PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM

Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel

❖ Introduction:
➢ Pressure vessel is an instrument or vessel that helps to control the pressure in the column.
➢ Pressure vessels are compressed gas storage tanks designed to hold gases or liquids at
pressure different from ambient pressure.
➢ These vessels can be any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres and cylinders are
usually employed.
➢ A common design is cylinder with end caps called heads.
➢ Head shapes are frequently hemispherical.
➢ Cracked or damaged vessels can result in leakage or rupture failures.
➢ Potential health and safety hazards of leaking vessel include poisonings, suffocations,
fires and explosion hazards.
❖ Basic data require for designing:
➢ These are data one will require to design pressure vessel:
1. Vessel functions
2. Process material and services
3. Operating and design temperature and pressure
4. Material of construction
5. Vessel dimension and orientation
6. Types of heads to be used
7. Opening and connection required
8. Specification of heating and cooling jackets or coils
9. Type of agitator
10.Specification of internal fittings
❖ Classification of pressure vessel
➢ Pressure vessels are classified into 2 categories:
1. According to usage
a) Storage
b) Process
2. According to shape
a) Spherical
b) Cylindrical
i. Vertical
ii. Horizontal
❖ Design pressure:
➢ The part of equipments can be subjected to internal pressure or external pressure.
1. Internal design pressure:
Internal design pressure = {Maximum operating pressure within part – Minimum
operating pressure outside part} x 1.1

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
2. External design pressure:
External design pressure = {Maximum operating pressure outside part – Minimum
operating pressure inside part} x 1.1
➢ In many case, maximum operating pressure is set pressure of pressure relief valve.
➢ For deciding maximum and minimum pressure worst case should be considered.
• For example:
➢ In jacketed vessel type reactor, shell side minimum operating pressure is 4.3 atm.
➢ Inside jacket to start reaction initially saturated steam is calculated.
➢ Initially liquid reactant is heated to reaction temperature by saturated steam.
➢ Reaction is exothermic, hence as reaction proceeds cooling water is calculated through
jacket.
1. In the case, shell side maximum operating pressure = 4.3 atm
and shell side minimum operating pressure = 0 atm
2. Maximum operating pressure in jacket = 7 atm
when cooling water or hot oil are circulated through jacket, at any time operating
pressure in jacket can be increased upto shut off discharge of centrifugal temperature.
Shut off discharge pressure is the 6 to 7 atm for centrifugal pump.
3. Minimum operating pressure inside jacket, 0 atm = full vacuum
To start reaction, saturated steam is circulated through jacket. At any time if saturated
steam trapped within jacket, then it can be induced vacuum in jacket.
So, Internal design pressure of shell = {4.3 – 0} x 1.1 = 4.73 atm
External design pressure of shell = {7 – 0} x 1.1 = 7.7 atm
❖ Design temperature:
Design temperature of any part = Maximum temperature at which part exposed + 50°C

➢ Maximum permissible temperature for carbon steel is 540°C and stainless steel is 650°C.
➢ For cryogenic application, aluminum and its alloys are used.
➢ Carbon steel and mild steel can not withstand and temperature below –20°C.
➢ For temperature above 1100°C, refractory metals are suitable.
➢ Tungsten, Tantalum, Chromium, Molybdenum etc are known as refractory metals whose
melting point are above 1650°C.
➢ For jacketed vessels type reactor, shell side or vessel side maximum operating
temperature is 100°C and jacket side operating temperature is 200°C. So, design
temperature is 250°C.
➢ In shell and tube heat exchanger, maximum operating temperature of tube side fluid is
50°C and shell side fluid is 200°C. So, design temperature is 250°C.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
❖ Classification of equipments:
➢ Two types of equipments are
1. Static equipment: It means it doesn’t contain any moving device. Ex. – storage tank,
heat exchanger, absorber, bubble column reactor, distillation column etc.
2. Rotary equipment: These equipments contain rotary devices. Ex. – Agitation vessel,
Pump, blowers, rotary drier etc.
➢ Most commonly used static equipment in chemical plant can be classified as,
• Open tanks:
➢ Large volume of non-hazardous liquids such as water or other aqueous solution can be
stored in open steel, wooden, concrete tank.
➢ Liquid effluents are stored and treated in open top tanks.
• Flat bottomed vertical cylindrical tanks:
➢ All storage tanks are of this type.
➢ Now a days, use of HDPE and FRP storage tank is increasing.
➢ They provide higher resistance to corrosion.
➢ Also, they are cheaper, light weight as compared to metal storage tank. But they have
limited capacity.
➢ Storage tank upto 24 ft diameter are covered with self-supporting roof.
➢ Storage tank with diameter 24 to 48 ft can be supported with one central column.
➢ Storage tanks with diameter greater than 48 ft can be designed with roof having multiple
column support or with floating head which will rise and fall with level of liquid.
• Vertical and Horizontal cylindrical vessel with formed ends:
➢ These type of equipments are classified as pressure vessel and high-pressure vessels.
➢ As per IS 2825, if design pressure is less than 200 bar then equipments used will be
pressure vessel.
➢ If design pressure is greater than 200 bar then equipments used will be high pressure
vessel.
➢ Different types of ends used are,
a) Flat dished heads: Normally flat heads are not recommended but for vessel having
small diameter and pressure near to 1 atm, flat heads are used.
b) Torispherical heads: They are most widely used. They are used upto 15 atm (g)
pressure.
c) Elliptical heads: For pressure greater than 15 atm (g), elliptical heads are used.
d) Hemispherical heads: For very high pressure like greater than 100 atm (g),
hemispherical heads are used.
e) Conical heads
• Spherical and modified spherical vessels:
➢ In storage of large volume of gas under moderate pressure spherical storage tanks are
economical than cylindrical.
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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ If volume of gas to be stored is less and pressure is high then modified spherical tanks are
used.
❖ Design stress:
➢ Allowable stress of material is well below the value of stress for which materials fails or
deforms.
• Stress in thin cylinder under internal pressure:
➢ In general, two stress are developed within pressure cylinder subjected to internal
pressure.
1. Circumferential stress
2. Longitudinal stress
➢ Thin cylindrical shell is also termed as pressure vessel and such vessels are usually used
in various engineering applications such as for storing fluid under pressure.
➢ Boilers, LPG cylinders, Air receiver tanks are best examples of thin cylindrical shells.
➢ A cylindrical or spherical shell will be considered as thin cylindrical or spherical shell, if
wall thickness of shell is very small as compared to internal diameter of shell.
➢ Wall thickness of thin cylindrical and spherical shell will be equal or less than 1/20 of
internal diameter of shell.
1. Circumferential stress
➢ Stress acting along circumference of thin cylinder will be termed as circumferential stress
or hoop stress.
➢ If fluid is stored under pressure inside cylindrical shell, pressure will be acting vertically
upward and downward over cylindrical wall.
➢ Pressure vessel will tend to burst as displayed here in figure and stress developed in such
failure of cylindrical shell will be termed as circumferential stress or hoop stress.

➢ Let us consider here following terms to derive expression for circumferential stress or
hoop stress developed in wall of cylindrical shell.
P = Internal pressure
d = Internal diameter of thin cylindrical shell
t = thickness of wall of cylinder
L = length of cylinder
σθ = σH = Circumferential stress

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ Force due to internal fluid pressure = Pressure x Area = P x d x L
➢ Area of metal ring resisting circumferential stress = 2 x t x L
Force PxdxL
➢ Now, Stress = =
Area 2xtxL
Pd
σH =
2t
2. Longitudinal stress
➢ Stress acting along length of thin cylinder will be termed as longitudinal stress.
➢ If fluid is stored under pressure inside cylindrical shell, pressure force will be acting
along length of cylindrical shell as its 2 ends.
➢ Cylindrical shell will tend to burst as displayed in figure and stress developed in such
failure of cylindrical shell will be termed as longitudinal stress.
➢ Let us consider here following terms to derive expression for longitudinal stress
developed in wall of cylindrical shell.
P = Internal pressure
d = Internal diameter of thin cylindrical shell
t = thickness of wall of cylinder
L = length of cylinder
σL = longitudinal stress

π
Force Px x d2
➢ Stress = = 4
Area πxdxt
Pd
σL =
4t
➢ Here, circumferential stress is greater than longitudinal stress and so we take
circumferential stress as design stress for calculation of thickness of cylinder.
σH
=2
σL

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
❖ Material of construction:
➢ Steel is most common material used in construction of tanks and pressure vessels.
➢ Other construction materials include other alloy, wood, concrete or fiber reinforced
plastics (some low-pressure applications).
➢ Materials must be chosen that will be able to resist deformation and failure at process
temperature and pressure, and be compatible with internal material.
❖ Corrosion allowance:
➢ Chemical equipments are corroded by fluids and atmosphere.
➢ Because of corrosion, thickness of equipment slowly decreases with time.
➢ To compensate that at design stage extra thickness is added to minimum thickness
required to with stand design pressure.
➢ This extra addition of thickness is known as corrosion allowance.
➢ If exact rate of corrosion is known than one can decide precise value of CA but
unfortunately in most practical cases, rate of corrosion can’t be predicted in advance and
so exact value of CA can’t be determined.
➢ In general, corrosion allowance is in range of 1.5 to 5 mm.
➢ For carbon steel (CS) and cast iron (CI) parts, CA = 1.5 mm for chemical industries and
CA = 3 mm for petroleum industry.
➢ Stainless steel (SS) and non-ferrous parts are not corroded by atmosphere and by many
chemicals hence, in most of cases no CA is required for such materials.
➢ If wall thickness is greater than 30 mm then CA can be neglected.
❖ Welding joint efficiency factor:
➢ Large part of equipment like shell is frequently made from two pieces of pipe of plate in
which they are joined together by welding joint.
➢ Welding joint is weaker than rest of part of vessel.
➢ So, extra thickness is required in and around joint section to improve its strength.
➢ Weld joint efficiency factor (J) is defined as “It is ratio of arbitary strength of welded
joint to strength of plates welded”.
➢ Value of this factor depends on type of welding joint and percentage of radiography.
➢ Radiography test is carried out to check quality and strength of welding joint, in which
we take X-ray type photographs of welding joint.
➢ From photographs, one can see cavities and pores of welding joint.
➢ After radiographic examination, weld joint can be repaired, if required.
➢ If entire length of weld joints of vessel is examined and repaired via radiography tests,
then it is called 100% radiography.
➢ Since radiography test involves high cost, in most of case approximately 10% of total
welding length is checked and repaired via radiography.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
• Non destructive examination and repairs of welded seams:
o Radiography A:
➢ It covers radiographic examination of all longitudinal and circumferential butt welds in
drums, shells and headers throughout their whole length including points of intersection
with other joints.
o Radiography B:
➢ Spot or check radiographic examination of welded joints in question, comprising at least
10% of their whole length.
➢ Individual radiographs should not be shorter than 25 cm unless this is necessitated by
shape of joints, radiographic examination of other joints.
➢ Radiography may be interpreted with regards to quality of welded joints according to
marketing scale indicated below ranging from 5 to 1, where 5 is highest and 1 is lowest.
➢ As basis of interpretation, X-ray ‘IIW collection of reference radiographs of welds’, Atlas
issued by International Institute of Welding, IIW following shall be used:

❖ Construction:
➢ Most pressure vessels are cylindrical (swaged vessels are exception) and have integer
length : diameter ratios (2:1, 3:1, 4:1).
➢ Vertical vessels are more commonly used than horizontal ones.
➢ This is because it is easier to have uniform distribution across cross section, and they take
up less space.
➢ However, there may be cases in which horizontal vessels may be preferable.
➢ They can be used to promote phase separation (in decanters, settling tanks, separators and
flash vessels), and to allow easy access to clean inside (in pressure vessel).

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
❖ Fabrication:
➢ In general, vessel shells are made by rolling and welding.
➢ It is easier for thin walls, however there may be difficulty for small diameter.
➢ Vessels with thicker walls may need to be drum forged.
➢ End closures are usually forged, and auxiliary components such as nozzles and support
rings are welded on.
➢ Post weld heat treating (PWHT) is used to relieve residual stresses caused by forming and
joining.
❖ Supports:
➢ Different saddles will be used depending on variety of factors.
➢ These factors include vessel dimensions and weight, temperature and pressure,
arrangement, and fittings and attachments.
➢ Saddles are usually used for horizontal vessels.
➢ Skirt supports – Vertical columns, Bracket support – All type of vessels.
❖ Design of pressure vessel:
➢ The simplest pressure vessel is divided into different parts,
1. Shell
2. Head or cover
3. Jacket
4. Nozzle pipe
5. Nozzle flange
6. Body flange
7. Support

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
1) Design of cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure:
➢ Thickness of shell subjected to internal pressure is
Pd
t= where, f = circumferential stress
2f
&
Pd
t= where, f = longitudinal stress
4f
➢ For given thickness of shell, circumferential stress is greater than longitudinal stress and
hence it can be taken as design stress.
➢ If shell is having diameter < 12 inch (0.3048 m) it is formed from standard seamless pipe,
otherwise shell is fabricated from plate.
➢ If height is greater than 1.2 meter it is having both circumferential and longitudinal
welding joint.
➢ If welding joint is having no cavity, then it is also equally strong otherwise welded joint is
weaker than normal metal plate.
➢ If welded joints are not 100% checked by radiography test, then we have to count this
weakness of shell in terms of joint efficiency.
➢ Thickness of shell is given by
PD P Di P Do
t= + CA = + CA = + CA
2fJ 2fJ–P 2fJ+P
where,
CA = corrosion allowance (mm)
P = internal design pressure
D = mean diameter
J = joint efficiency
f = design or permissible stress at design temperature
Di = internal diameter
Do = outside diameter
➢ Now different formula for thickness,
P ri P ro
t= + CA = + CA
f E – 0.6P f E + 0.4P
where,
E = welded joint efficiency
ri, ro = inside and outside radius of shell respectively
➢ For spherical shell thickness is determined by
PD P Di P Do
t= + CA = + CA = + CA
4fJ 4fJ–P 4fJ+P
2) Heads or Cover or Closure design:
• Flat heads:
➢ Flat head or covers used mainly for atmospheric pressure service or near to atmospheric
pressure.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ In other words, flat heads are selected in cases, where internal design pressure and
external design pressure both are close to zero.
➢ Flat head can also be used for higher pressure, if diameter of shell is very small (say less
than 0.3 m).
➢ Thickness of flat head or cover is calculated by,
𝑃
th = C D √ + CA
𝑓

where,
th = thickness of flat cover including CA
D = diameter of portion of flat cover which is actually under operating pressure
P = internal design pressure or external design pressure
f = allowable stress at design temperature of metal
C = edge fixity constant, varies from 0.4 to 0.7 depending upon types of attachment of
flat head with shell

• Torispherical head:
➢ Torispherical heads are recommended to use for internal design pressure upto 15 atm g
pressure.
➢ But in actual practice, they are even used for higher pressure because they are cheaper
than elliptical or hemispherical head.
➢ Torispherical head can be divided into 3 parts: Straight portion, Corner portion, Crown
portion.

r = crown radius ≤ OD of shell, in majority of cases, r = Rc = Di.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
iCr = inside corner radius = knuckle radius
➢ It should not be less than 6% of inside diameter.
➢ It is normally taken as 6 to 12% of ID of shell or head.
b = depth of dish not including straight portion
= r – AC = r – √(𝐵𝐶)2 − (𝐴𝐵)2
where, AB = ID/2 – iCr
BC = r – iCr = Rc – iCr
OA = th + b + SF = height of head
SF = straight flange = 1.5 inch or (3 x thickness of head); whichever is greater
➢ Volume contained within head in ft3, not including straight flange portion
V’ = 0.000049 Di3
Di = inside diameter of vessel, inches
➢ Diameter of circular metal disc from which head is to be fabricated is called Blank
diameter.
➢ Approximate blank diameter of plate for Torispherical head can be calculated by
OD 2
Blank diameter = OD + + 2 SF + iCr (for thickness < 1 inch)
42 3
OD 2
Blank diameter = OD + + 2 SF + iCr + th (for thickness ≥ 1 inch)
24 3
➢ Thickness of Torispherical head is given by
P Rc W
th’ = + CA
2 f J – 0.2P
th = 1.06 th’ (adding 6% of thinning allowance)
where,
W = stress intensification factor
1 𝑅𝑐
= (3 + √ )
4 𝑅1

Rc = crown radius, R1 = knuckle radius = iCr

P = allowable design pressure
f = allowable stress at design temperature
J = Joint efficiency
• Elliptical head:
➢ It is used for internal design pressure greater than 15 kgf/cm2.
➢ Elliptical head with ratio of major axis to minor axis 2:1, is strongest elliptical head.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ For this type of elliptical head, total height H = tha + d + SF
ID
d = inside depth of elliptical head not including straight portion =
2K
K = ratio of major to minor axis
➢ Volume contained within head in ft3, not including straight flange portion
V’ = 0.000076 Di3
Di = inside diameter of vessel, inches
➢ Thickness of 2:1 elliptical head can be determined by
P Di
th’ = + CA
2 f J – 0.2P
th = 1.06 th’
where,
th’ = minimum thickness of head required
th = minimum thickness of metal plate required to withstand internal pressure
P = internal design pressure
Di = ID of head skirt = ID of shell
f = allowable stress at design temperature
J = joint efficiency
➢ For elliptical head which have major to minor axis ratio other than 2, thickness is
determined by
P Di V
th’ = + CA
2 f J – 0.2P
th = 1.06 th’

where,
2 + K2
V = stress identification factor =
6
K = ratio of major to minor axis
• Conical head:
➢ Conical head are widely used as bottom head of process equipment like evaporator, spray
drier, cyclone separator, crystallizer and settling tanks.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ Thickness of conical head having half-apex angle not greater than 30° is given by
P Di
th’ = + CA
2 cosα (f J – 0.6P)
th = 1.06 th’
where,
P = internal design pressure
Di = ID of shell to which head is attached = ID of cone at large end
f = allowable stress at design temperature
J = joint efficiency
α = half of apex angle ≤ 30°
• Hemispherical head:
➢ These are strongest of all types of heads with same thickness and diameter.
➢ This type of head can resist nearly double pressure than that can be resisted by elliptical
head.
➢ Its fabrication cost is very high and hence even though it is strongest, it is used in few
cases.
➢ When thickness of hemispherical head doesn’t exceed 0.356rc, where rc is inside spherical
radius or when P doesn’t exceed 0.665fJ, thickness of shell can be calculated by
P Di
th’ = + CA
4 f J – 0.4P
th = 1.06 th’
where,
P = internal design pressure
Di = ID of head skirt
f = allowable stress at design temperature
J = joint efficiency

3) Nozzle design:
➢ Nozzle or openings are provided in pressure vessel to facilitate input or output of
material, to measure temperature, pressure or level and to facilitate cleaning as manholes,
hand holes or drains.
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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ Nozzles may be located on shell, head or on jacket.
➢ When we make holes in wall of shell, head or jacket to connect nozzle, it creates stress
concentration in vicinity of hole.
➢ In order to minimum these stresses it is preferred that openings must be in circular shape;
2nd preference is elliptical shape and 3rd preference is obround shape.
➢ Nozzle can be classified on basis of forming and attachment as
(a) Integral nozzle: In this type nozzle is integral part of shell or head or jacket. It is made
by cutting and shaping of metal to obtain desired contour nozzle. But this type of
fabrication is possible only with ductile material and with thin metal sheet (t ≤ 6 mm).
So, this type of nozzle is used in few cases.
(b) Fabricated nozzle: These are short pieces of standard pipe or fabricated pipe. Piece of
pipe is welded with vessel wall. Such type of nozzle is used for low pressure and
medium pressure.
(c) Formed nozzle: In formed nozzle usually weld-neck flange is integral part of formed
nozzle. They are also attached to vessel wall by welding. They are formed by forging
or rolling.
• Reinforcement pad for nozzle (Area for area method):
➢ Because of hole in vessel to connect nozzle, stress is created in vicinity of wall.
➢ This stress concentration near hole can be reduced by increasing thickness of vessel wall
in this area means in area which is in vicinity of hole.
➢ Dimension of Reinforcement pad required can be find out by Area for Area method.
➢ As per this method, useful area which is removed to make hole in vessel, same area must
be provided as compensation within specified boundary.
➢ Area for which compensation is required is given by
A = di ts’
where,
di = ID of nozzle pipe
ts’ = calculated thickness of shell, head or jacket or minimum thickness required by shell,
jacket or head on which nozzle is to be provided.
H1 = 2.5 ts
H1 = vertical limit for reinforcement, measured from surface of reinforcement pad or of
shell
ts = actual thickness of shell (if compensation is to be provided by nozzle only)
H1 ≈ 2.5 tn or √(𝑑𝑖 + 2𝐶)(𝑡𝑛 − 𝐶)
where,
tn = actual thickness of nozzle, if compensation is to be provided by combination of
nozzle and reinforcement pad.
➢ Area available for compensation,
Aa = As + Ao + Ai

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
(i) Compensation provided by additional thickness of shell or head
As = di (ts – ts’ – C)
(ii) Compensation provided by additional thickness of nozzle external to vessel
Ao = 2H1 (tn – tn’ – C)
(iii) Compensation provided by nozzle portion inside vessel
Ai = 2H2 (tn – 2C), H2 = 2.5 tn or √(𝑑𝑖 + 2𝐶)(𝑡𝑛 − 𝐶)
where,
ts, tn = actual thickness of shell, head or nozzle
tn’ = calculated minimum thickness of nozzle
ts’ = theoretical minimum calculated thickness
C = Corrosion allowance
➢ Additional compensation area required = A – (As + Ao + Ai)
= (D – do) t
where,
D = OD of reinforcement pad
t = thickness of reinforcement pad
do = OD of nozzle pipe
❖ Properties of material:
1) Strength:
➢ Strength represents capacity of material to withstand external forces.
➢ Depending on nature of forces strength can be classified as tensile strength, compression
strength, shear strength and impact strength.
➢ Internal forces of resistance of material per unit area is Stress.
➢ Deformation in original size and/or shape of material is known as Strain.
➢ In linear elastic deformation, stress is directly proportional to strain. (Hook’s law)
2) Stiffness and rigidity:
➢ It is measure of ability of material to resist deformation.
3) Elasticity:
➢ Elasticity of material is ability of material to regain its original shape as soon as load is
removed.

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 PROCESS EQUIPMENT DESIGN, 7TH SEM
Chapter 5: Mechanical design of pressure vessel
➢ Point ‘a’ on curve represent greatest stress for which Hook’s law is applicable.
(i) Elastic limit: It is maximum stress indicated by point ‘b’, which material can
withstand without permanent deformation.
(ii) Yield stress: It is stress for which resistance of material begins to breakdown
rapidly and sudden increase in strain occurs without increase in stress which is
indicated by point ‘c’.
(iii) Ultimate tensile stress: It is greatest stress at which failure or breaking of material
takes place. Portion of stress-strain curve between yield stress ‘c’ and ultimate
stress ‘d’ is called as plastic range for which Hook’s law is not applicable and
deformation produced is permanent.
(iv) Ductility: It is measurement of deformation of material.
4) Resilience:
➢ It is elastic energy released by material, as result of stress removal.
5) Toughness:
➢ It is maximum energy that can be absorbed by material per unit area without breaking.
6) Hardness:
➢ It represents surface characteristics of material.
7) Fatigue:
➢ Failure due to fatigue is due to slow but progressive enlargement of initial crack subjected
to cyclic load.
➢ Greatest stress which can be applied to material in unlimited numbers of times without
creating failure is called fatigue limit.
8) Brittle fracture:
➢ Brittle fracture is fracture of metallic object or other material without prior deformation.
➢ Ductile material may fail to below its ultimate stress due to wrong selection of heat
treatment, presence of defect in material, operation at very low temperature.
9) Creep:
➢ It is slow and progressive deformation of material with time under application of constant
stress.

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