EARTH_LIFE_SCIENCE(REVIEWER)

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER
EVOLTION OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

The Continental Drift
 Proposed by ALFRED WEGENER

 States that the movement of plates caused and is still causing
the movement of continents.
CONTINENTAL MOVEMENT
PERMIAN – 225 MILLION YEARS AGO -
TRIASSIC – 200 MILLION YEARS AGO -
JURRASIC – 150 MILLION YEARS AGO -
CRETACEOUS – 65 MILLION YEARS AGO -
PRESENT DAY –
Evidence of Continental Drift
Continental Fit - the shapes of continents fit each other.
The shape of South America and Africa fit each other
Fossil Evidence - Similar fossils found across continents.
Similarities in rocks and mountains across continents.
Glacial evidence - Similarities in possible conditions.
SCIENTISTS FOUND TRACES OF ANCIENT CLIMATES, LIKE GLACIAL

DEPOSITS OR TROPICAL PLANT FOSSILS, IN PLACES WHERE THESE
CONDITIONS DON’T EXIST TODAY.
Seafloor spreading hypothesis suggested that seafloor is moving away

from the ridge which is driven by mantle convection.
LAYER CAKE - Where the mantle is divided into two zones of

convection.
WHOLE MANTLE - Where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks.
Gravitational Factors
RIDGE-PUSH - This is a force that

causes hotter, less dense material
to force itself up through a ridge.
SLAB-PULL - This is the pulling of

oceanic lithosphere downward at
subduction zones.
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

according to plate tectonics theory, the lithosphere behaves as a strong, rigid layer which is broken into
segments known as plates.
Evidence of Tectonic Plate Theory
Hotspots - radioactive dating of hotspots show age differences based on

plate movements.
Paleo magnetism - The Earth’s magnetic pole has an influence of

patterns in rocks.
The patterns of these rocks coincide with Earth’s magnetic pole.
1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS - proposes that Pangaea broke up

into the modern continents
2 SEAFLOOR SPREADING HYPOTHESIS - suggested that seafloor is moving away from the ridge which
is driven by mantle convection.
3 PLATE TECTONICS - combines the idea of the continental drift and seafloor spreading
THE FORMATION OF FAULTS AND FOLDS

Stress is a force exerted on an object. In the study of plate tectonics, stress acts on rocks.
Types of Stress on Rocks

Confining stress - takes place when a rock or sediment is buried and acts uniformly in all directions.
Directed stress - only acts in one direction and is most likely associated with tectonic activities.
Rock formations are influenced by stress
TYPES OF DIRECTED STRESS

1 TENSION - squeezing stress
2 COMPRESSION - pulling stress
3 SHEAR - parallel but opposite directions
Rock Deformation
• The different types of stress on rocks can cause them to
deform.
• The type of deformation that rocks can undergo also depend on the composition of rock, or the
type and intensity of stress.
TYPES OF DEFORMATION
1 ELASTIC - rock returns to original shape
2 DUCTILE - rock reshapes without breaking
3 BRITTLE - causes breakage
FOLDS
• The series of wave-like ripples or bends formed during
mountain building are called folds.
• Folds have different parts.
Anticline:
 A fold where the layers of rock bend upwards, forming an

arch-like shape.
 The axis of the anticline represents the central line along the crest of the fold.
Syncline:
 A fold where the layers of rock bend downwards, forming a trough-like shape.
 The axis of the syncline marks the central line along the lowest part of the fold.
Limb:
 The sides of the fold that connect the anticline and syncline.
 They represent the sloping layers of rock between the fold's crests and troughs.
Axial Plane:
 An imaginary plane dividing the fold into two symmetrical halves.

 It helps define the orientation and symmetry of the fold.
FAULTS
• Some rocks fracture because of stress.
• A fault is a discernible displacement where rocks grind or

slide past each other.
Normal Fault:
 A type of fault where the hanging wall (the block of rock

above the fault plane) moves downward relative to the
footwall (the block of rock below the fault plane).
Reverse Fault:
 A type of fault where the hanging wall moves upward relative to the footwall.
FAULTS
Strike-Slip Fault
 Definition: A fault where the primary movement of rocks is horizontal and parallel to the fault
line.
 Motion: The rocks slide past each other side by side without much vertical movement.
Oblique Fault
 Definition: A fault that combines horizontal motion (strike-slip) and vertical motion (dip-slip).
1 STRESS is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a rock.

2 ROCK DEFORMATION involves changes shape and/or size which can either be
permanent or temporary.
3 FOLDS are series of wavelike ripples or bends, and a FAULT is a fracture or a discernible
displacement where rocks grind or slide past each other.
PLATE MOVEMENTS AND BOUNDARIES

According to the theory of plate tectonics...
The Earth is divided into plates.
 Plates are like slabs on the surface of the Earth’s shell or lithosphere.
 All of our land and water sit on these plates.
 These plates are constantly in motion.
DID YOU KNOW... The Earth’s plates move around the planet’s surface at the rate of a few
centimeters every year!
As the plates move, boundaries are created.
CONVERGENT, DIVERGENT, TRANSFORM
CONVERGENT
Converge = to come together
Convergent boundaries occur when plates move towards one

another.
continental-continental convergence - Around 55 million years ago, two large landmasses, India and
Eurasia, collided with each other, resulting in the Himalayas.
ocean-ocean convergence - Sometimes, one plate dives beneath the other.

PLATE MOVEMENTS AND BOUNDARIES

DIVERGENT
Diverge = move away or extend in different directions
Divergent boundaries occur when two tectonic plates move away from
each other.
When two lithospheric plates are spread apart, it is common for new crust
to form as molten material rises to the surface. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is
formed in this process.
TRANSFORM
Transform = to change
Transform boundaries grind past each other without going up or down.
Transform plate boundaries are capable of triggering devastating earthquakes. A famous example is the
San Andreas Fault in California.
IN SUMMARY
PLATE TECTONICS teaches us that plates are constantly shifting
PLATE BOUNDARIES are where sections of the Earth's crust fit together
3 TYPES OF BOUNDARIES convergent, divergent, and transform

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EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER

EVOLTION OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

 Proposed by ALFRED WEGENER

PERMIAN – 225 MILLION YEARS AGO -

TRIASSIC – 200 MILLION YEARS AGO -

JURRASIC – 150 MILLION YEARS AGO -

CRETACEOUS – 65 MILLION YEARS AGO -

Evidence of Continental Drift

Continental Fit - the shapes of continents fit each other.

The shape of South America and Africa fit each other

Fossil Evidence - Similar fossils found across continents.

Similarities in rocks and mountains across continents.

Glacial evidence - Similarities in possible conditions.

SCIENTISTS FOUND TRACES OF ANCIENT CLIMATES, LIKE GLACIAL

Seafloor spreading hypothesis suggested that seafloor is moving away

LAYER CAKE - Where the mantle is divided into two zones of

WHOLE MANTLE - Where denser oceanic lithosphere sinks.

RIDGE-PUSH - This is a force that

SLAB-PULL - This is the pulling of

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY

Evidence of Tectonic Plate Theory

Hotspots - radioactive dating of hotspots show age differences based on

Paleo magnetism - The Earth’s magnetic pole has an influence of

The patterns of these rocks coincide with Earth’s magnetic pole.

1 CONTINENTAL DRIFT HYPOTHESIS - proposes that Pangaea broke up

THE FORMATION OF FAULTS AND FOLDS

Types of Stress on Rocks

Rock formations are influenced by stress

TYPES OF DIRECTED STRESS

• Folds have different parts.

 A fold where the layers of rock bend upwards, forming an

 An imaginary plane dividing the fold into two symmetrical halves.

• A fault is a discernible displacement where rocks grind or

 A type of fault where the hanging wall (the block of rock

1 STRESS is a force exerted on an object, in this case, a rock.

PLATE MOVEMENTS AND BOUNDARIES

The Earth is divided into plates.

As the plates move, boundaries are created.

CONVERGENT, DIVERGENT, TRANSFORM

Convergent boundaries occur when plates move towards one

ocean-ocean convergence - Sometimes, one plate dives beneath the other.

PLATE MOVEMENTS AND BOUNDARIES

Transform boundaries grind past each other without going up or down.

PLATE TECTONICS teaches us that plates are constantly shifting

3 TYPES OF BOUNDARIES convergent, divergent, and transform

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