Power

1. What is power? How is leadership different from power?

Ans: Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so B acts in
accordance with A ’s wishes. Power does not necessarily have to be used; it is a latent
capability. For example:
 A college instructor teaching a required course has power over students who need
the course to graduate.
 Parents funding their child’s education have financial power over the child.
 A wealthy relative may exert power over family members by threatening to
disinherit them.
How is Leadership Different from Power?
While power and leadership are closely related, they differ in key ways:
1. Goal Compatibility:
o Power does not require compatibility of goals; it is based on dependence.
o Leadership requires some alignment or congruence between the leader’s goals and
those of the followers.
2. Direction of Influence:
o Leadership focuses on downward influence on followers, such as guiding, motivating,
or inspiring them.
o Power extends beyond downward influence to include lateral and upward influence,
enabling individuals or groups to exert control in multiple directions.
3. Research Emphasis:
o Leadership research emphasizes style—how leaders interact with and support
followers, and how they share decision-making.
o Power research focuses on tactics for gaining compliance, studying how individuals or
groups use strategies to influence others.
In summary, leadership involves guiding people toward shared goals and emphasizes
relational aspects, whereas power is more about control and dependence, regardless
of goal alignment.
2. What are the similarities and differences among the five bases of power?
Ans: the bases or sources of power into two general groupings—formal and personal.

Formal Power: Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an organization.

1.coercive power: A power base that is dependent on fear of the
negative results from failing to comply.
2.reward power: Compliance achieved based on the ability to
distribute rewards that others view as valuable.
3.legitimate power: The power a person receives as a result of his
or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.
Personal power: Influence derived from an individual’s
characteristics.
4.expert power: Influence based on special skills or knowledge.
5.referent power: Influence based on identification with a person
who has desirable resources or personal traits.

Similarities Among the Five Bases of Power:

1. All Influence Behavior: All five types of power—coercive, reward, legitimate,
expert, and referent—let people influence the actions or decisions of others.
2. Dependence is Key: Power works because others depend on the person with
power for something they value, like safety, rewards, knowledge, or respect.
3. Situations Matter: Each type of power works better in certain situations. For
example, coercive power might work in emergencies, but expert or referent power
is better in teamwork.
4. Power Can Change: Power isn’t fixed. Over time, a person with one type of power
(like legitimate power) might gain others (like expert or referent power) by learning
skills or building trust.
Differences Among the Five Bases of Power
1. Where Power Comes From:
o Coercive, Reward, and Legitimate Power: These come from someone’s formal
position or authority in an organization.
o Expert and Referent Power: These come from personal traits, skills, or
relationships, not from a job title.
2. How They Work:
o Coercive Power: Works through fear and threats.
o Reward Power: Works by offering rewards or benefits.
o Legitimate Power: Works because people respect the authority of a role or
position.
o Expert Power: Works because of special skills or knowledge.
o Referent Power: Works because of admiration, respect, or likability.
3. Choice to Comply:
o Coercive Power: People comply because they feel forced or scared.
o Reward, Expert, and Referent Power: People comply willingly because they see
benefits or trust the person.
o Legitimate Power: People comply because they feel it’s their duty, not necessarily
because they want to.
4. Emotional Impact:
o Coercive, Reward, and Legitimate Power: These are more formal and depend on
rules or roles.
o Expert and Referent Power: These are more personal and depend on trust,
admiration, or relationships.
5. How Long It Lasts:
o Coercive Power: May not last long because it can cause resentment.
o Reward Power: Depends on how many rewards are available.
o Legitimate Power: Lasts as long as the person holds the position.
o Expert and Referent Power: Can last a long time because they depend on personal
qualities.
In summary, formal power comes from roles and authority, while personal power
comes from skills and relationships. Both are important but work in different ways.
3. What is the role of dependence in power relationships?
Ans: The role of Defensive Behaviors:
 Avoiding Action:
 Overconforming: This happens when someone strictly follows the rules and focuses only on
what is required, using phrases like “The rules clearly state…” or “This is how we’ve always
done it.”
 Buck Passing: This occurs when someone shifts the responsibility of a task or decision onto
someone else instead of taking ownership of it.
 Playing Dumb: In this case, a person avoids a task by pretending they don’t understand it or
can’t do it, even if they actually can.
 Stretching: This involves dragging out a task, making something that should take a short time
(like two weeks) last much longer (such as four months), just to look busy.
 Stalling: This happens when someone publicly agrees to do something but does very little or
nothing behind the scenes to actually carry it out.
 Avoiding Blame
 Buffing. This is a nice way to refer to “covering your rear.” It describes the
practice of rigorously documenting activity to project an image of
competence and thoroughness.
 Playing safe. Evading situations that may reflect unfavorably. It includes
taking on only projects with a high probability of success, having risky
decisions approved by superiors, qualifying expressions of judgment, and
taking neutral positions in conflicts.
 Justifying. Developing explanations that lessen one’s responsibility for a
negative outcome and/or apologizing to demonstrate remorse, or both.
 Scapegoating. Placing the blame for a negative outcome on external
factors that are not entirely blameworthy.
 Misrepresenting. Manipulation of information by distortion,
embellishment, deception, selective presentation, or obfuscation.
 Avoiding Change
 Prevention. Trying to prevent a threatening change from occurring.
 Self-protection. Acting in ways to protect one’s self-interest during change
by guarding information or other resources.
4. What are the nine most often identified power or influence tactics and their contingencies?
Ans: The Nine Most Often Identified Power or Influence Tactics and Their
Contingencies
1. Legitimacy: Using your authority or aligning your request with organizational rules or
policies.
 Contingency: Works well when the audience respects authority or follows rules. Less
effective when the audience questions the legitimacy of the authority.
2. Rational Persuasion: Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to show a request
is reasonable.
 Contingency: Effective across all levels of influence (upward, lateral, downward) and when
the audience is logical, reflective, or interested in the outcome.
3. Inspirational Appeals: Using emotions to appeal to a person’s values, needs, hopes, and
aspirations.
 Contingency: Most effective as a downward tactic (e.g., influencing subordinates) and
when the audience is motivated by values and emotions.
4. Consultation: Involving the target in planning or decision-making to gain their support.
 Contingency: Works best when the audience is open to collaboration and when
involvement increases their commitment to the goal.
5. Exchange: Offering benefits or favors in return for compliance.
 Contingency: More effective in environments that value reciprocity and when the
exchange is seen as fair and achievable.
6. Personal Appeals: Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.
 Contingency: Most effective for lateral influence (e.g., among peers) and when there is an
existing strong personal relationship.
7. Ingratiation: Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior before making a request.
 Contingency: Effective when the audience values positive relationships, but can backfire if
perceived as insincere.
8. Pressure: Using threats, repeated demands, or warnings to gain compliance.
 Contingency: Works primarily as a downward influence (e.g., with subordinates) but is
often the least effective tactic and may lead to resistance.
9. Coalitions: Enlisting the help of others to persuade the target to agree.
 Contingency: Works best for lateral influence or when the audience is swayed by group
pressure or collective support.
Effectiveness and Conditions for Using Power Tactics:
Softer tactics, like rational persuasion, consultation, inspirational appeals, and personal
appeals, work better because they focus on personal connections and encourage people to
cooperate willingly. These approaches are most effective when the audience values teamwork,
logical reasoning, or emotional motivation.
On the other hand, harder tactics, such as exchange, coalitions, and pressure, depend more on
formal authority. These can carry greater risks, like resistance or strained relationships, and
are less likely to work smoothly.
Cultural and personal differences also affect how well a tactic works. In individualistic
cultures (focused on personal goals), people prefer direct methods like rational persuasion. In
collectivistic cultures (focused on group harmony), tactics like forming coalitions or using
indirect methods are more effective. Additionally, an organization’s culture plays a role. For
example, workplaces that encourage teamwork and cooperation are more likely to respond
positively to tactics like consultation and collaboration.
By understanding these tactics and when they work best, individuals can adjust their
approach to suit different people and situations, making it easier to influence others
effectively.
5. What is the connection between sexual harassment and the abuse of power?
Ans: Connection Between Sexual Harassment and Abuse of Power
Sexual harassment often happens because of the misuse of power. It is more common when
there is a big difference in power between people, like between a boss and an employee.
Bosses can use their authority to control things that employees value, like promotions, pay
raises, or job security. This can make employees feel pressured to go along with unwanted
behavior because they are afraid of losing opportunities or facing punishment.
Power imbalances make it easier for harassers to act without fear of consequences,
especially when there are no witnesses or if the organization doesn’t have strong rules to
deal with harassment. Victims often face challenges in reporting harassment, as it may be
their word against the harasser’s, especially when the harasser holds a powerful position.
Sometimes, harassment is also directed at people in positions of power, such as women
leaders. In these cases, less powerful individuals may try to bring them down by using
harmful gender stereotypes, showing that harassment can also be used to challenge
authority.
Workplaces with weak or unfair policies make harassment more likely. When rules aren’t
followed or applied equally, people who misuse power feel free to act without
consequences. This shows a clear link between abuse of power and harassment.
The misuse of power in harassment causes harm to victims, including stress, poor job
satisfaction, and lower productivity. To prevent this, organizations need fair policies, strong
accountability, and support systems to create a safe environment for everyone.

6. What are the causes and consequences of political behavior?

Ans: Causes of Political Behavior:
Political behavior can start from individual qualities or organizational situations.
Individual-Causes:
Some people have personality traits that make them more likely to be political. For example,
individuals who are good at observing social situations (high self-monitors) or believe they can
control events (internal locus of control) tend to engage in politics. People who have a strong
desire for power or are willing to manipulate others, like those with a Machiavellian personality,
are also more comfortable using politics to get what they want.
A person's attachment to the organization also matters. If someone has a lot to lose by leaving the
organization, they are less likely to take big risks with political actions. However, if they have other
job options or expect success through political behavior, they might use it to their advantage.
Organizational-Causes:
Certain workplace environments make politics more likely. For example, when resources are
limited or being reallocated, employees might compete to protect their share. Opportunities for
promotions also increase political behavior because everyone wants to stand out and secure the
advancement.
Organizations with unclear rules or low trust often see more politics. When job roles are vague,
employees have more freedom to act politically without being noticed. Similarly, unclear
performance evaluations or reward systems create confusion, allowing people to manipulate the
process for their benefit. If top managers frequently use politics to get ahead, it sets an example
for others to follow, making political behavior seem normal.
Consequences of Political Behavior
Political behavior can have both positive and negative effects on individuals and the organization.
For Individuals:
When political behavior is successful, it can lead to rewards, promotions, and protection from
punishments. Skilled political players may gain influence and power within the organization.
However, if the behavior is seen as illegitimate or fails, it can harm a person’s reputation and lead
to exclusion or job insecurity.
For Organizations:
In small amounts, political behavior can encourage healthy competition and innovation. It might
even help the organization adapt to change. But too much politicking can create conflict, reduce
trust among employees, and hurt teamwork. This can lower morale, increase turnover, and distract
people from the organization’s main goals.
7. What are some examples of impression management techniques?
Ans: Impression Management: The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression
others form of them. Examples of Impression Management Techniques:
1. Conformity: Agreeing with someone to gain their approval.
Example: A manager tells their boss, "You're absolutely right about the reorganization plan. I
couldn't agree more."
2. Favors: Doing something nice to earn approval.
Example: A salesperson offers a client free theater tickets, saying, "Consider this a thank-you for
meeting with me."
3. Excuses: Minimizing the severity of a mistake.
Example: A sales manager says, "We missed the ad deadline, but those ads don’t get many
responses anyway."
4. Apologies: Admitting fault while asking for forgiveness.
Example: An employee says, "I'm sorry I made an error in the report. Please forgive me."
5. Self-Promotion: Highlighting achievements to appear competent.
Example: A salesperson says, "I closed that account in six weeks after others couldn’t in three
years."
6. Enhancement: Claiming that your work is more valuable than others realize.
Example: A journalist says, "My celebrity divorce story was a big boost for our sales," even if it
wasn’t prominent.
7. Flattery: Complimenting others to appear likable.
Example: A trainee says to a colleague, "You handled that client’s complaint so tactfully. I could
never have done that as well."
8. Exemplification: Going above and beyond to show dedication.
Example: Sending late-night work emails so the supervisor sees how long you’ve been working.
8. What standards can you use to determine whether a political action is ethical?
Ans:

Organizational Change and Stress Management

1. What forces act as stimulants to change, and what is the difference between planned and
unplanned change?
Ans: Forces that act as stimulants to change:

the difference between planned and

unplanned change are:
planned Changes:
1. Changes in products and services
2. Changes in administrative Systems
3. Changes in organizational size or structure
4. Introduction of new technologies
5. Advances in information processing and communication
Unplanned Changes:
1. Changing employee
demographics
2. Performance gaps
3. Governmental regulations
4. Economic competition in the
global arena.
2. What forces act as sources of resistance to change?
Ans: Sources of resistance to change can be categorized into individual and organizational
factors:
Individual Resistance to Change:
1. Habit: People rely on established habits for simplicity and predictability, resisting changes that
disrupt their routines.
2. Security: Those with a high need for security may resist changes that threaten their stability or
sense of safety.
3. Economic Factors: Fear of income loss or inability to perform well in a new role can lead to
resistance.
4. Fear of the Unknown: Uncertainty about new processes or systems creates resistance.
5. Selective Information Processing: Individuals may resist change by only accepting information
that supports their existing perceptions.
Organizational Resistance to Change:
1. Structural Inertia: Built-in mechanisms like formal job descriptions and procedures promote
stability, making change difficult.
2. Limited Focus of Change: Interdependent subsystems in an organization mean change in one
area often requires adjustments in others, creating resistance.
3. Group Inertia: Social group norms can inhibit individuals from embracing change.
4. Threat to Expertise: Changes that diminish the relevance of specialized skills can cause
resistance.
5. Threat to Power Relationships: Shifts in power dynamics, such as decentralization, may be
resisted by those in authority.
6. Threat to Resource Allocation: Groups controlling resources may resist change to protect their
share of power and budget.
3. What are the four main approaches to managing organizational change?
Ans: The four main approaches to managing organizational change, based on the provided
content, are:
1. Lewin’s Three-Step Model
Kurt Lewin’s model suggests that successful organizational change occurs in three stages:
 Unfreezing: Preparing the organization to accept change by breaking down the existing
equilibrium (status quo). This involves addressing resistance to change by increasing driving
forces, decreasing restraining forces, or both.
 Movement: Transitioning to the desired state or implementing the change. This stage should
be executed quickly to maximize effectiveness.
 Refreezing: Stabilizing the new state to make the change permanent. This involves
reinforcing the change through mechanisms like revised rules, norms, and rewards.
2. Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan
John Kotter expanded on Lewin’s model by creating a detailed eight-step framework to address
common managerial errors in change implementation:
1. Create urgency.
2. Form a guiding coalition.
3. Develop a change vision.
4. Communicate the vision.
5. Remove obstacles.
6. Generate short-term wins.
7. Consolidate gains and build momentum.
8. Anchor the changes into the organizational culture.
Kotter’s plan provides specific guidance for unfreezing, movement, and refreezing stages.
3. Action Research
This approach is rooted in scientific methodology and includes five steps:
1. Diagnosis: Identifying problems through data collection.
2. Analysis: Synthesizing data to determine primary concerns.
3. Feedback: Sharing findings with employees and involving them in solution development.
 4. Action: Implementing the change collaboratively.
5. Evaluation: Assessing the effectiveness of the change using the initial data as a benchmark.
Qus:4. How can managers create a culture for change?
Ans:
6. What is stress, and what are the possible sources of stress?
Ans: Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity,
demand, or resource related to what the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived
to be both uncertain and important.
the possible sources of stress:

This model explains how stress works.

1. Potential Sources:
Stress can come from:
Environment: Changes in the economy, politics, or technology.
Workplace: Pressure from tasks, roles, or conflicts with others.
Personal Life: Family problems, money issues, or personality traits.
2. Individual Differences:
Each person reacts differently to stress depending on their:
Perception of the situation. Experience at work. Support from others.
Traits like self-confidence or hostility.

3. Consequences of Stress:
Stress affects people in three ways:
Physical Symptoms: Headaches, high blood pressure, or heart problems.
Mental Symptoms: Anxiety, depression, or job dissatisfaction.
Behavioral Symptoms: Reduced productivity, being absent, or leaving the job.
In short, stress depends on the situation and how people handle it, and it has effects on health,
emotions, and behavior.
7. What are the consequences of stress?
Ans: Consequences of Stress in Simple Terms
Stress affects people in three main ways: physically, mentally, and behaviorally.
1. Physiological Symptoms (Body) Stress can harm the body by:
 Increasing blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing.
 Causing headaches, ulcers, or even heart problems.
 Weakening the immune system, leading to illness.
Studies show that high-stress jobs can lead to diseases like coronary heart disease or frequent
sickness.
2. Psychological Symptoms (Mind) Stress impacts mental health through:
 Job dissatisfaction.
 Feelings of anxiety, tension, or boredom.
 Trouble focusing or procrastination.
Jobs with unclear roles, high demands, or low control increase stress.
Different people react to job control differently (e.g., some feel more stressed with added
autonomy).
3. Behavioral Symptoms (Actions) Stress changes how people behave, such as:
 Decreasing productivity.
 Increasing absenteeism or job turnover.
 Unhealthy habits (overeating, smoking, or drinking).
Poor sleep and restlessness.
8. What are the individual and organizational approaches to managing stress?
Ans: Individual Approaches to Managing Stress:

Employees can take steps to manage their stress on their own. One effective way is by learning
good time-management skills. For example, creating daily to-do lists, prioritizing tasks based on
importance, and working on the hardest tasks when you feel most alert can help. Avoiding
distractions like checking emails too often also makes a big difference.
Another approach is staying active with physical exercise. Activities like walking, jogging,
swimming, or cycling are not only good for your body but also help clear your mind and reduce
stress.
Relaxation techniques, such as meditation, deep breathing, or even taking short breaks during the
day, can help you stay calm. Spending just 15-20 minutes a day on these activities can make you
feel more peaceful.
Lastly, building a strong support network is important. Talking to friends, family, or coworkers
about your stress can help you see things more clearly and feel supported.
Organizational Approaches to Managing Stress:
Organizations can also help reduce stress by improving how jobs are designed and managed. One
way is by hiring people who are better suited to certain roles and giving them proper training. This
helps employees feel more confident and less stressed.
Setting clear and realistic goals is another way to help. When employees know what is expected of
them and get regular feedback, they feel less confused and more motivated.
Redesigning jobs can also help reduce stress. For example, giving employees more control over
their work or simplifying tasks for those who prefer structure can make their jobs less
overwhelming.
Encouraging employees to be part of decision-making processes can also lower stress. When
employees feel like they have a say in their work, they feel more in control and less pressured.
Good communication from management is another key factor. When employees understand their
roles and what is happening in the organization, they feel less uncertainty and stress.
Some companies also offer sabbaticals, allowing employees to take extended time off to relax and
recharge. This prevents burnout and helps employees return to work feeling refreshed.
Lastly, wellness programs are becoming popular. These programs teach employees how to live
healthier lives, manage stress better, and improve their mental health. Organizations benefit too,
as healthier employees are more productive and cost-effective in the long run.
By working together, both individuals and organizations can reduce stress and create a healthier,
more productive work environment.