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Module-4 Graph Theory

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dasarsunil733
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20 views

Module-4 Graph Theory

Uploaded by

dasarsunil733
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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n(n − 1)

1) Show that in a simple graph with n vertices and e edges, e  .


2
Solution: Each edge of a graph is determined by a pair of vertices. In a simple graph there occur no loops and
multiple edges. As such, in a simple graph, the number of edges cannot exceed the number of pairs of vertices.
n! n(n − 1)
The number of pairs of vertices can be chosen from n vertices is e  nC2 = = .
2!( n − 2 )! 2
n(n − 1)
Thus, the number of edges in a simple graph cannot exceed .
2

2) Show that a complete graph Kn with n vertices has n(n-1)/2.


Solution: In a complete graph, there exist exactly one edge between every pair of vertices. As such, the number
of edges in a complete graph is equal to the number of pairs of vertices. If the number of vertices is n, then
n! n(n − 1)
the number of pairs of vertices is n C2 = = .
2!( n − 2 )! 2
n(n − 1)
Thus, the number of edges in a complete graph with n vertices is .
2
3) For a graph with n vertices and m edges, if  is the minimum and  is the maximum of the degrees
2m
of vertices, show that   .
n
Solution: Let d1, d2, d3, ….dn be the degrees of the vertices. Then, by Handshaking property, we have
d1+d2+d3+……+dn=2m
Since  is min(d1, d2, …dn), we have
d1   , d 2   …… d n  
Adding these inequalities, we get
2m
d1 + d 2 + d3 + ..... + d n  n that is 2m  n  n  2m    . (1)
n
Since  is max(d1, d2, …dn), we have
d1   , d 2   …… d n  
Adding these inequalities, we get
2m
d1 + d 2 + d3 + ..... + d n  n that is 2m  n    . (2)
n
2m
From (1) and (2),   
n
Definitions
Walk: A walk is a sequence of edges which joins sequence of vertices.
Trail: A trail is a walk in which all edges are distinct.
Path: A path is a walk in which all vertices are distinct.
Open: Starting vertex and the ending vertex are different.
Closed: Starting vertex and the ending vertex are same.
Circuit: A closed trail is called circuit.
Cycle: A closed path is called cycle.
Ex: i) V1 − e1 − V2 − e2 − V3 − e3 − V4 − e6 − V2 − e2 − V3 is an open walk. (Vertices and edges can repeat, no
restrictions)
ii) V1 − e1 − V2 − e2 − V3 − e3 − V4 − e4 − V1 − e5 − V3 − e7 − V5 is an open trail. (Vertices can repeat but not edges)
iii) V3 − e5 − V1 − e1 − V2 − e2 − V3 − e3 − V4 − e8 − V5 − e7 − V3 is a circuit but not cycle.
iv) V1 − e1 − V2 − e2 − V3 − e3 − V4 is a path. (no vertex repeated)
v) V1 − e1 − V2 − e2 − V3 − e3 − V4 − e4 − V1 is a closed path also called cycle. (all vertices are distinct except the
starting and ending vertex)

EULERIAN AND HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS

A path of graph G is called an Eulerian path, if it includes each edge of G exactly once.
A circuit of a graph G is called an Eulerian circuit, if it includes each edge of G exactly once.
A graph containing an Eulerian circuit is called an Eulerian graph.
Ex:

Graph G1 contains an Eulerian path between B and D namely, B – D – C – B – A – D, since it includes each
of the edges exactly once.
Graph G2 contains an Eulerian circuit, namely, A – E – C – D – E – B – A, since it includes each of the edges
exactly once.
G2 is an Euler graph, as it contains an Eulerian circuit.

Theorem 1
A connected graph contains an Euler circuit, if and only if each of its vertices is of even degree.
Theorem 2
A connected graph contains an Euler path, if and only if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree.

Definitions
A path of a graph G is called a Hamiltonian path, if it includes each vertex of G exactly once.
A cycle of a graph G is called a Hamiltonian cycle, if it includes each vertex of G exactly once, except the
starting and end vertices (which are one and the same) which appear twice.
A graph containing a Hamiltonian cycle is called a Hamiltonian graph.
Ex:

The graph G1 has a Hamiltonian cycle namely, A – B – C – D – A. We note that in this circuit all the vertices
appear (each only once), but not all edges.
The graph G2 has a Hamiltonian path, namely, A – B – C – D, but not a Hamiltonian cycle.
1. Give an example of a graph which contains
(i) an Eulerian circuit that is also a Hamiltonian cycle
(ii) an Eulerian circuit and a Hamiltonian cycle that are distinct
(iii) an Eulerian circuit, but not a Hamiltonian cycle
(iv) a Hamiltonian cycle, but not an Eulerian circuit
(v) neither an Eulerian circuit nor a Hamiltonian cycle
.

(i) The circuit A – B – C – D – A in G1 consists of all edges and all vertices, each exactly once. G1
contains a circuit that is both Eulerian and Hamiltonian.
(ii) G2 contains the Eulerian circuit A – B – D – B – C – D – A and the Hamiltonian cycle A – B – C – D
– A, but the two circuits are different.
(iii) G3 contains the Eulerian circuit A – B – C – D – B – E – A, but this circuit is not Hamiltonian cycle,
as the vertex B is repeated twice.
(iv) G4 contains the Hamiltonian cycle A – B – C – D – E – A. However, it does not contain Eulerian
circuit as there are 4 vertices each of degree 3.
(v) In G5, degree of B and degree of D are each equal to 3. Hence, there is no Euler circuit in it. Also no
circuit passes through each of the vertices exactly once.

Planar Graph:
A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn in such a way that no two edges cross each other.
Or A planar graph is a graph that can be embedded in the plane.
Ex:
Euler Formula Proof
Theorem: A connected planar graph with v vertices and e edges e-v+2 regions.
Proof: Let G be connected planar graph then r=e-v+2. That is e=v+r-2.
We know that, If addition of an edge will form a loop or cycle, then number of regions will increase by 1. If
addition of an edge will not form a loop or cycle, then number of vertices in G will increase by 1.
By Induction, for e=1, e=v+r-2
If e is loop, then 1=1+2-2 which implies 1=1.
If e is not a loop, then 1=2+1-2 which implies 1=1.
The statement is true for e=1.
Assume the statement is true for e ≤ k, that is e=k, k=v+r-2.
For e=k+1
If e is loop or cycle then
k+1=v+(r+1)-2= (v+r-2)+1=k+1 which implies k+1=k+1
If e is not a loop or cycle then
k+1=(v+1)+r-2=(v+r-2)+1=k+1 which implies k+1=k+1.
Therefore, the statement is true for e=k+1.
Hence the statement is true for all k, where k is a positive integer.

Dual Graph: A dual graph is a graph that has a vertex for each face of a planar graph, and an edge for each
pair of faces separated by an edge.

1) Write the dual graph G * for the following planar graph G.

Solution:

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