LING 2800

LANGUAGE AND
MIND

LECTURE 2
L A N G U A G E A S A S C I E N C E

D R . L I Z S M E E T S ( S H E / H E R )

© 2023, unauthorized use or distribution strictly prohibited.

Slides adapted from Youri Zabbal, Moti Lieberman and Charles Reiss.
LAST CLASS
§ Language as a natural object of study.

§ Chomsky and I-Languages (mental grammar)

§ The I-language perspective and unconscious rules

FIVE FACTS ABOUT GRAMMARS

1.Generality: All languages have a grammar.

2.Parity: All languages’ grammars are equal.

3.Universality: All grammars are alike in basic ways.

4.Mutability: All grammars change over time.

5.Inaccessibility: Grammatical knowledge/competence is

subconscious.
GENERALITY

All languages and dialects have grammatical systems that govern the
structure of sentences, the structure of words, permissible sound
combinations etc.

Newfoundland English
§ “Otis bees happy.” (=Otis is always happy)
§ “Otis is happy.” (=Otis is happy right now)

African American English

§ “Otis be happy.” (=Otis is always happy)
§ “Otis happy.” (=Otis is happy right now)
GENERALITY

All languages and dialects have grammatical systems that govern the
structure of sentences, the structure of words, permissible sound
combinations etc.
Walpiri
malika-tjara-lu ka-lu-tjana wawiri-patu nja-nji
dog-DL-ERG pres-3PL-3PL.O kangaroo-PC see-NPST
“Two dogs see several kangaroos” (Hale 1973:330)
What English does with word order, Walpiri does with morphological
inflections.
• Saw dogs two kangaroos several.
• Kangaroos several saw dogs two.
• Dogs two kangaroos several saw.
PARITY

There is no such thing as a ‘primitive language’.

§ All languages are equally capable of expressing the full range of human
experiences and ideas.
§ If a language needs new words to refer to new technology or ideas, it will
either make up a word or borrow one from another language.

There is no such thing as a ‘good grammar’ or a ‘bad grammar’.

§ While some languages and dialects may be associated with less socio-
economically powerful groups, this has no bearing on the grammar of the
language or dialect.
§ Arbitrariness of prestige... think about English dialects that ‘drop their r’s’ in
words like Londoner, New Yorker
UNIVERSALITY

All languages...
§ have more consonants (e.g., p, t, k) than vowels (e.g. u, o, a).
§ employ a finite set of sounds.
§ have nouns and verbs.
§ have pronouns (I, me, you, her).
§ employ hierarchical structures.
UNIVERSALITY

There is a tendency for languages to use three basic word

orders despite six logical possibilities.

§ Canadians like hockey. (Subject-Verb-Object)

§ Canadians hockey like. (Subject-Object-Verb)
§ Like Canadians hockey. (Verb-Subject-Object)
§ Like hockey Canadians. (Verb-Object-Subject)
§ Hockey like Canadians. (Object-Verb-Subject)
§ Hockey Canadians like. (Object-Subject-Verb)
MUTABILITY – ALL GRAMMARS CHANGE

Modern English (1500–present)

“A man may fish with the worme that hath eate of a king, and eate of the fish
that fedde of that worme.” (Hamlet, Shakespeare)

Middle English (1066–1500)

“Whan that Aprille with his shoures soote, The droughte of March hath
perced to the roote.” (Cantebury Tales, Chaucer)

Old English (449–1066)

“Hordweard s¯ohte georne æfter grunde, wolde guman findan þone þe him
on sweofote s¯are get¯eode.” (Beowolf)
INACCESSIBILITY
GRAMMATICAL KNOWLEDGE IS SUBCONSCIOUS

We are not aware of the grammatical rules that govern our speech.

§ “Wendy saw her.”

Can this mean that the person that Wendy saw was Wendy?

-ed
§ slipped [slɪpt]
§ buzzed [bʌzd]
§ hunted [hʌntəd]
§ flived [flɪv...?]
T H E L I N G U I ST ’ S TA S K
Linguistics uses an elaborate set of methods for studying language (and the
capacity for language) systematically and scientifically. Our data typically
come from three sources:

1. Corpora of recorded, spontaneous, natural speech

2. Elicitation of native speaker judgments about acceptable and non-

acceptable expressions through a guided interview.

3. Experimentation conducted in a controlled laboratory setting, measuring

aspects of production, perception, and brain function.
T H E L I N G U I ST ’ S TA S K
Linguistics uses an elaborate set of methods for studying
language (and the capacity for language) systematically and
scientifically. Our data typically come from three sources:

§ Linguists describe and study language as it is actually spoken

by people.

§ Linguists are interested in all human languages and dialects not

just standard dialects.
OUTLINE
§ Three themes (constructivism, nativism, internalism)

§ Linguistics as a science

§ So what is language?
W H AT D O YO U S E E ?
W H AT D O YO U S E E ?
W H AT D O YO U S E E ?
W H AT D O YO U S E E ?
 EQUIVALENCE CLASSES

Equivalence class triangle

Tokens of perception
 EQUIVALENCE CLASSES
The equivalence
class of Nouns is an
abstraction from
Equivalence class equivalence classes
abstracted from
tokens of individual
noun-utterances.

Equivalence classes

Tokens of behavior/ perception

THINGS ARE NOT SO SIMPLE

This image highlights three common

themes that reoccur in cognitive science
(including the the study of language):

§ Constructivism
§ Nativism
§ Internalism
CONSTRUCTIVISM
• A photometer (a device that measures light),
would not detect any edges of the triangle that
you perceive in the previous slide.

• Your mind constructs the percept, the

experience of seeing the triangle, on the basis
of a pattern of light that contains no physically
definable triangle.
N AT I V I S M
• Nobody taught us to see a triangle in this
figure.
• We see it because that is how we (humans) all
process certain kinds of visual information.
• Since nobody taught it to us, it must be part of
our biological endowment, and thus innate. . .
• . . . or at least derivable via interaction with our
environment from some innate properties that
we all share.
INTERNALISM
• Obviously, you do not see a triangle when
presented with only this exact visual stimulus.
• If you move closer or further from the screen, if
you look at the picture in a book, you still
construct the triangle.
• So there must be a procedure that your visual
system uses to construct the triangle you see for
an unbounded number of physical stimuli.
• That procedure, or set of rules, can be referred to
as part of your mental grammar of vision.
L A N G UA G E A S A N AT U R A L O B J E C T
A scientifically precise definition of ‘Language’:

§ A system of rules in the mind of a speaker (a ‘mental grammar’)

§ Language = I-language
- I for individual: language as an individual phenomenon, not a social phenomenon
- I for internal: language as a computational system internal to the human mind
- I for intensional
I-LANGUAGE - INTENSIONAL

•I for ‘intensional’ - described by a rule, a set of properties, a formula …:

Intensional in contrast to extensional

Extensional characterisation:
list of objects falling under a certain description.
Intensional: F(x) = 2x+1
Extensional: {1, 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, …}

Intensional: x x, x a singular noun

Extensional: {kurdukurdu, kaminakamina, mardukujamardukuja, …}
SOME QUESTIONS
Is the triangle real?
§ We could decide that something is real only if it has mass, charge,
luminance, location, etc.
§ Then we have to accept that vision science studies things that are
not real.
§ Or, we can accept that physics contains certain categories, and
vision science others…and that neither is more ‘real’ than the
other.

One more question:

Do we only see the triangle because we have a word for it?
NO!
BACK TO LANGUAGE…
Can you tell where the word boundaries are in the following speech segment?

Waveform of: “The spotted cat skidded by”

28
Can you tell where the word boundaries are in the following speech segment?
L E T ’ S S TA R T B I G !

Waveform of: “The spotted cat skidded by”

29
CONSTRUCTIVISM
§ Word boundaries cannot be detected by analyzing physical properties
of the sound signal.

§ No surprise: word boundaries are hard for people to detect in foreign

languages.

§ Even when you are fluent in a language, detection of word boundaries

is context-dependent:
The good can decay many ways
The good candy came anyways
CONSTRUCTIVISM
§ Word boundaries cannot be detected by analyzing physical properties
of the sound signal.

§ No surprise: word boundaries are hard for people to detect in foreign

languages.

§ Even when you are fluent in a language, detection of word boundaries

is context-dependent:
The stuffy nose can lead to problems
The stuff he knows can lead to problems
N AT I V I S M
§ Nobody taught you to hear words in a sound signal.
§ You hear them because that is how we (humans) process certain kinds of
auditory information.
§ Since nobody taught it to us, it must be part of our biological endowment,
and thus innate. . .
§ . . . or at least derivable via interaction with our environment from some
innate properties that we all share.
INTERNALISM
§ You impose words on a wide variety (physically-speaking) of auditory
signals: some are created by adults, some by children, some by
computers, etc.
§ So there must be a procedure that your auditory/speech system uses to
construct the words you hear for an unbounded number of physical
stimuli.
§ That procedure, or set of rules, can be referred to as part of your mental
grammar of speech perception.
OUTLINE
§ Three themes (constructivism, nativism, internalism)

§ Linguistics as a science

§ So what is language?
LINGUISTICS AS A SCIENCE
LANGUAGE AS A SCIENCE

“The beginning of science is the recognition that the simplest

phenomena of ordinary life raise quite serious problems…”

Noam Chomsky, Language and Problems of Knowledge, 1988:43

LANGUAGE AS A SCIENCE
A scientifically precise definition of ‘Language’:

§ A system of rules in the mind of a speaker (a ‘mental grammar’)

§ Language = I-language
- I for individual
- I for internal
- I for intensional
• Language as a natural object: Rules are properties of people (their minds/brains)
LANGUAGE AS A SCIENCE

Some questions:
§ How do we know when we’ve ‘correctly’ characterized a rule?

§ How do we judge how ‘good’ our theory of some linguistic

phenomenon is?
LANGUAGE AS A SCIENCE

Some potential confusion about Science:

§ Wrong idea about science: if we have evidence that refutes a
theory then we reject that theory.
§ This idea is too strong: Every theory has evidence that it
cannot explain (e.g., Theory of Relativity, Ohm’s Law).

A refuted theory can still give us insight into the world/mind.

LANGUAGE AS A SCIENCE
§ Right idea about science: If T1 has more evidence that supports it than T2 has
evidence that supports it, then T1 is closer to being the right theory.
§ The right theory (perhaps an impossibility) is the theory that correctly describes
the nature of the object of study. . .
§ . . . where by “nature” we mean how the object really is.
§ One can think of the right theory as the truth about the object of study.
§ A theory that is close to being the right theory accurately describes some aspect
of the object of study. This accuracy is reflected by how well it accounts for the
empirical evidence.

In practice, we often settle for the theories that are as

close as we can get to the right theory.
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH
SAMOAN PLURAL (VERB AGREEMENT)
What is the rule?

Singular Gloss Plural gloss

nofo ‘she sits’ nonofo ‘they sit’

Hypothesis 1:
no + X

Hypothesis 1:
If σn . . . σ2 σ1 is a Sg, then the Pl is σn . . . σ2 σ2 σ1
(Repeat the first syllable)

How to decide? Look at more data!

SAMOAN PLURAL

What is the rule?

Singular Gloss Plural gloss

nofo ‘she sits’ nonofo ‘they sit’
moe ‘she sleeps’ momoe ‘they sleep’

Hypothesis 2 wins (for now)

If σn . . . σ2 σ1 is a Sg, then the Pl is σn . . . σ2 σ2 σ1

Test hypothesis 2: look at more data!

SAMOAN PLURAL

What is the rule?

Singular Gloss Plural gloss

nofo ‘she sits’ nonofo ‘they sit’
moe ‘she sleeps’ momoe ‘they sleep’
alofa ‘she loves’ alolofa ‘they love’

Hypothesis 2 is incorrect
If σn . . . σ2 σ1 is a Sg, then the Pl is σn . . . σ2 σ2 σ1

Hypothesis 3 :
Wait for the first CV sequence and reduplicate this

Test hypothesis 3: look at more data!

SAMOAN PLURAL

What is the rule?

Singular Gloss Plural gloss

nofo ‘she sits’ nonofo ‘they sit’
moe ‘she sleeps’ momoe ‘they sleep’
alofa ‘she loves’ alolofa ‘they love’
savali ‘she walks’ savavali ‘they walk’
maliu ‘she dies’ maliliu ‘they die’

Hypothesis 4:
count from right and reduplicate the second to last syllable (penultimate syllable)
SAMOAN PLURAL

Step 1: The Samoan pluralization algorithm must take a singular as input. . .

nofo =>

Step 2: It must apply the steps of the algorithm. The Samoan pluralization
algorithm must take a singular as input. . .
Samoan Plural Rule
If σn . . . σ2 σ1 is a Sg, then the Pl is σn . . . σ2 σ2 σ1

Step 3: It must return the correct plural form

=> nonofo
SAMOAN PLURAL

nofo => Samoan Pluralization => nonofo

Rule
SAMOAN PLURAL

alofa => Samoan Pluralization => alolofa

Rule
SAMOAN PLURAL

savali => Samoan Pluralization => savavali

Rule

We seem to have an algorithm that works, is our work done?

W.V. O Q U I N E
• Any analysis of a linguistic
phenomena that makes the correct
predictions is valid.

• There is no principled way of

choosing between different
analyses that capture the data.
 NOAM CHOMSKY
§ Not so! An analysis of a linguistic phenomenon is a
hypothesis about some rule or rules of an I-language
§ I-languages exist in minds/brains. These have certain
properties that could help us decide between different
analyses.
§ An I-language is a system that has many other rules for
many other phenomena – these might be important in
helping us choose.
§ All I-languages are similar in certain respects (we’ll see this
more later) – data from other languages might be
important.
§ In short: considering the bigger picture can help us
choose.
OUTLINE
§ Three themes (constructivism, nativism, internalism)

§ Linguistics as a science

§ So what is language?
W H AT I S L A N G U A G E ?
W H AT I S L A N G UA G E ?
§ Used to communicate

§ Arbitrary

§ Hierarchically organized

§ Produced and perceived

§ Quintessentially human

§ Genetically endowed

§ A constrained but creative system

L A N G UAG E I S U S E D TO CO M M U N I CAT E
A language can be used to communicate intentions and concepts from one speaker’s mind to
another’s.
§ Human languages have semanticity or the ability to convey a meaning.
§ Every language uses a system of signs that are associated with meanings.

a sign… … associated with a meaning

SIGNS ARE ARBITRARY
Other languages have a different set of conventional signs:

English: cat
French: chat This is because the sign-
Russian: koshka meaning relation in human
Hawai’ian: popoki language is arbitrary.
Finnish: kissa
Innu: minush
Mandarin: mao
Japanese: neko
Icelandic: köttur
Dutch: kat
SIGNS ARE ARBITRARY
What’s the generic term for a sweetened carbonated beverage?:

a.pop
b.soda
c. soft drink
d.coke
e.tonic
f. fizzy drink
g.other
SIGNS ARE ARBITRARY

In English In other languages

chip Korean for ‘a house’
peat Czech for ‘to drink’
mug Hungarian for ‘seed’
bin Swahili for ‘son of’
 L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D

Language is composed of discrete units that are assembled according

to the rules of that language’s grammar.

All languages systematically

1) combine these discrete units to form

larger units.
2) arrange units in a particular order.
3) substitute units for each other.
L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D

Combining units to form larger units

Sounds: There are individual sounds in a language, such as /k/, /t/, and /æ/.

Syllables: Sounds combine into syllables. For example /kæt/, /tæk/, and /ækt/

Words: Syllables combine to form words. Some are a single syllable (cat, tack, act)
while others contain two or more syllables (lin.guis.tics, ba.na.na, re.e.val.u.a.tion)

Phrases: Words combine into phrases. For example, the words the, fat, and cat can
combine to form the phrase the fat cat.
L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D
L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D

Combining units to form larger units

Sentences: Phrases combine into sentences. The phrases the fat cat,
ate up and all the food can combine into the sentence the fat cat ate up
all the food.
Groups of sentences/discourse: Sentences can combine with other
sentences to create discourse. For example, we can combine the
sentences the cat chased the squirrel and she didn’t catch it in a few
ways:
• The cat chased the squirrel. She didn’t catch it.
• The cat chased the squirrel, but she didn’t catch it.
• The cat chased the squirrel, and she didn’t catch it
L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D

Ordering of units can change the meaning

Sounds relative to each other: /it/ (‘eat’) does not mean the same as /ti/ (‘tea’)

Syllables: Sounds combine into syllables. For example /kæt/, /tæk/, and /ækt/

Syllables relative to each other: /wi.pi/ (weepy) doesn’t mean the same as /pi.wi/
(peewee)

Words relative to each other: forest green does not mean the same as green forest

Phrases relative to each other: The cat chased the squirrel doesn’t mean the same as
the squirrel chased the cat

Sentences relative to each other: They bought a car and then they had an accident
doesn’t mean the same as They had an accident and then they bought a car
L A N G UAG E I S H I E R A R C H I C A L LY O R G A N I Z E D

Substituting units for each other can change the meaning

Substituting sounds: Replace /k/ with /f/ and you go from cat to fat

Substituting syllables: Replace /kræ/ with /hæ/ and you might go from feeling crappy to being happy

Substituting words: Replacing mosquito with shark will be very bad news for John in the sentence
John got bit by a mosquito.

Substituting phrases: We can meet on the beach or at the pub but I only need a swimsuit in one case.

Substituting sentences: Close the window, Do you mind if I close the window, and It sure is cold in
this house! might all result in the window being closed but they have a range of subtly different
connotations.
LANGUAGE IS PRODUCED AND PERCEIVED

Production
Language is produced using the human body.
§ Speaking involves the lungs, vocal cords, oral cavity, nasal cavity, tongue,
teeth, jaw, lips, and your even your uvula!
§ Signed languages use faces, hands, arms, and torsos.

Perception
Language is perceived using the human body.
§ We perceive speech as sound and our brains are able to make sense of
that sound as speech.
§ Vision also plays an important role in perception.
L A N G UAG E I S Q U I N T E S S E N T I A L LY H U M A N

§ Spatial and temporal displacement

Ability to talk about things other than the ‘here and now’.

§ Hierarchical structure
Ability to combine small discrete units into larger units.

§ Productivity
Ability to identify categories to group meanings and to keep those
categories open to receive new meanings

§ Discrete infinity
Ability to combine words into an infinite number of new
sentences/meanings.
LANGUAGE IS GENETIC

§ First language acquisition is fast and easy.

- From babbling at 6 months to using full sentences at age 3.

§ Children go through the same series of steps when acquiring a

language, no matter what the language is.
- Including signed languages.

§ Extraordinary similarity observed across all languages.

LANGUAGE IS A CREATIVE SYSTEM

Languages provide the freedom and ability to produce and

understand new words and sentences as the need arises.

§ There are always new things to say and new experiences to talk
about.

But this creativity is constrained by a language’s grammar

§ Rule-governed creativity
LANGUAGE IS A CREATIVE SYSTEM

Creating new words

§ prasp § *psapr
§ flib § *bfli
§ traf § *ftraa
Creating new sentences

That green dog with a banana tattoo frightened the bald cat that chased the obese mouse.

*Frightened dog with tattoo banana a green that the cat bald the mouse obese chased that.
NEXT WEEK

Phonetics: the sounds of language - the anatomy of speech