Concepts in Transform Methods

explain me each concept mentioned of every chapter in detail of

the image with a suitable example

Here's a detailed explanation of each concept mentioned in the

image:

Mod 1: Laplace Transform

Use of Differentiation: The Laplace transform converts

differential equations into algebraic equations. This is achieved

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 dn
by transforming the differentiation operation dtn into ​

multiplication by sn in the Laplace domain. Example:

L{f ′ (t)} = sF (s) − f (0)

If f (t) = eat , f ′ (t) = aeat . Applying Laplace:

1 s
L{f ′ (t)} = s ⋅ −0=
s−a s−a
​ ​

Convolution Theorem: The Laplace transform of the

convolution of two functions f (t) and g(t) is the product of
their Laplace transforms.

L{(f ∗ g)(t)} = F (s)G(s)

Example: If f (t) = t and g(t) = e−t ,

t
(f ∗ g)(t) = ∫ τ e−(t−τ ) dτ
​

0
1 1 1
Its Laplace transform is L{t} ⋅ L{e−t } = s2
​ ⋅ s+1
​ = s2 (s+1)
​ .

Mod 2: Fourier Series

Formula for Integration of uv : For two functions u(x) and

v(x), integration by parts is given by:

∫ uv ′ dx = uv − ∫ u′ vdx

Example: u = x, v ′ = ex . Then:

∫ ∫
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 ∫ xex dx = xex − ∫ ex dx = xex − ex + C
Complex Form of Fourier Series: The Fourier series expresses
a periodic function f (x) as a sum of sines and cosines or in
complex form:
∞
f (x) = ∑ cn einx ​ ​

n=−∞

1 π
where cn ​
= 2π
​
∫−π f (x)e−inx dx. Example: For f (x) = x in
​

[−π, π]:
π
1
cn = ∫ xe−inx dx
2π −π
​ ​ ​

Mod 3: Z-Transform

Z-Transform: Converts discrete-time signals into a complex

frequency domain representation.
∞
X(z) = ∑ x[n]z −n ​

n=0

Example: For x[n] = 1,

∞
1
X(z) = ∑ z −n = , ∣z∣ > 1
1 − z −1
​ ​

n=0

Inverse Z-Transform: Recovers x[n] from its Z-transform X(z)

1
. Example: If X(z) = 1−az −1 ,​

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 x[n] = an , n≥0

Mod 4: Vector Differentiation

Curl: Measures the rotation of a vector field. Defined as:

curl F = ∇ × F

Example: For F = y^i + x^j , ​

^i ^j ​ k^
curl F = ​
∂
∂x
​ ​
∂
∂y
​ ​
∂
∂z
​ ​ ​ = (0 − 0)^i − (0 − 0)^j + (1 − 1)k^ =
​

y x 0

Divergence: Measures the magnitude of a source or sink at a

point in a vector field.

div F = ∇ ⋅ F

Example: For F = x^i + y^j + zk^, ​

∂x ∂y ∂z
div F = + + =1+1+1=3
∂x ∂y ∂z
​ ​ ​

Mod 5: Vector Integration

Green's Theorem: Relates a line integral around a simple

closed curve to a double integral over the plane region it
encloses.

∂Q ∂P
∮ (P dx + Qdy) = ∬ ( − ) dA
∂x ∂y
​ ​ ​ ​

C R

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 Example: For P = −y, Q = x,

∮ (xdy − ydx) = 2Area of R

​

C
Stokes' Theorem: Relates a surface integral of the curl of a
vector field to a line integral around its boundary.

∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ dA = ∮ F ⋅ dr
​ ​

S C

Example: For F = y^i − x^j + zk^, ​

curl F = ∇ × F , and evaluate the surface integral.

revise all 5 given chapters with some important points &

formulae

Here’s a concise revision of the five chapters with important points

and formulae:

Mod 1: Laplace Transform

1. Definition:
∞
L{f (t)} = F (s) = ∫ ​ e−st f (t)dt
0

2. Common Properties:
Linearity: L{af (t) + bg(t)} = aF (s) + bG(s)
Differentiation:

L{f ′ (t)} = sF (s) − f (0)

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 Convolution: L{(f ∗ g)(t)} = F (s)G(s)
3. Important Formulae:
1
L{eat } = s−a ,s>a ​

a
L{sin(at)} = s2 +a 2 ​

s
L{cos(at)} = s2 +a 2 ​

Mod 2: Fourier Series

1. Periodic Function Representation:

∞
f (x) = a0 + ∑ (an cos(nx) + bn sin(nx))
​ ​ ​ ​

n=1

2. Fourier Coefficients:
1 π
a0 = 2π​
∫−π f (x)dx ​ ​

π
an = π1 ∫−π f (x) cos(nx)dx
​ ​ ​

π
bn = π1 ∫−π f (x) sin(nx)dx
​ ​ ​

3. Complex Form:
π ∞
1
f (x) = ∑ cn einx , cn = ∫ f (x)e−inx dx
2π −π
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

n=−∞

Mod 3: Z-Transform

1. Definition:
∞
X(z) = ∑ x[n]z −n ​

n=0

2. Properties:

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 Linearity: ax[n] + by[n] → aX(z) + bY (z)
Time Shifting: x[n − k] → z −k X(z)
dX(z)
Multiplication by n: nx[n] → −z dz ​

3. Inverse Z-Transform:
Use partial fraction or power series expansion. Example: If
X(z) = z−2 z
, x[n] = 2n .
​

Mod 4: Vector Differentiation

1. Gradient:

∂f ^ ∂f ^ ∂f ^
∇f = i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
​ ​ ​ ​

2. Divergence:

∂P ∂Q ∂R
div F = ∇ ⋅ F = + +
∂x ∂y ∂z
​ ​ ​

3. Curl:

curl F = ∇ × F
^i ^j ​ k^
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ​

∂x
​ ​

∂y
​ ​

∂z
​ ​ ​

P Q R

Mod 5: Vector Integration

1. Green's Theorem:

( )
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 ∂Q ∂P
∮ (P dx + Qdy) = ∬ ( − ) dA
∂x ∂y
​ ​ ​ ​

C R
2. Stokes' Theorem:

∫ (∇ × F ) ⋅ dA = ∮ F ⋅ dr
​ ​

S C

3. Divergence Theorem:

∬ F ⋅ dA = ∭ (∇ ⋅ F )dV
​ ​

S V

This summary provides a focused review of the core concepts and

formulas from each chapter.

also explain me inverse laplace transform & inverse z-transform

in detail

Inverse Laplace Transform

1. Definition: The Inverse Laplace Transform retrieves the

original time-domain function f (t) from its Laplace transform
F (s):

f (t) = L−1 {F (s)}

2. Methods to Find the Inverse Laplace Transform:

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Break down F (s) into
simpler fractions and use standard Laplace pairs.
Standard Laplace Transform Pairs: Use pre-defined
transforms, such as:

{ } { }
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 1
L−1 { } = eat , L−1 {
} = cos(at)
s
s−a s +a
2 2
​ ​

Convolution Theorem: Used when F (s) is the product of

two Laplace transforms.
3. Examples:
1
Example 1: Find L−1 { s2 }: ​

1
L−1 { }=t
s2
​

Example 2: Find L−1 { (s+2)(s+3)

s+1
}: Decompose into​

partial fractions:

s+1 A B
= +
(s + 2)(s + 3) s+2 s+3
​ ​ ​

Solve for A and B , then use the table of Laplace

transforms.

Inverse Z-Transform

1. Definition: The Inverse Z-Transform retrieves the original

discrete-time signal x[n] from its Z-transform X(z):

x[n] = Z −1 {X(z)}

2. Methods to Find the Inverse Z-Transform:

Power Series Expansion: Expand X(z) in terms of z −1
and read the coefficients as x[n]. Example:
z
X(z) = = 1 + 2z −1 + 4z −2 + …
z−2
​

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 Hence, x[n] = 2n .
Partial Fraction Decomposition: Break X(z) into
simpler terms whose inverse Z-transforms are known.
Example:

1
X(z) = ⟹ x[n] = an , n ≥ 0
(1 − az −1 )
​

Residue Method: Use the complex integral:

1
x[n] = ∮ X(z)z n−1 dz
2πi
​

This is practical when X(z) has multiple poles.

Table of Z-Transform Pairs: Example pairs include:

1
Z −1
{z −n
} = δ[n − k], Z −1
{ } = a n
1 − az −1
​

3. Examples:
Example 1: Find Z −1 { z−2 }: Expand as:
z
​

z
X(z) = = 1 + 2z −1 + 4z −2 + …
z−2
​

Hence, x[n] = 2n , n ≥ 0.
Example 2: Find Z { z 2 −3z+2 }: Factorize the
−1 z2
​

denominator: z 2 − 3z + 2 = (z − 1)(z − 2).

Decompose into partial fractions and apply known inverse
pairs.

Key Differences Between Inverse Laplace and Inverse

Z-Transform:

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 Inverse Laplace Inverse Z-
Aspect
Transform Transform

Input Signal Continuous-time F (s) Discrete-time X(z)

Domain Complex s-domain Complex z -domain

Time Signal
f (t) x[n]
Retrieved

Both are crucial in system analysis, with Laplace applied to

continuous systems and Z-transform to discrete systems.

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