Content

 Brief 3 functions of transport layer or responsibility of

transport layer
 Describe the service provided by the PPP protocol
 Short note on: ARP, TELNET, FTP, HDLC frame, ATM,
Hop to Hop, End to End, UDP, SMTP
 Explain the stop and wait protocol
 Difference between repeater and amplifier
 Introduction
A group of computers which are connected to each other and follow
similar usage protocols for the purpose of sharing information and
having communications provided by the networking nodes is called a
Computer Network.

A computer network is a collection of two or more computer systems

that are linked together. A network connection can be established using
either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to
connect computers and tools in any network.

A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers,

networking hardware, personal computers, and other specialized or
general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a computer network. Host
names and network addresses are used to identify them.
1. Brief 3 functions of transport layer or responsibility of transport
layer.
Ans:-

3 responsibilities of transport layer are –

1. The Process to Process Delivery

While Data Link Layer requires the MAC address (48 bits address contained inside
the Network Interface Card of every host machine) of source-destination hosts to
correctly deliver a frame and the Network layer requires the IP address for
appropriate routing of packets, in a similar way Transport Layer requires a Port
number to correctly deliver the segments of data to the correct process amongst
the multiple processes running on a particular host. A port number is a 16-bit
address used to identify any client-server program uniquely.

2. End-to-end Connection between Hosts

The transport layer is also responsible for creating the end-to-end Connection
between hosts for which it mainly uses TCP and UDP. TCP is a secure, connection-
orientated protocol that uses a handshake protocol to establish a robust
connection between two end hosts. TCP ensures the reliable delivery of messages
and is used in various applications. UDP, on the other hand, is a stateless and
unreliable protocol that ensures best-effort delivery. It is suitable for applications
that have little concern with flow or error control and requires sending the bulk of
data like video conferencing. It is often used in multicasting protocols.

3. Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

Multiplexing (many to one) is when data is acquired from several processes from
the sender and merged into one packet along with headers and sent as a single
packet. Multiplexing allows the simultaneous use of different processes over a
network that is running on a host. The processes are differentiated by their port
numbers. Similarly, Demultiplexing (one to many is required at the receiver side
when the message is distributed into different processes. Transport receives the
segments of data from the network layer distributes and delivers it to the
appropriate process running on the receiver’s machine.

2. Describe the service provided by the PPP protocol.

Ans:-

PPP (Point-To-Point) protocol is a protocol used in the data link layer. The PPP
protocol is mainly used to establish a direct connection between two nodes.

The services provided by the PPP protocol are –

 This protocol defines how two devices can authenticate with each other.
 PPP protocol also defines the format of the frames that are to be
exchanged between the devices.
 This protocol also defines how the data of the network layer are
encapsulated in the data link frame.
 The PPP protocol defines how the two devices can negotiate the
establishment of the link and then can exchange the data.
 This protocol provides multiple services of the network layer and also
supports various network-layer protocols.
 This protocol also provides connection over multiple links.

3. Short note on:

a) ARP, b) TELNET, c) FTP, d)HDLC frame, e) ATM, f) Hop to Hop, g) End to End,
h)UDP, i)SMTP

Ans:-

a) ARP: Address Resolution Protocol is a networking protocol used to map an IP

address to its corresponding MAC (Media Access Control) address in a local area
network (LAN). Its primary purpose is to facilitate communication between
devices within the same network by determining the hardware address of a
device based on its IP address.

ARP works by broadcasting an ARP request packet on the local network, asking for
the MAC address associated with a specific IP address. The device with the
matching IP address responds to the request with its MAC address, allowing
devices to communicate with each other using this hardware address.
b) Telnet: Telnet is a network protocol used to virtually access a computer and to
provide a two-way, collaborative and text-based communication channel
between two machines.
It follows a user command Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) networking protocol for creating remote sessions. On the web, Hypertext
Transfer Protocol (HTTP) and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) simply enable users to
request specific files from remote computers, while, through Telnet, users can log
on as a regular user with the privileges they are granted to the specific
applications and data on that computer.

c) FTP: The term file transfer protocol (FTP) refers to a process that involves the
transfer of files between devices over a network. The process works when one
party allows another to send or receive files over the Internet. Originally used as a
way for users to communicate and exchange information between two physical
devices, it is now commonly used to store files in the cloud, which is usually a
secure location that is held and accessed remotely.
FTP may be used by a business or individual to transfer files from one computer
system to another or by websites to upload or download files from their servers.

d) HDLC Frame: High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC) generally uses term “frame”
to indicate and represent an entity of data or a protocol of data unit often
transmitted or transferred from one station to another station. Each and every
frame on link should begin and end with Flag Sequence Field (F). Each of frames in
HDLC includes mainly six fields. It begins with a flag field, an address field, a
control field, an information field, an frame check sequence (FCS) field, and an
ending flag field. The ending flag field of one frame can serve as beginning flag
field of the next frame in multiple-frame transmissions.

e) ATM: It is an International Telecommunication Union- Telecommunications

Standards Section (ITU-T) efficient for call relay and it transmits all information
including multiple service types such as data, video, or voice which is conveyed in
small fixed-size packets called cells. Cells are transmitted asynchronously and the
network is connection-oriented.
ATM is a technology that has some event in the development of broadband ISDN
in the 1970s and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet
switching. Each cell is 53 bytes long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload.
Making an ATM call requires first sending a message to set up a connection.
Subsequently, all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both
constant rate traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of
traffic with end-to-end quality of service. ATM is independent of a transmission
medium, they may be sent on a wire or fiber by themselves or they may also be
packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM networks use “Packet”
or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. Its design helps in the implementation of
high-performance multimedia networking.

f) Hop to Hop: In networking, "hop-to-hop" refers to the process of data packet

traversal from one network device (or hop) to another as it moves through an
internetwork, typically across multiple routers or switches. Each network device
along the path is considered a hop, and the data packet is forwarded from one
hop to the next until it reaches its final destination.

Key points about hop-to-hop communication for 3 marks:

1. Intermediate Devices: In an internetwork, such as the Internet, data packets do

not travel directly from the source to the destination. Instead, they pass through
several intermediate devices, which are often routers or switches. Each of these
devices is considered a hop along the data's journey.

2. Routing and Forwarding: At each hop, the network device (e.g., router)
examines the packet's destination address, makes routing decisions based on its
routing table, and forwards the packet to the next hop on the path. This process
repeats until the packet reaches its final destination.

3. Data Path Optimization: The path taken by data packets from source to
destination is not always the same, as it can vary depending on network
conditions, routing protocols, and the best available route. Network devices aim
to optimize data paths for efficiency and reliability.

In summary, hop-to-hop communication describes the sequential transfer of data

packets from one network device to another as they traverse an internetwork,
making routing decisions at each hop until the data reaches its intended
destination. This process ensures that data can navigate complex networks
efficiently and reliably.

g) End to End: When a function has to be supported in a networked system, the

designer often asks if it should be implemented at the end systems; or should it
be implemented within the communication subsystem that interconnects all the
end systems. The end-to-end argument or principle states that it's proper to
implement the function in the end systems. The communication system itself may
provide a partial implementation but only as a performance enhancement.
The architecture and growth of the Internet was shaped by the end-to-end
principle. It allowed us to keep the Internet simple and add features quickly to
end systems. The principle enabled innovation.
More recently, the principle has been criticized or violated to support features
such as network caching, differentiated services, or deep packet inspection.

h) UDP: User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part
of the Internet Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an
unreliable and connectionless protocol. So, there is no need to establish a
connection prior to data transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-
tolerating connections establish over the network. The UDP enables process to
process communication.
Though Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the dominant transport layer
protocol used with most of the Internet services; provides assured delivery,
reliability, and much more but all these services cost us additional overhead and
latency. Here, UDP comes into the picture. For real-time services like computer
gaming, voice or video communication, live conferences; we need UDP. Since high
performance is needed, UDP permits packets to be dropped instead of processing
delayed packets. There is no error checking in UDP, so it also saves bandwidth.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is more efficient in terms of both latency and
bandwidth

i) SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.

 SMTP is a set of communication guidelines that allow software to
transmit an electronic mail over the internet is called Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol.
  It is a program used for sending messages to other computer users
based on e-mail addresses.

 It provides a mail exchange between users on the same or different

computers, and it also supports:

 It can send a single message to one or more recipients.

 Sending message can include text, voice, video or graphics.

 It can also send the messages on networks outside the internet.

 The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up communication rules

between servers. The servers have a way of identifying themselves
and announcing what kind of communication they are trying to
perform. They also have a way of handling the errors such as
incorrect email address. For example, if the recipient address is
wrong, then receiving server reply with an error message of some
kind.

4. Explain stop and wait protocol?

Ans:-

Stop and wait means that the sender provides the recipient’s desired data. The
sender pauses after transferring the data and waits for the receiver to
acknowledge his transmission. The stop and wait protocol, which is a flow control
protocol, uses the data link layer’s flow control functionality.

It is a DDL (data-link layer) protocol that is used to send data through channels
with no background noise. It offers unidirectional data transfer, which means that
only one of the two operations, data sending or receiving, can occur concurrently.
Although it offers a flow-control system, there is no error control mechanism.
The concept behind using this frame is that after sending one frame, the sender
will wait for an acknowledgement before sending another one.

Primitives of Stop and Wait Protocol

Sender’s Side
Rule 1: The sender sends one data packet at a time.

Rule 2: The sender only sends the subsequent packet after getting the preceding
packet’s acknowledgement.

Therefore, the concept behind the stop and wait protocol on the sender’s end is
relatively straightforward: Send one packet at a time and refrain from sending any
additional packets until you have received an acknowledgement.

Receiver’s Side
Rule 1: Receive the data packet and then consume it.

Rule 2: The receiver provides the sender with an acknowledgement after

consuming the data packet.

As a result, the stop and wait protocol’s basic tenet on the receiver’s end is
similarly extremely straightforward: Ingest the packet, and after it has been
consumed, send the acknowledgement. This is a mechanism for flow control.

Working of Stop and Wait Protocol

 If there is a communication between sender and receiver, then the sender

sends the packet to the receiver, and the packet is called a data packet.
 The sender will not send the second packet to the receiver until
acknowledgment of the first packet is received.
 The receiver will send the acknowledgment for the packet that the receiver
has received.
 When the sender receives the acknowledgment, it sends the next packet to
the receiver.
 This process of sending data and receiving acknowledgment continues until
all the packets are not sent.
  The main benefit of stop and wait protocol is its simplicity

Advantages of Stop and Wait Protocol

 This protocol provides flow control.

 One of the main advantages of the stop and wait protocol is its simplicity.
 Stop and wait protocol is useful in LAN as its efficiency decrease with the
increasing distance between sender and receiver.
 If we increase the data packet size, the efficiency is going to increase.
Hence, it is suitable for transmitting big data packets.
 Stop & wait protocol is accurate as the sender sends the next frame to the
receiver only when the acknowledgment of the previous packet is received.
So there is less chance of the frame being lost.

Disadvantages of Stop and Wait Protocol

1. Problems arise because of lost data

Suppose the sender sends the data, but it gets lost in transit. The receiver is
patiently awaiting the data packet. The receiver does not send an
acknowledgement because it does not receive the data. The sender won’t send
the subsequent packet because it has not received any acknowledgement. The
lost data is the root cause of this issue.

In this instance, there are two problems:

 The sender waits an endless length of time for a response.

 The receiver waits indefinitely for data.

2. Problems arise as a result of the lost acknowledgement

Suppose the data was sent by the sender and was also received by the recipient.
The receiver transmits the acknowledgement after receiving the packet. In this
instance, there is no chance for the sender to get the acknowledgement because
the acknowledgement is lost in a network. Additionally, there is no chance for a
sender to send the subsequent packet because, according to the stop and wait
protocol, this cannot happen until the previous packet’s acknowledgement has
been received.
One issue arises in this situation:

 The sender waits an endless time for an acknowledgement.

3. Problem resulting from delayed data or acknowledgement

Suppose the data was sent by the sender and was also received by the recipient.
The acknowledgement is then sent by the recipient, but it is not received until the
timeout period has passed on the sender’s end. Due to the acknowledgement
being received after this, it can be mistaken for acknowledging the receipt of
another data packet.

5. Difference Between repeater and amplifier.

Ans:-

Reapeater Amplifier

Repeater regenerates the signal, if the Amplifier increases the amplitude of

provided original signal is weak. the signal.

Repeater takes high input power and Amplifier takes low input power and
provides low output power. provides high output power.

Repeater is generally used in static Amplifier is generally used in Mobile

(stationary) environment. and Remote area network.

Repeater regenerates the signal so that Amplifier increases the amplitude of

the noise can be reduced or eliminated. the signal with the noise.

Repeater works on the physical layer of Generally Amplifier is used in wireless

OSI model. communication.