot) in the serving cell

site. There are two types of enhancer:

▶ wideband and

▶ channelized enhancers.

The wideband enhancer is a repeater. It is designed for either block A or

block B channel implementation. All the signals received will be amplified.

Sometimes it can create intermodulation products; therefore, implementation

of an enhancer in an appropriate place to fill the hole without creating

interference is a challenging job. One application is shown in Fig. 12.9. The

amplifier requires only low amplification. The signal is transmitted from the

cell site and received at the enhancer site by a higher directional antenna

which is mounted at a high altitude. The signal received in the forward

channel will be radiated by the lower antenna, which is either an

omnidirectional or a directional antenna at the enhancer. The mobile units in

the vicinity of the enhancer site will receive the signal. The mobile unit uses

the reverse channel to respond to calls (or originate calls) through the

enhancer to the cell site. However, the amplifier amplifies both the signal and

the noise. Therefore, the enhancer cannot improve the signal-to-noise ( / )

ratio. The received signal at the mobile units and at the cell site with an

enhancer placed in the middle can be expressed as

12.7.1 Installation of a Mastless Antenna

Building structures can be used to

mount cell-site antennas. In such cases the rooftop usually is flat. There

should be enough clearance around the antenna post mounted in the middle

of the building to avoid blockage of the beam pattern from the edge of the

roof (see Fig. 12.19). A formula may be applied for this situation. Given the
vertical beamwidth of antenna and the distance from the antenna post to

the edge of the roof , the height of the post can be determined by

The narrowbeam-sector concept is another method for increasing the traffic

capacity (see Fig. 12.21). For a = 7 frequency-reuse pattern with 120◦

sectors as a conventional
In the = 7 pattern there is a total of 21 sectors with 15 channels in each
sector; in the = 4 pattern there is a total of 24 sectors with 13 channels in
each sector. The spectrum efficiency of using these two patterns can be
calculated using the Erlang B table in Appendix A.
With a blocking probability of 2 percent, the results are: an offer load of 189
erlangs for = 7 and 177 erlangs for = 4.
This means that the = 7 pattern offers a 7 percent higher spectrum
efficiency than the = 4 pattern does.
Here we could use the scheme for customizing channel distribution; that is,
usage of the 120◦ and 60◦ sectors can be mixed. Some 120◦ sectors can be
replaced by two 60◦ sectors in a = 7 pattern. The number of channels can
then be increased from 15 to 26 .This scheme would be suitable for small-cell
systems.

The antenna-height requirement for 60◦ sectors in small cells is relatively

higher than that for 120◦ sectors. Besides, the 24 subgroups (each containing
13 channels) are used as needed in certain areas. These sector-mixed
systems follow a = 7 frequency-reuse pattern, and the traffic capacity is
dramatically increased as a result of customizing the channel distribution
according to the real traffic condition.

12.8.1 Comparison of Narrow beam Sectors with Underlay-Overlay

Arrangement
In certain situations, the narrowbeam sector scheme is better in a small cell

than the underlay-overlay scheme. In a small cell, it is very difficult to control

power in order to make underlay- overlay schemes work effectively.

For 60◦ sectors, the 60◦ narrowbeam antennas would easily delineate the area

for operation of the assigned radio channels. However, choosing the correct

narrowbeam sector where the mobile unit is located is hard. As a result, many

unnecessary handoffs may take place.