Electromagnetic Theory

Prof. N.V.S.N. Sarma

Dept. of ECE
NIT, Warangal
 What is Electromagnetics?
The study and application of electric and magnetic fields
Electrical Engineering is Applied Electromagnetics:
- Circuit Theory
- Kirchhoff’s Voltage and Current Laws
- Current
- Resistance
- Capacitance
- Inductance
- Voltage
- Electric and Magnetic Energy
- Power, Electric Machines
- Antennas, Waves and Wave Propagation, Optics
and Optical Computing
 Why Electromagnetics?
Electrical Engineering is Applied Electromagnetics

• As devices get smaller and smaller, and frequencies get higher and higher,
circuit theory is less able to adequately describe the performance or to
predict the operation of circuits.

• At very high frequencies, transmission line and guided wave theory must
be used - high speed electronics, micro/nano electronics, integrated circuits.

• Other applications of Electromagnetics -

Fiber Optics
Microwave Communication Systems
Antennas and wave propagation
Optical Computing
Electromagnetic Interference, Electromagnetic Compatibility
Biology and Medicine/Medical Imaging
 Why Electromagnetics?
• As use of the electromagnetic frequency spectrum increases, the
demand for engineers who have practical working knowledge
in the area of electromagnetics continues to grow.

• Electromagnetic engineers design high frequency or optoelectronic

circuits, antennas and waveguides; design electrical circuits that
will function properly in the presence of external interference
while not interfering with other equipment.

• The electromagnetics technical specialty prepares future engineers

for employment in industry in the areas of radar, antennas, fiber
optics, high frequency circuits, electromagnetic compatibility
and microwave communication.
Examples of Electromagnetics
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
• Electromagnetics is the study of the effect of
charges at rest and charges in motion.
• Some special cases of electromagnetics:
– Electrostatics: charges at rest
– Magnetostatics: charges in steady motion (DC)
– Electromagnetic wave: waves excited by charges in
time-varying motion
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
Fundamental laws of Maxwell’s
classical electromagnetics equations

Special Electro- Magneto- Electro- Geometric

cases statics statics magnetic Optics
waves

Statics: 
0 Transmission
t Line
Theory
Input from Circuit
other Theory Kirchoff’s
disciplines Laws d  
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields

• transmitter and receiver

are connected by a “field.”
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
High-speed, high-density digital circuits:
2 3

1 4
• consider an interconnect between points “1” and “2”
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
2
v (t), V

1
1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
2 t (ns) • Propagation delay
• Electromagnetic
v (t), V

1
2

coupling
0

2
0 10 20 30 40 50
t (ns)
60 70 80 90 100
• Substrate modes
v (t), V

1
3

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
t (ns)
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
• When an event in one place has an effect on
something at a different location, we talk
about the events as being connected by a
“field”.
• A field is a spatial distribution of a quantity;
in general, it can be either scalar or vector
in nature.
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
• Electric and magnetic fields:
– Are vector fields with three spatial components.
– Vary as a function of position in 3D space as
well as time.
– Are governed by partial differential equations
derived from Maxwell’s equations.
 Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
• A scalar is a quantity having only an amplitude
(and possibly phase).
Examples: voltage, current, charge, energy, temperature

• A vector is a quantity having direction in addition

to amplitude (and possibly phase).
Examples: velocity, acceleration, force
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
• Fundamental vector field quantities in
electromagnetics:
(E )
– Electric field intensity
units = volts per meter (V/m = kg m/A/s3)
– Electric flux density (electric displacement) (D )
units = coulombs per square meter (C/m2 = A s /m2)
– Magnetic field intensity (H )
units = amps per meter (A/m)
– Magnetic flux density (B )

units = teslas = webers per square meter (T =

Wb/ m2 = kg/A/s3)
Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields
• Universal constants in Electromagnetics:

– Velocity of an electromagnetic wave (e.g., light) in free

space (perfect vacuum)

c  3  10 m/s
8

– Permeability of free space

 0 = 4  10 −7 H/m
– Permittivity of free space:
 0  8 .854  10 − 12
F/m
– Intrinsic impedance of free space:
 0  120 
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
Relationships involving the universal constants:

1 0
c= 0 =
 0 0 0

In free space:
B = 0 H

D = 0 E
Introduction to Electromagnetic
Fields
Obtained
sources
• by assumption
Ji, Ki • from solution to IE

Solution to
fields Maxwell’s equations
E, H
Observable
quantities
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Maxwell’s equations in integral form are the fundamental
postulates of classical electromagnetics - all classical
electromagnetic phenomena are explained by these
equations.
• Electromagnetic phenomena include electrostatics,
magnetostatics, electromagnetostatics and electromagnetic
wave propagation.
• The differential equations and boundary conditions that we
use to formulate and solve EM problems are all derived
from Maxwell’s equations in integral form.
 Maxwell’s Equations
• Various equivalence principles consistent
with Maxwell’s equations allow us to
replace more complicated electric current
and charge distributions with equivalent
magnetic sources.
• These equivalent magnetic sources can be
treated by a generalization of Maxwell’s
equations.
Contour, Surface and Volume
Conventions
• open surface S bounded by
S C closed contour C
• dS in direction given by
RH rule
dS
S
• volume V bounded by
closed surface S
V • dS in direction outward
dS from V
 Electric Current and Charge
Densities
• Jc = (electric) conduction current density
(A/m2)
• Ji = (electric) impressed current density
(A/m2)
• qev = (electric) charge density (C/m3)
 Magnetic Current and Charge
Densities
• Kc = magnetic conduction current density
(V/m2)
• Ki = magnetic impressed current density
(V/m2)
• qmv = magnetic charge density (Wb/m3)
 Maxwell’s Equations - Sources
and Responses
• Sources of EM field:
– Ki, Ji, qev, qmv

• Responses to EM field:
– E, H, D, B, Jc, Kc
 Electromagnetic Fields in
Materials
• In a simple medium, we have:
• linear (independent of field
D =E strength)
• isotropic (independent of position

B = H
within the medium)
• homogeneous (independent of
direction)
Jc = E • time-invariant (independent of
time)
Kc =m H • non-dispersive (independent of
frequency)
Electromagnetic Fields in Materials

•  = permittivity = r0 (F/m)

•  = permeability = r0 (H/m)
•  = electric conductivity = (S/m)
 Electric Field

http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/c
ollege/halliday/0471320005/simulatio
ns6e/index.htm?newwindow=true
 Analogy

The electric field is the space

around an electrical charge

Similar to a gravitational field is

the space around a mass.
 Electric Field
• Space around a charge.
What is the difference?
 Van de Graaff Generator
• Builds up static electric
charges.
 Electric Field Vector, E
• E = F/ qo

• qo , positive test charge

• E is a vector quantity
• Unit: N/C
• E is analogous to the gravitational field,
g, where g=F/m
 Example 1
• A charge of 3µC is used to test the electric
field of a central charge of 6C that causes a
force of 800N. What is the magnitude of the
electric field?

• Answer: 2.7 x108 N/C

Electric Field Lines
Electric Field Lines of two Positive
Charges
 Electric Field Lines
• Lines that indicate the strength and
direction of the electric field.
• The more dense the lines, the stronger
the field.
• Electric field vectors are tangent to the
curve.
• Simulation
http://online.cctt.org/physicslab/content/applet
s/pointcharges/elefi_z.htm
 Conductors and Electric Fields
(under electrostatic conditions)
• “The electric field is zero inside a charged
conductor”.

• “Excess charge on an isolated conductor resides on

the surface”.

• “Excess charge accumulates on sharp points”.

• Electric field lines meet the conductor

perpendicular to the surface of the conductor.
 Shielding

• The electric field is zero inside a charged

conductor.
 Where are you safe during a
thunderstorm?
A) In a car or

B) Outdoors
Why can you not get radio
reception in a tunnel or in a steel
bridge?
 Which field is stronger?
• A B
Electric Field for a Point Charge
Using E=F/qo and Coulomb’s Law prove:

E=k Q
______

r2

where Q is the central charge.

 Example 2
• A test charge of +3µC is located 5m to the
east of a -4µC charge.
• A) Find the electric force felt by the test
charge.
• B) Find the electric field at that location.

• Answer: 4.32x10-3 N, 1.44 x 103 N/C along

the –x axis.
 Example 3
• If a test charge is moved to a location three
times as far as its original location, how
does the electric field change?
 Field Vector
Cartesian Coordinate z
A (R)
System
Coordinates R
x, y , z
ez ze z
−  x  
Limits ex ey
−  y   xe x
−  z   y

x ye y

Orthonormal Unit Vectors ex , e y , ez

ex ⊥ e y ⊥ ez
| e x |=| e y |=| e z |= 1

Arbitrary Vector Field

A (R) = Ax (R) + A y (R ) + Az (R )
= A x ( x, y , z ) e x + A y ( x, y , z ) e y + A z ( x, y , z ) e z
 Position Vector
Cylindrical Coordinate System
z

R = R r ( R ) + R ( R ) + R z ( R )
R ze z
= Rr (R ) er ( ) + R (R ) e ( ) + Rz (R ) e z
= r er ( ) + z e z r e r ( )
 y

Coordinates r ,  , z; 0  r  , 0    2 , −   z  

Orthonormal Unit Vectors

er ( ), e ( ), e z
er ( ) ⊥ e ( ) ⊥ e z | er ( ) |=| e ( ) |=| e z |= 1
 Field Vector
Spherical Coordinate z
A (R)
System
Coordinates R, ,  R e ( ,  )

R e R ( ,  )
Limits 0R
e R ( ,  )
0  
0    2  y

e ( )
x

Orthonormal Unit Vectors e R ( ,  ) , e ( ,  ) , e ( )

e R ( ,  ) ⊥ e ( ,  ) ⊥ e ( ) ⊥ : Perpendicular / Senkrecht

| e R ( ,  ) |=| e ( ,  ) |=| e ( ) |= 1

Arbitrary Vector Field

A ( R, t ) = A R ( R ) + A ( R ) + A ( R )
= A R ( R, ,  ) e R ( ,  ) + A ( R, ,  ) e ( ,  ) + A ( R, ,  ) e ( )
 Cartesian Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces, Unit Vectors,
Surface Elements and Volume Element

z = const.
dS xy
ez
P ( x, y , z )
dS xz
ey
ex dS yz

x = const.

y = const.
Cylindrical Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces, Unit Vectors,
Surface Elements and Volume Element

dS xy
z = const. dS rz

ez
e ( ) dS z
P(r ,  , z ) e r ( )

r = const.
r d
dr

 = const.
Spherical Coordinate System: Coordinate Surfaces, Unit Vectors,
Surface Elements and Volume Element

R sin  d
e R ( ,  ) dS

dSr
e ( )
P ( R,  ,  )
e ( ,  ) R d dS r

R sin 
 = const.
R = const.
 Metric Coefficients and Vector Differential Line Elements

Cartesian Coordinate System Cylindrical Coordinate System Spherical Coordinate System

hx = 1, hy = 1, hz = 1 hr = 1, h = r , hz = 1 hR = 1, h = R, h = R sin 

dR x = s dR dR r = s dR dR R = s dR
= e x hx dx = er hr dr = e R hR dR
= e x dx = er dr = e R dR

dR y = s dR dR = s dR dR = s dR
= e y hy dy = e h d = e h d
= e y dy = e r d = e R d

dR z = n dR dR z = s dR dR = s dR
= e z hz dz = e z hz dz = e h d
= e z dz = e z dz = e R sin  d
 Metric Coefficients and Differential Volume and Surface
Elements
Cartesian Coordinate System Cylindrical Coordinate System Spherical Coordinate System

hx = 1, hy = 1, hz = 1 hr = 1, h = r , hz = 1 hR = 1, h = R, h = R sin 
dV = hx dx hy dy hz dz dV = hr dr h d hz dz dV = hR dR h d h d
= hx hy hz dx dy dz = hr h hz dr d dy = hR h h dR d d
= dz dx dz = r dr d dz = R 2 sin  dR d d

dS yz = n dS dS z = n dS dS = n dS
= (e y ×e z ) hy hz dy dz = (e ×e z ) h hz d dz = (e ×e ) h h d d
= e x dy dz = er r dy dz = e R R 2 sin  d d

dS xz = n dS dS rz = n dS dS r = n dS
= (e z ×e x ) hx hz dx dz = (e z ×er ) hr hz dr dz
= (e ×e R ) hR h dR d
= e y dx dz = e dr dz
= e R sin  dR d

dS xy = n dS dS r = n dS
dS R = n dS
= (e x ×e y ) hx hy dx dy = (er ×e ) hr h dr d
= (e R ×e ) hR h dR d
= e z dx dy = e z r dr d  = e R dR d
 z

Coordinates of Different
Coordinate Systems R


Transformation Table  y

x
Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

x r cos  R sin  cos 

y r sin  R sin  sin 
z z R cos 

x2 + y 2 r R sin 
arctan
y  
x
z R cos 
z
x2 + y 2 + z 2
r2 + z2 R
x2 + y 2 r
arctan arctan 
z z

arctan
y 
x
 Examples

1. Formulate x as a function of the cylinder and

spherical coordinates.
x = r cos  = R sin  cos 

1. Formulate r as a function of the Cartesian and

spherical coordinates.
r = x 2 + y 2 = R sin 

2. Formulate x + y 2 2
as a function of the cylinder
coordinates.
. x 2 + y 2 = (r cos  )2 + (r sin  ) 2 = r cos 2  + sin 2  = r
=1
 Scalar Vector Components in Different Coordinate Systems

Transformation Table

Cartesian Coordinates Cylindrical Coordinates Spherical Coordinates

A = Ax e x + Ay e y + Az e z A = Ar er + A e + Az e z A = AR e R + A e + A e

Ax Ar cos  − A sin  AR sin  cos  + A cos  cos  − A sin 

Ay Ar sin  + A cos  AR sin  sin  + A cos  sin  + A cos 
Az Az AR cos  − A sin 

Ax cos  + Ay sin  Ar AR sin  + A cos 

− Ax sin  + Ay cos  A A
Az Az AR cos  − A sin 

Ax sin  cos  + Ay sin  sin  + Az cos  Ar sin  + Az cos  AR

Ax cos  cos  + Ay cos  sin  − Az sin  Ar cos  − Az sin  A
− Ax sin  + Ay cos  A A
 Gradient
• Gradient of a scalar field is a vector
field which points in the direction of the
greatest rate of increase of the scalar
field, and whose magnitude is the
greatest rate of change.
 Gradient

In the above two images, the scalar field is

in black and white, black representing
higher values, and its corresponding
gradient is represented by blue arrows.
 Divergence
• Divergence is an operator that measures the
magnitude of a vector field's source or sink at a
given point
• The divergence of a vector field is a (signed) scalar
• For example, for a vector field that denotes the
velocity of air expanding as it is heated, the
divergence of the velocity field would have a
positive value because the air expands. If the air
cools and contracts, the divergence is negative. The
divergence could be thought of as a measure of the
change in density.
 Curl
• Curl is a vector operator that shows a vector field's
"rotation";
• The direction of the axis of rotation and the
magnitude of the rotation. It can also be described
as the circulation density.
• "Rotation" and "circulation" are used here for
properties of a vector function of position,
regardless of their possible change in time.
• A vector field which has zero curl everywhere is
called irrotational.
 Electrostatics

• Electrostatics is the branch of

electromagnetics dealing with the effects
of electric charges at rest.
• The fundamental law of electrostatics is
Coulomb’s law.
 Electric Charge
• Electrical phenomena caused by friction are part
of our everyday lives, and can be understood in
terms of electrical charge.
• The effects of electrical charge can be observed in
the attraction/repulsion of various objects when
“charged.”
• Charge comes in two varieties called “positive”
and “negative.”
 Electric Charge
• Objects carrying a net positive charge attract those
carrying a net negative charge and repel those
carrying a net positive charge.
• Objects carrying a net negative charge attract
those carrying a net positive charge and repel
those carrying a net negative charge.
• On an atomic scale, electrons are negatively
charged and nuclei are positively charged.
 Electric Charge
• Electric charge is inherently quantized such that
the charge on any object is an integer multiple of
the smallest unit of charge which is the magnitude
of the electron charge e = 1.602  10-19 C.

• On the macroscopic level, we can assume that

charge is “continuous.”
 Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb’s law is the “law of action” between
charged bodies.
• Coulomb’s law gives the electric force between
two point charges in an otherwise empty universe.
• A point charge is a charge that occupies a region
of space which is negligibly small compared to the
distance between the point charge and any other
object.
 Coulomb’s Law
Q1
r 12 Q2 Unit vector in
direction of R12
F 12
Q1 Q2
Force due to Q1 F 12 = aˆ R12
acting on Q2 4  0 r12
2
 Coulomb’s Law
• The force on Q1 due to Q2 is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction to the
force on Q2 due to Q1.

F 21 = − F 12
 Electric Field
• Consider a point charge Q
placed at the origin of a Qt
coordinate system in an r
otherwise empty universe.

• A test charge Qt brought near Q

Q experiences a force:
QQt
F Qt = aˆ r
4 0 r 2
 Electric Field
• The existence of the force on Qt can be attributed
to an electric field produced by Q.
• The electric field produced by Q at a point in
space can be defined as the force per unit charge
acting on a test charge Qt placed at that point.

F Qt
E = lim
Qt → 0 Q
t
 Electric Field
• The electric field describes the effect of a
stationary charge on other charges and is an
abstract “action-at-a-distance” concept, very
similar to the concept of a gravity field.
• The basic units of electric field are newtons
per coulomb.
• In practice, we usually use volts per meter.
 Electric Field

• For a point charge at the origin, the electric

field at any point is given by

E (r ) = aˆ r
Q Qr
=
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 3
 Electric Field
• For a point charge located at a point P’ described
by a position vector r
the electric field at P is given by
P
E (r ) =
QR
4 0 R 3 r R
where Q
R = r − r r
R = r − r O
 Electric Field

• In electromagnetics, it is very popular to

describe the source in terms of primed
coordinates, and the observation point in
terms of unprimed coordinates.
• As we shall see, for continuous source
distributions we shall need to integrate over
the source coordinates.
 Electric Field
• Using the principal of superposition, the
electric field at a point arising from multiple
point charges may be evaluated as

n
E (r ) = 
Qk R k
k =1 4 0 Rk
3
 Continuous Distributions of
Charge
• Charge can occur as
– point charges (C)
 most general
– volume charges (C/m3)
– surface charges (C/m2)
– line charges (C/m)
Continuous Distributions of Charge

• Volume charge density

Qencl

r V’

qev (r ) = lim
Qencl
V → 0  V 
 Continuous Distributions of Charge
• Electric field due to volume charge density

r
dV’
Qencl V’
r P

qev (r )dv R
d E (r ) =
4 0 R 3
Electric Field Due to Volume
Charge Density

qev (r ) R
E (r ) =
1

4 0 V  R 3
d v 
 Continuous Distributions of
Charge
• Surface charge density
Qencl

r S’

qes (r ) = lim
Qencl
S  → 0  S 
Continuous Distributions of Charge
• Electric field due to surface charge
density

r
dS’
Qencl S’
r P

qes (r )ds R
d E (r ) =
4 0 R 3
Electric Field Due to Surface
Charge Density

qes (r ) R
E (r ) =
1
4 0 S  R 3 d s 
 Continuous Distributions of
Charge
• Line charge density

r L’ Q
encl

qel (r ) = lim
Qencl
L  → 0  L 
Continuous Distributions of Charge

• Electric field due to line charge density

r L’ Q
encl r P

qel (r )dl  R
d E (r ) =
4 0 R 3
Electric Field Due to Line Charge
Density

qel (r ) R
E (r ) =
1
4 0 L R 3 d l 
 Electrostatic Potential
• An electric field is a force field.

• If a body being acted on by a force is

moved from one point to another, then
work is done.

• The concept of scalar electric potential

provides a measure of the work done in
moving charged bodies in an electrostatic
field.
 Electrostatic Potential
• The work done in moving a test charge from one
point to another in a region of electric field:

F
b
a
q dl
b b
Wa → b = −  F  d l = − q  E  d l
a a
 Electrostatic Potential
• In evaluating line integrals, it is customary to take
the dl in the direction of increasing coordinate
value so that the manner in which the path of
integration is traversed is unambiguously
determined by the limits of integration.
b a
x
3 5 3
Wa →b = − q  E • aˆ x dx
5
 Electrostatic Potential

• The electrostatic field is conservative:

– The value of the line integral depends only
on the end points and is independent of the
path taken.
– The value of the line integral around any
closed path is zero.

C C
 E  d l = 0
 Electrostatic Potential

• The work done per unit charge in moving a test

charge from point a to point b is the
electrostatic potential difference between the
two points:
b
Wa → b
Vab  = − E  d l
q a

electrostatic potential difference

Units are volts.
 Electrostatic Potential
• Since the electrostatic field is conservative
we can write
b P0 b
Vab = −  E • d l = −  E • d l −  E • d l
a a P0

b  a 
= − E • dl − −  E • dl 
 
P0  P0 
= V (b ) − V (a )
 Electrostatic Potential
• Thus the electrostatic potential V is a scalar
field that is defined at every point in space.
• In particular the value of the electrostatic
potential at any point P is given by
P
V (r ) = −  E • d l
P0
reference point
 Electrostatic Potential
• The reference point (P0) is where the potential is
zero (analogous to ground in a circuit).
• Often the reference is taken to be at infinity so that
the potential of a point in space is defined as

P
V (r ) = −  E • d l

 Electrostatic Potential and
Electric Field
• The work done in moving a point charge
from point a to point b can be written as

Wa →b = Q Vab = QV (b ) − V (a )
b
= −Q  E • d l
a
 Electrostatic Potential and
Electric Field
• Along a short path of length l we have

W = Q V = −Q E   l
or
V = − E   l
 Electrostatic Potential and
Electric Field
• Along an incremental path of length dl we
have
dV = − E  d l
• Recall from the definition of directional
derivative:
dV =  V  d l
 Electrostatic Potential and
Electric Field
• Thus:

E = − V

the “del” or “nabla” operator

 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.1. Coulomb’s Law
Something known from the ancient time (here comes amber): two charged
particles exert a force on each other…

Q1Q2
Electrostatic
F= u [N ] (3.2.1)
(Coulomb’s) 4 0 R 2 R
force:

where Q1 and Q2 are charges,

R –distance between particles,
uR – the unit-vector
1
 0  8.854 10−12  10−9 F / m − the permittivity of free space
36

In this notation, negative force means attraction, positive – repelling.

 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.1. Coulomb’s Law (Example)
Find the magnitude of the Coulomb force that exists between an electron
and a proton in a hydrogen atom. Compare the Coulomb force and the
gravitational force between the two particles. The two particles are
separated approximately by 1 Ångström 1Å 10-10 m.
(1.602 10−19 )
2
Q1Q2
FC =   2.3  10−8 N (3.3.1)
4 0 R 2  1 
4  10−9  (10 )
−10 2

 36 

FG = G
me m p
 6.67 10−11
( 9.1110 )(1836  9.1110 )  1.02 10
−31 −31
−47
N (3.3.2)
(10 ) −10 2
2
R

FC
Ratio : = 2.27 1039 times
FG
This is why chemical bounds are so strong!
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.2. Electric (electrostatic) Field
Electrostatic field due to the
charge Q:

F Q    
E =
N V
u  C   m 
= (3.4.1)
q 4 0 R 2
R

An “alternative definition”:
dF F − Fq
E→  lim q + q (3.4.2)
dq q →0 q
What’s wrong with it?

For a system of two charges:

 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.3. Superposition

For several charges placed at different locations in space, the total electric field
at the particular location would be a superposition (vector summation) of
individual electric fields: N
Etot =  En (3.5.1)
n =1 a vector sum!
(Example): find the EF at P

Q1 = +1C, Q1 = +2C, Q3 = -3C

Etot , P = EQ1 , P + EQ1 , P + EQ1 , P

Q1 Q2 Q3
= u + u + u
4 0 R12 R1
4 0 R2 2 R2
4 0 R3 2 R3

1(3u x + 4u y ) 2u y 3u x
= + −
4 0 53 4 0 4 4 0 32
2
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.3. Superposition (cont)
Q
Volume charge density: v = [C / m3 ] (3.6.1)
v
Q
Surface charge density: s = [C / m 2 ] (3.6.2)
s
Q
Linear charge density: l = [C / m] (3.6.3)
l

1 v
if vi → 0, number of volumes →    =
4 0 R
v
2
uR dv ' (3.6.4)

There is a differential electric field directed radially from each differential charges
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.3. Superposition (Example)

Calculate the electric field from a

finite charge uniformly distributed
along a finite line.

Linear charge density: (z’)l

− z ' uz +  u
The unit vector : uR =
z '2 +  2

We assume a symmetry along z with respect to the observation point. Therefore, it

will be a charge element at –z’ for every charge element at +z’. As a result, fields
in z direction will cancel each other:

i
Ezi = 0 − due to symmetry (3.7.1)
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.3. Superposition (Example, cont)
 
The radial component: dE = dE cos  = dE = dE (3.8.1)
R  + z'
2 2

Combining (3.4.1) and (3.6.3), we arrive to:

l dz '
dE = (3.8.2)
4 0 (  2 + z '2 )
which, combined with (3.8.1) and integrated leads to:
1
a
l  l a
E =
4 0  dz ' =
2 0 
(3.8.3)
( )
2 3  +a
2 2
−a 2
+ z'
l
2 a →   E = (3.8.4)
2 0 
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.3. Superposition (Example 2)

Calculate the electric field

from an infinite plane charged
with s and consisting of an
infinite number of parallel
charged lines.

Symmetry leads to cancellation

of tangent components.

Utilize (3.8.4) and that R = x 2 + y 2 . The linear charge density: l = s dx

(3.9.1)
  
s y s  y s −1  x  s
Ey =  dE cos  dx =  2
− − x '2 + y 2 x2 + y 2
dx =  x2 + y 2
2 0 −
dx =
2 0
tan   =
 y  − 2 0
0
(3.9.2)
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.4. Gauss’s Law

A charge Q is uniformly distributed within a

sphere of radius a.

We can assume first that the charge is

located at the center. Than, by (3.4.1):
Q
E= ur (3.10.1)
4 0 a 2

Q
By evaluating surface integrals of both sides  E ds =  4 a
0
2
ur ds (3.10.2)

At the surface of the sphere, the unit-vector associated with the differential surface
area ds points in the radial direction. Therefore, ur ur = 1 and the closed
surface integral is 4 a 2
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.4. Gauss’s Law (cont)
Therefore, the Qencl
integral form:  E ds = 0
(3.11.1)

Here Qencl is the charge enclosed within the closed surface.

By using divergence theorem and volume charge density concept:

  dv
v

 E ds =   Edv =
s v
v

0
(3.11.2)

v
Differential form:  E= (3.11.3)
0
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.4. Gauss’s Law (cont 2)
For the charge Q uniformly distributed within the spherical
volume v = 4 a 3 / 3
Q Q
The volume charge density: v = = (3.12.1)
v  4 a 3 
 
 3 
The total charge   dvv
Qencl
enclosed:
v
= (3.12.2)
0 0
Gauss Law

a) Outside the sphere: r > a, Qencl = Q   dv

v
Q
 = =  E ds = 4 r E
v 2
(3.12.3)
0 0 s
r

Q
Er = (3.12.3)
4 0 r 2
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.4. Gauss’s Law (cont 3)

a) Inside the sphere: r < a

Qenc   dv
v
1 Q 4 r 3 Q  r 
3

= v
= =   (3.13.1)
0 0  0 4 a 3 3 0  a 
3
 v dv
Gauss Law
3
Qr
 =   =  E ds = 4 r E (3.13.2)
v 2

0 0  a  s
r

Qr
Er = (3.13.3)
4 0 a3
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.5. Gaussian Surface

A Gaussian surface is a closed two-dimensional surface through which a flux or

electric field is calculated. The surface is used in conjunction with Gauss's law (a
consequence of the divergence theorem), allowing to calculate the total enclosed
electric charge by exploiting a symmetry while performing a surface integral.

Commonly used are:

a) Spherical surface for

• A point charge;
• A uniformly distributed spherical shell of charge;
• Other charge distribution with a spherical symmetry
b) Cylindrical surface for
• A long, straight wire with a uniformly distributed charge;
• Any long, straight cylinder or cylindrical shell with uniform charge distribution.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential

A charged particle will gain a certain amount of potential energy as the

particle is moved against an electric field.

b b
We =  F dl = −Q  E dl [ J ] (3.15.1)
a a
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont)

Imaginary experiment: compute a total work required to bring three charged

particles from - to the shaded region. No electric field exists at - and there
are no friction, no gravity, and no other forces.

There are no forces here, therefore, no work is required! W1 = 0;

 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 2)

II
xb xa

We need to overcome the Coulomb’s force, therefore, some work is required.

xb
Q1Q2 Q1Q2
W2 = −  dx = = Q2V1 (3.17.1)
−
4 0 ( x − xa ) 2
4 0 x − xa
since both charges are positive

V1 is an absolute electric potential caused by the charge Q1

xb
Q1 Q1
V1 = −  dx = (3.17.2)
−
4 0 ( x − xa ) 2
4 0 x − xa
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 3)

III

We need again to overcome the Coulomb’s force, therefore, some work is required.
xc x c
Q1Q3 Q2Q3 Q1Q3 Q2Q3
W3 = −  dx −  dx = + = Q3V1 + Q3V2 (3.18.1)
−
4 0 ( x − xa ) 2
−
4 0 ( x − xb ) 2
4 0 xc − xa 4 0 xc − xb

Totally, for the three particles: Wtot = W1 + W2 + W3 = 0 + Q2V12 + Q3 (V13 + V23 ) (3.18.2)

1 N N Qi Q j 1 N
Or, for N particles: Wtot =   =  QV (3.18.3)
2 i =1 j =1, j i 4 0 xij 2 i =1
i i

N
Qi
Here xij is the distance between charges i and j; Vi = 
j =1, j  i 4 0 xij
(3.18.4)
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 4)

Note: the total work in our case is equal to the total electrostatic energy
stored in the shaded region.

Note: the total work (and the total energy) do not depend on the order, in
which particles are brought.

The electrostatic energy can also be evaluated as

1
We =  vVdv [ J ] (3.19.1)
2 v
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 5)

Electric potential difference between points a and b is the work required to

move the charge from point a to point b divided by that charge.

We can express the electric potential difference or voltage as:

1  1 a 
a b b
Va − Vb = Vab =   F dl −  F dl  =  Q  E dl − Q  E dl  (3.20.1)
Q  − −  Q  − − 

b
Vab =  E dl   = [V ]
J
or  C  (3.20.2)
a
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example)
Evaluate the work (charge times potential
difference) required to move a charge q from
a radius b to a radius a.
Q
The electric field is E= ur (3.21.1)
4 0 r 2

The potential difference between the two 4’

spherical surfaces is 3’ 6’
b
Q 1 1
b
Q Q 2’ 5’
Vab =  u ur dr = − =  −  (3.21.2) 1’
a
4 0 r 2 r
4 0 r a
4 0  a b 

The potential at r =  is assumed to be 0 and is called a ground potential.

The electric potential defined with respect to the ground potential is called
an absolute potential.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example, cont)

Considering the path 1-2-3-4, we notice that there are only potential differences
while going 1 → 2 and 3 → 4. Therefore, these are the only paths where some
work is required. When moving 2 → 3, the potential is constant, therefore no
work is required.

A surface that has the same potential is called an equipotential surface.

If the separation between two equipotential surfaces and the voltage between
them are small:

V V V
dV  − E dl = − Ex dx − E y dy − Ez dz = dx + dy + dz (3.22.1)
x y z
V V V
uz  
V
The electric field : E = − ux − uy − (3.22.2)
x y z m
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 6)

We can modify (3.22.2) as following:

E = −V (3.23.1)

v  V
Since  E = =  ( −V )   2V = − v  
 0  m 
(3.23.2)
0 2

Poisson’s equation
Laplace’s eqn. when v = 0

An absolute potential caused by a volume distribution that is not at the origin:

1 v ( x ', y ', z ')
V ( x, y , z ) =
4 0  dx ' dy ' dz ' (3.23.3)
( x − x ') + ( y − y ') + ( z − z ')
2 2 2
v
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (cont 7)

The potential energy would be

1 1 0 0 0
We =
2 v
 vVdv =
2 v
( 0  E )Vdv =
2  (  VE − E V ) dv =
v
2 v VE ds −
2 v E Vdv
(3.24.1)
for R → 
0 0
We =  E Edv =  dv
2
E (3.24.2)
2 v
2 v

Note that when a charged particle is moved along a closed contour, no work is required
We
= −  E ds = 0 =    E ds    E = 0 (3.24.3)
Q s
Electrostatic field is conservative and irrotational.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2)

Find the potential V due to

two equal charges that have
opposite signs and are in the
vacuum. The distance from
the point of interest is much
greater than the separation.
The configuration is known
as an electric dipole.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2, cont)

Due to superposition: Q Q
V= − (3.26.1)
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
Since r >> d; r, r1, and r2 are almost parallel.
d d
r1  r − cos  and r2  r + cos  (3.26.2)
2 2
Q Q
V −
 d   d 
4 0  r − cos   4 0  r + cos  
 2   2 
Q  d d  Qd
  1 + cos  − 1 + cos   = cos  (3.26.3)
4 0 r  2r 2r  4 0 r
2

A vector p = Qd is a dipole moment.

 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.6. Potential Energy and Electric Potential (Example 2, cont)
Electric potential distribution plot of (3.26.3)
0.01 0
30 330
0.008

0.006
60 300
0.004

0.002
0.01 0.008
0.006 0.004
0.002
0
V

90 270

-0.002

-0.004
120 240
-0.006

-0.008
150 210
-0.01
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 180
Angle, rad
plot polar
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.7. On numerical integration
When no symmetry can be used to simplify the problem, numerical integrations
are quite helpful. Numerical integration = APPROXIMATION.

trapz

quad

dblquad Self-study
triplequad
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.8. Dielectric materials
A material can be considered as a collection of randomly (in general) oriented
small electric dipoles.

If an external electric
field is applied, the
dipoles may orient
themselves.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.8. Dielectric materials (cont)
We may suggest that an external electric
field causes a “thin layer of charge” of the
opposite sign at either edge of the material.
This charge is called a polarization charge.

The density of the polarization charge:

 p = − P (3.30.1)

1 N 
where P is the polarization field: P = lim   p j  (3.30.2)
v →0
 v j =1 
Here pj = Qdud is the dipole moment of individual dipole, N – number of atoms
(dipoles)
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.8. Dielectric materials (cont 2)

Let us add the polarization charge density to the real charge density. The
Gauss’s Law will take a form:
v +  p
 E= (3.31.1)
0
which leads to
 D = v (3.31.2)

D =  0 E + P   − electric (displacement ) flux density (3.31.3)

C
where
 m 
2

The total flux that passes through the surface e = D

s
ds [C ] (3.31.4)
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.8. Dielectric materials (cont 3)

Integrating (3.31.2) over a volume, leads to

 D ds = Q
s
enc
(3.32.1)

Dielectric materials are susceptible to polarization. Usually, polarization is linearly

proportional to the applied (small) electric field. Then
P =  0 e E
(3.32.2)

where e is the electric susceptibility

D =  0 (1 + e ) E =  0 r E =  E (3.32.3)

for linear and isotropic materials

r is the relative dielectric constant
We consider only linear materials here.
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.9. Capacitance
Q
C [F ] (3.33.1)
V

A parallel-plate capacitor

Area A=w z (3.33.2)

Assume A >> d
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.9. Capacitance (cont)
Qenc A 
 E  ds =
s
0
 2 EA = s  E = s − between plates
0 2 0
(3.34.1)

b
Vab =  E dl = Ed (3.34.2)
a

Q s A  0 A A
C= = = , or in case of dielectric C = (3.34.3)
V d s d d
0
0 0  V  22
CV
Stored energy: We =  E 2 dv =   Ad = (3.34.4)
2 v 2 d 2
Assumed uniform field in the capacitor and uniform distribution of charge on plates
 1. Electrostatic Fields
1.9. Capacitance (Example)
Calculate the mutual capacitance of a coax cable
with dielectric r inside…

From the Gauss’s Law:

 D ds = Q enc → D  2 L = l L (3.35.1)

Potential difference:
b b
l  b 
Vab =  E dl =  d  = l ln   (3.35.2)
a a
2 2  a 
The total charge: Q = l L (3.35.3)

Q l L 2 (3.35.4)
 C= = = L
HW 2 is ready Vab  l  
b  
b
ln   ln  
2  a  a
 The Story of E and B
▪ Stationary charges cause electric fields (Coulombs
Law, Gauss’ Law).

▪ Moving charges or currents cause magnetic fields

(Biot-Savart Law). Therefore, electric fields produce
magnetic fields.

▪ Question: Can changing magnetic fields cause electric

fields?
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.1. Electric currents

Let’s consider a wire…

The generalized Ohm’s Law specifies a current density:

V
I
J= = R = V L 1 =  E  A 
A A L AR  m 2  (3.36.1)

Alternative: J = v vdrift = v m E =  E (3.36.2)

where v is the electron volume charge density, vdrift is an average

electron drift velocity,  is the mobility of the material.
m

 = v m = 1/ R − the conductivity (3.36.3)

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.1. Electric currents (cont)

The total current that passes through the wire

I= J
A
ds  (3.37.1)

In our case if the current is distributed uniformly in a cylindrical wire:

I = J a2 (3.37.2)

The power density (density of power dissipating within a conductor):

p = J E W m 2  (3.37.3)

The total power absorbed within the volume:

P=  pdv
v
[W ] (3.37.4)
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.1. Electric currents (Examples)

a) Calculate the current flowing through the wire of radius a; current density:

J = I0 uz (3.38.1)
a “skin effect”
2 a
 a2
 I =   I 0 uz  d  d uz = 2 I 0 (3.38.2)
 =0  =0 a 3

b) Calculate the power dissipated within a resistor with a uniform conductivity .

The voltage across the resistor is V, a current passing through is I.

2
I V
L a
P=  J E dv =
v
z =0 =0 =0  2 L  d  d dz = VI (3.38.3)
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont)

Magnetic field lines are continuous, don’t originate nor terminate at a point.
There is no “magnetic monopole”…

 B ds = 0 (3.40.1)

B is a magnetic flux density, [T] = [Wb/m2]

By applying the divergence theorem to (3.40.1):  B ds =   Bdv

v
(3.40.2)

 B=0 (3.40.3)
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont 2)

As a result, we can
split a bar magnet into
tiny pieces and all of
them will have both
north and south poles.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont 3)

Magnetic field can be created by the electric current:

Ampere’s Law:  B dl =  I 0 enc

(3.42.1)

electric current enclosed within a closed loop

Permiability of free space : 0  4 10−7  12.566 10−7  H m

A cylindrical wire carrying a

current creates a magnetic field.
“Right Hand Rule” (RHR).
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (cont 4)
By applying Stokes’s theorem to (3.42.1), we arrive to

 B dl =    B ds =   J
s
0
s
ds (3.43.1)

 B = 0 J
Therefore, the differential (3.43.2)
form of Ampere’s Law is:

It appears that even very small currents generate

magnetic fields…
An axial view of the cortically-generated magnetic
field of a human listener, measured using whole-
head magnetoencephalography (MEG) – from the
journal “Cerebral Cortex”
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (Example)

A symmetry in the system greatly simplifies

evaluation of integrals in (3.42.1).
2

 B dl =  B u
0
 d u = 2 B (3.44.1)

The right-hand side of (3.42.1) for the radius

greater than a is just 0I.
0 I
B = , a (3.44.2)
2
Assuming a uniformly distribution of current within the wire, the current density
inside the wire is
I
J = 2 uz (3.44.3)
a
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.2. Fundamentals of Magnetic Fields (Example 2)
The total current enclosed within the circle of radius   a
2 

2
I
I enc =  J ds =   r dr d  = I   (3.45.1)
s  =0 r =0  a 2
a
0 I 
Therefore: B = , a (3.45.2)
2 a 2

We notice that at the edge of the

wire, two solutions given by
(3.44.1) and (3.45.2) are equal.

Can you further explain the

dependence of magnetic flux
on the radius?
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential
A magnetic vector potential A such that:

 A = B (3.46.1)

  A = 0 (3.46.2)

Ampere’s Law:  A = 0 J (3.46.3)

 2 A = − 0 J (3.46.4)

0 J (r ')
In the Cartesian coordinates: A(r ) =
4 v R dv (3.46.5)

where R = ( x − x ') 2 + ( y − y ') 2 + ( z − z ') 2 (3.46.6)

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (cont)

Magnetic vector potential, magnetic flux, and current element

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (cont 2)

The Magnetic flux density:

 0 J (r ')  0  J (r ') 
B(r ) =  A(r ) =  
 4
v R dv  = 4 v  R  dv
 (3.48.1)

Since  ( a) = a  B + a  B and   J (r ') = 0 (3.48.2)

0 1 0 uR 0 J (r ')  uR
B(r ) =
4 v  R  J (r ')dv = − 4 v R 2  J (r ')dv = 4 v R 2 dv (3.48.3)

If the current is passing through a wire

0 I dl ' uR
B(r ) =
4  R2
(3.48.4)

the Biot-Savart Law

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (Example)

Find the magnetic field on the axis perpendicular to

the loop of current. Use the Biot-Savart Law.

We identify the terms appearing in (3.48.4):

dl ' = a d ' u , uR = ( −a u + z u z ) R , R = a 2 + z 2

0 I (a d ' u )  (−a u  + z u z ) 0 I a 2 d ' u z + a z d ' u 

B( z ) =
4  (a + z )
2 2 32
=
4  (a + z )
2 2 32
(3.49.1)

Due to symmetry, the terms with the unit vector u are zero.
0 I a2 0 m
B( z ) = u = (3.49.2)
2 (a 2 + z 2 )3 2 2 R3
z

m = I  a 2uz − the magnetic dipole moment (3.49.3)

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.3. Magnetic Vector Potential (Cont 3)

We have learned the following analytical methods to find the magnetic flux
density at a point in space from a current element:

1. Application of Ampere’s Law, which requires considerable

symmetry.
2. Determination of the vector magnetic potential and the calculation
of a magnetic flux density. No symmetry is required.
3. Application of the Biot-Savart law. No symmetry is required.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces

If a charged particle is moving with a constant velocity v in a region that ONLY

contains a magnetic field with the density B, the force that acts upon the particle is

Fm = q ( v  B ) (3.51.1)

Direction of the force

- RHR!

F+ stands for a
positively charged
particle;
F- represents a
negatively charged
one.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (cont)

When a charged particle is going through an area with both: uniform electric field
and uniform magnetic field, the force exerted on it would be the Lorentz Force:
F = q( E + v  B) [N ] (3.52.1)

Recall that the work done by a charged particle moving in a field is

b
W =  F dl (3.52.2)
a

A differential charge dQ = vdv moving at a constant velocity creates a current. If

this current flows in a closed loop:
dFm = dQ(v  B) = v (v  B)dv = J  B ds dl = Idl  B (3.52.3)

The total magnetic force: Fm = −  B  I dl (3.52.4)

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (cont 2)

Example: a charged particle entered a constant magnetic

field will move along a circular orbit. Find the radius…

Magnetic force: Fm = qvB (3.53.1)

v2
Centripetal force: Fc = mac = m , m – particle’s mass (3.53.2)
j

mv
j = (3.53.3)
qB
This radius is called the Larmor radius or gyro radius. This effect is used in
mass spectroscopy.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example)

Evaluate the force existing

between two parallel wires caring
currents.

B1 will go up at the location of wire 2.

From (3.52.4) force on the wire 2:

a) F2 = − B1u y  I 2 dl uz (3.54.1)

to the left

b) F2 = − B1u y  (− I 2 )dl uz (3.54.2)

to the right
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example, cont)… ”Alternative approach”
Let’s re-state the force on wire 1 caused by the magnetic field generated by
the current in wire 2 (from 3.52.4)

F12 = − I1  B12  dl (3.55.1)

L1

From the Biot-Savart law:

I uR21  dl2
B12 = − 0 2
4 
L2
R21
2
(3.55.2)

II (u )
 dl2  dl1

R21
Finally: F12 = 0 1 2 (3.55.3)
4 L1 L2
R 21
2

This is what’s called as Ampere’s force.

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example 2)

Consider a current-caring loop in a constant

magnetic field B = B0 uz.
We assume the separation between the In/Out
wires to be infinitely small.

Parallel wires carry the same current in the

opposite direction. Therefore, the net force will
be a vector sum of all forces, which is zero!

However, there will be a torque on the loop

that will make it to rotate (say, about x for
simplicity).
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.4. Magnetic forces (Example 2, cont)

The torque on the loop is given by

y y
T = F1 sin  + F3 sin  (3.57.1)
2 2
Assumptions?
where F1 = IB0 x, F3 = IB0 x (3.57.2)

 T = IB0 x y sin  (3.57.3)

Finally:
T = m B (3.57.4)

magnetic moment
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.5. Magnetic materials
Two sources of magnetism inside an atom:
1) an electron rotating around a nucleus;
2) an electron spinning about its own axis.

Types of material:
1. Diamagnetic: 1) and 2) cancel each other almost
completely, magnetic susceptibility m  -10-5. magnetic dipoles
2. Paramagnetic: 1) and 2) do not cancel each other oriented randomly
completely, magnetic susceptibility m  10-5.
3. Ferromagnetic: domain structure, very high m (hundreds
and higher)
magnetic
dipoles in
each domain
are oriented
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics
External magnetic field may change dipole orientation “permanently” - HDD.
1 N
M  lim  m j
Total magnetization (magnetic dipole
moment per unit volume): v →0 v
 A m (3.59.1)
j =1

There is a current created inside domains (magnetization current):

Im = M dl = J
s
m ds =    M ds
s
(3.59.2)

Therefore, J m =  M (3.59.3)

We may modify the Ampere’s Law by adding the magnetization current:

1  B 
 B = J + J m = J +  M  J =   − M  (3.59.4)
0  0 
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics (cont)

We introduce a new quantity, the Magnetic Field Intensity:

B
H= −M  A m (3.60.1)
0
Therefore, the Ampere’s circular law is

H dl = I enc (3.60.2)

Magnetization : M = m H (3.60.3)

Therefore: B = 0 (1 +  m ) H = 0 r H =  H (3.60.4)

where r is the relative permeability.

 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.5. Magnetic materials: Ferromagnetics (cont 2)

Example: a magnetic flux density B = 0.05 T appears in a material with r = 50.

Find the magnetic susceptibility and the magnetic field intensity.
B 0.05
m = r − 1 = 50 − 1 = 49 H= = = 796 [ A m]
 r 0 50  4 10 −7

saturation
Hysteresis

Magnetic flux density B exhibits nonlinear

dependence on the magnetic field intensity H.

Because of hysteresis, magnetic materials

“remember” the magnitude and direction of
magnetic flux density. They can be used as
memory elements.
saturation
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.6. Magnetic circuits
Just like electrical circuits, we can build magnetic circuits where magnetic flux “flows”.

L – mean length
of the iron region

g – length of the
gap.

m – the reluctance.

Assumptions:
1) the gap is very small;
2) the cross-sectional area of the gap is identical to the cross-sectional area of the
magnetic material.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.6. Magnetic circuits (cont)

The Ampere’s circular law leads to H ( L + g ) = I enc = NI (3.63.1)

where I is the current flowing through the N turns of a wire.

B B  L g 
 L+ g = m  +  = NI (3.63.2)
0  r 0  A0 r A0 
Here A is the cross-sectional area of the iron
Fm = NI is the magnetomotive force [A-turns] (3.63.3)
L g
 m,iron +  m, gap = + is the reluctance (3.63.4)
A0 r A0
The Hopkinson’s Law (aka Ohm’s):
m = Fm m (3.63.5)
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.6. Magnetic circuits (Examples)
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (an ability to create magnetic flux)
j
L jk =  H  = Wb A (3.65.1)
Ik

where  is a magnetic flux linkage.

When j = k – self –inductance; otherwise – mutual inductance.

Ex. 1: Let us consider a

solenoid of the length d,
cross-section area A,
and having N turns.
It may also have a core
made from a magnetic
material.
z is the solenoid’s axis.
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (cont)
The magnetic flux density at the center of the solenoid is:
 NI
Bz = (3.66.1)
d
 NI
The total magnetic flux: m = A (3.66.2)
d
 N 2I
The magnetic flux linkage:  = N  m = A (3.66.3)
d
Therefore, the self-inductance of a solenoid is

N2
L= A (3.66.4)
d
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (cont 2)
Example 2: a self-inductance of a coaxial cable

What is the main difference as compared to a

solenoid?
Here, the magnetic flux linkage equals to the
total magnetic flux.
I
mfd: B = (3.67.1)
2 r
z b
I I  b 
  = m = z =0 r=a 2 r dr dz = ln   z
2  a 
(3.67.2)

 b
Therefore: L= ln   z (3.67.3)
2  a 
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (cont 3)
Example 3: a mutual inductance between two
circular solenoids, whose individual lengths are x
d and areas S1 and S2, separated by x; x << d
0 N1 I1
B1 = (3.68.1)
First coil: d
 m,1 = B1S1 (3.68.2)

Assuming that the magnetic flux has the

same value in the second solenoid:
2 = N2 B1S1 (3.68.3)

Therefore, the mutual inductance:

 2 0 N1 N 2 S1
M= = (3.68.4)
I1 d
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (cont 4)
Example 4: consider a transformer with N1 and N2 turns.

correction coefficient

permeance of the space

occupied by the flux

Alternative formulas: M12 = N1 N2 P12 (3.69.1)

M = k L1 L2 (3.69.2)
coefficient of coupling
 2. Magnetostatic Fields
2.7. Inductance (cont 5)

Solenoids, transformers, etc. can store magnetic energy:

 dI 
t t t t
LI 2
Wm =  p dt ' =  IV dt ' =  I  L  dt ' = L  I dI =
(3.70.1)
0  
0 0
dt ' 0
2

2
1  N  Bz d 
2
for a solenoid: Wm = A 
(3.70.2)
2 d   N 

The total magnetic energy B2

stored within a volume Wm =  dv  J  (3.70.3)

v
2

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