Border

Borders are generally defined as geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and
terrain, or by political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other
subnational entities. Political borders can be established through warfare, colonization, or mutual
agreements between the political entities that reside in those areas.[1]

Some borders—such as most states' internal administrative borders, or inter-state borders within the
Schengen Area—are open and completely unguarded.[2] Most external political borders are partially or
fully controlled, and may be crossed legally only at designated border checkpoints; adjacent border zones
may also be controlled. For the purposes of border control, airports and seaports are also classed as
borders. Most countries have some form of border control to regulate or limit the movement of people,
animals, and goods into and out of the country. Under international law, each country is generally
permitted to legislate the conditions that have to be met in order to cross its borders, and to prevent
people from crossing its borders in violation of those laws.

Buffer zones may be set up on borders between belligerent entities

to lower the risk of escalation. While border refers to the boundary
itself, the area around the border is called the frontier.

History
In the pre-modern world, the term border was vague and could South Korean policemen standing
guard at the North Korea-South
refer to either side of the boundary, thus it was necessary to
Korea border. View from South
specify part of it with borderline or borderland. During the
Korea.
medieval period the government's control frequently diminished
the further people got from the capital. Therefore borderland
(especially impassable terrain) attracted many outlaws, as they
often found sympathizers.[3]

In the past, many borders were not clearly defined lines; instead
there were often intervening areas often claimed and fought over
by both sides, sometimes called marchlands. Special cases in
modern times were the Saudi Arabian–Iraqi neutral zone from
1922 to 1991 and the Saudi Arabian–Kuwaiti neutral zone from
1922 until 1970. In modern times, marchlands have been replaced North Korean policemen standing
by clearly defined and demarcated borders. guard at the North Korea-South
Korea border. View from North
Korea.

Classification

Political borders
Political borders are imposed on the world through human agency.[4] That means that although a political
border may follow a river or mountain range, such a feature does not automatically define the political
border, even though it may be a major physical barrier to crossing.

Political borders are often classified by whether or not they follow conspicuous physical features on the
earth. William Miles said that Britain and France traced close to 40% of the entire length of the world's
international boundaries.[5]

Natural borders
Natural borders are geographical features that present natural
obstacles to communication and transport. Existing political
borders are often a formalization of such historical, natural
obstacles.

Some geographical features that often constitute natural borders

are:

Oceans: oceans create very costly natural borders. Very A photograph of the France–Italy
few countries span more than one continent. Only very border at night. The southwestern
large and resource-rich states are able to sustain the end of the Alps separates the two
costs of governance across oceans for longer periods of countries.
time.
Rivers: Some political borders have been formalized
along natural borders formed by rivers. If a precise line is desired, it is often drawn along the
thalweg, the deepest line along the river.
Lakes: larger lakes create natural borders.
Forests: denser jungles or forests can create strong natural borders.
Mountain ranges: Many nations have their political borders defined along mountain ranges,
often along a drainage divide.
Throughout history, technological advances have reduced the costs of transport and communication
across the natural borders. That has reduced the significance of natural borders over time. As a result,
political borders that have been formalized more recently, such as those in Africa or Americas, typically
conform less to natural borders than very old borders, such as those in Europe or Asia, do.

Landscape borders
A landscape border is a mixture of political and natural borders. One example is the defensive forest
created by China's Song dynasty in the eleventh century.[6] Such a border is political in the sense that it is
human-demarcated, usually through a treaty. However, a landscape border is not demarcated by fences
and walls but instead landscape features such as forests, mountains, and water bodies. It is different from
a natural border, however, in the sense that the border landscape is not natural but human-engineered.
Such a landscape usually differs from the borderland's natural geography and its building requires
tremendous human labour and financial investment.

Geometric borders
Geometric boundaries are formed by straight lines (such as lines of latitude or longitude), or occasionally
arcs (Pennsylvania/Delaware), regardless of the physical and cultural features of the area. Such political
boundaries are often found around the states that developed out of colonial holdings, such as in North
America,[7] Africa and the Middle East. The Canada–United States border follows the 49th parallel for
roughly 2,175 miles (3,500 km) from Lake of the Woods (Ontario and Minnesota) west to the Pacific
Ocean.

Fiat borders
A generalization of the idea of geometric borders is the idea of fiat boundaries by which is meant any sort
of boundary that does not track an underlying bona fide physical discontinuity (fiat, Latin for "let it be
done", a decision). Fiat boundaries are typically the product of human demarcation, such as in
demarcating electoral districts or postal districts.[8]

Relic borders
A relic border is a former boundary, which may no longer be a
legal boundary at all. However, the former presence of the
boundary can still be seen in the landscape. For instance, the
boundary between East and West Germany is no longer an
international boundary, but it can still be seen because of historical
markers on the landscape; it remains a cultural and economic
demarcation in Germany. Other examples include the
Demilitarized Zone between North and South Vietnam (defunct
since 1975) and the border between North and South Yemen The purpose of the Great Wall of
(defunct since 1990). Occasionally a relic border is reconstituted China was to stop people and
in some form, for example the border between British Somaliland militaries from crossing the northern
and Italian Somaliland ceased to exist when the two colonies border of China. Today it is a relic
border.
merged to form the independent state of Somalia in 1960, however
when the former British Somaliland declared independence in
1991 it claimed the former British-Italian line as its eastern border.[9]

Lines of control
A line of control (LoC) refers to a militarized buffer border between two or more nations that has yet to
achieve permanent border status. LoC borders are typically under military control and are not recognized
as an official international border. Formally known as a cease-fire line, an LoC was first created with the
Simla Agreement between India and Pakistan.[10] Similar to a cease-fire line, an LoC is typically the
result of war, military stalemates and unresolved land ownership conflict.[11]

Maritime borders
A maritime border is a division enclosing an area in the ocean where a nation has exclusive rights over
the mineral and biological resources,[12] encompassing maritime features, limits and zones.[13] Maritime
borders represent the jurisdictional borders of a maritime nation[14] and are recognized by the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.
Maritime borders exist in the context of territorial waters, contiguous zones, and exclusive economic
zones; however, the terminology does not encompass lake or river boundaries, which are considered
within the context of land boundaries.

Some maritime borders have remained indeterminate despite efforts to clarify them. This is explained by
an array of factors, some of which illustrate regional problems.[15]

Airspace borders
Airspace is the atmosphere located within a country's controlled international and maritime borders. All
sovereign countries hold the right to regulate and protect air space under the international law of Air
sovereignty.[16] The horizontal boundaries of airspace are similar to the policies of "high seas" in
maritime law. Airspace extends 12 nautical miles from the coast of a country and it holds responsibility
for protecting its own airspace unless under NATO peacetime protection.[16][17] With international
agreement a country can assume the responsibility of protecting or controlling the atmosphere over
International Airspaces such as the Pacific Ocean. The vertical boundaries of airspace are not officially
set or regulated internationally. However, there is a general agreement of vertical airspace ending at the
point of the Kármán line.[18] The Kármán line is a peak point at the altitude of 62 mi (100 km) above the
Earth's surface, setting a boundary between the atmosphere (airspace) and outer space (which is governed
by space law).[19]

Frontier
The frontier is a border that is open-ended to one side, identifying an expanding borderland to one side.

This type of border can be fairly abstract and has been identified as a particular state of mind[20] for
human activity. As such frontiers have been applied to borderlands identifying and claiming them as terra
nullius, such as Marie Byrd Land in West Antarctica, the only territory in Antarctica unclaimed by any
sovereign nation.[21]

Types of border regulation

In places where smuggling, migration, and infiltration are a problem, many countries fortify borders with
fences and barriers, and institute formal border control procedures. These can extend inland, as in the
United States where the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service has jurisdiction to operate up to 100
miles from any land or sea boundary.[22] On the other hand, some borders are merely signposted. This is
common in countries within the European Schengen Area and on rural sections of the Canada–United
States border. Borders may even be completely unmarked, typically in remote or forested regions; such
borders are often described as "porous". Migration within territorial borders, and outside of them,
represented an old and established pattern of movement in African countries, in seeking work and food,
and to maintain ties with kin who had moved across the previously porous borders of their homelands.
When the colonial frontiers were drawn, Western countries attempted to obtain a monopoly on the
recruitment of labor in many African countries, which altered the practical and institutional context in
which the old migration patterns had been followed, and some might argue, are still followed today. The
frontiers were particularly porous for the physical movement of migrants, and people living in
borderlands easily maintained transnational cultural and social networks.

Regulated borders
Regulated borders have varying degrees of control on the
movement of persons and trade between nations and jurisdictions.
Most industrialized nations have regulations on entry and require
one or more of the following procedures: visa check, passport
check or customs checks.[23] Most regulated borders have
regulations on immigration, types of wildlife and plants, and
illegal objects such as drugs or weapons. Overall border
regulations are placed by national and local governments and can
Crossing the Ambassador Bridge
vary depending on nation and current political or economic
into Canada from the US
conditions. Some of the most regulated borders in the world
include: Australia, the United States, Israel, Canada, the United
Kingdom, and the United Arab Emirates.[24] These nations have government-controlled border agencies
and organizations that enforce border regulation policies on and within their borders.

Open borders
An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the
movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions. This
definition does not apply to trade or movement between privately
owned land areas.[25] Most nations have open borders for travel
within their nation of travel, though more authoritarian states may
limit the freedom of internal movement of its citizens, as for
example in the former USSR. However, only a handful of nations
have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of
this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement or Indian and Pakistan border officers
the open Belarus-Russia border. [26] Open borders used to be very at the India-Pakistan border
common amongst all nations, however this became less common
after the First World War, which led to the regulation of open
borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialized nations.[27] An example
of Open orders include the Schengen Area where 29 European nations mutually abolished their border
control.[28]

Demilitarized zones
A demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border separating two or more nations, groups or militaries that have
agreed to prohibit the use of military activity or force within the border's bounds. A DMZ can act as a war
boundary, ceasefire line, wildlife preserve, or a de facto international border. An example of a
demilitarized international border is the 38th parallel between North and South Korea.[29] Other notable
DMZ zones include Antarctica and outer space (consisting of all space 100 miles away from the earth's
surface), both are preserved for world research and exploration.[30][31] The prohibition of control by
nations can make a DMZ unexposed to human influence and thus developed into a natural border or
wildlife preserve, such as on the Korean Demilitarized Zone, the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone, and the
Green Line in Cyprus.[32][33]

Border economics
Borders undermine economic activity and development by
reducing trade activity.[34][35][36]

The presence of borders often fosters certain economic features or

anomalies. Wherever two jurisdictions come into contact, special
economic opportunities arise for border trade. Smuggling provides
The United States–Mexico border:
a classic case; contrariwise, a border region may flourish on the San Diego–Tijuana.
provision of excise or of import–export services — legal or quasi-
legal, corrupt or legitimate. Different regulations on either side of
a border may encourage services to position themselves at or near
that border: thus the provision of pornography, of prostitution, of
alcohol, fireworks, and/or of narcotics may cluster around borders,
city limits, county lines, ports and airports. In a more planned and
official context, Special Economic Zones (SEZs) often tend to
cluster near borders or ports.

Even if the goods are not perceived to be undesirable, states will

still seek to document and regulate the cross-border trade in order A border wall on a beach separating
to collect tariffs and benefit from foreign currency exchange the United States and Mexico
revenues.[37] Thus, there is the concept unofficial trade in goods
otherwise legal; for example, the cross-border trade in livestock by
pastoralists in the Horn of Africa. Ethiopia sells an estimated $250 to $300 million of livestock to
Somalia, Kenya and Djibouti every year unofficially, over 100 times the official estimate.[37]

Human economic traffic across borders (apart from kidnapping) may involve mass commuting between
workplaces and residential settlements. The removal of internal barriers to commerce, as in France after
the French Revolution or in Europe since the 1940s, de-emphasizes border-based economic activity and
fosters free trade. Euroregions are similar official structures built around commuting across boundary.

Politics
Political borders have a variety of meanings for those whom they affect. Many borders in the world have
checkpoints where border control agents inspect persons and/or goods crossing the boundary.

Some borders require presentation of legal paperwork like passports and visas, or other identity
documents, for persons to cross borders. To stay or work within a country's borders aliens (foreign
persons) may need special immigration documents or permits; but possession of such documents does not
guarantee that the person should be allowed to cross the border.
Moving goods across a border often requires the payment of
excise tax, often collected by customs officials. Animals (and
occasionally humans) moving across borders may need to go into
quarantine to prevent the spread of exotic infectious diseases.
Most countries prohibit carrying illegal drugs or endangered
animals across their borders. Moving goods, animals, or people
illegally across a border, without declaring them or seeking
permission, or deliberately evading official inspection, constitutes
smuggling. Controls on car liability insurance validity and other
formalities may also take place.

A border may have been:

Agreed by the countries on both sides

Imposed by the country on one side
Imposed by third parties, e.g. an international Borders between Israel, Syria and
conference Lebanon in Mount Hermon region.
Inherited from a former state, colonial power or The Blue Line between Israel and
aristocratic territory Lebanon—marked by black asterisk.
Inherited from a former internal border, such as within Disengagement Israeli front line with
the former Soviet Union Syria (1974)—marked by blue
asterisk. Disengagement Syrian
Never formally defined.
front line with Israel (1974)—marked
In addition, a border may be a de facto military ceasefire line. In by red asterisk.
much of Europe, controls on persons were abolished by the 1985
Schengen Agreement and subsequent European Union legislation.
Since the Treaty of Amsterdam, the competence to pass laws on
crossing internal and external borders within the European Union
and the associated Schengen Area states (Iceland, Norway,
Switzerland, and Liechtenstein) lies exclusively within the
jurisdiction of the European Union, except where states have used
a specific right to opt out (United Kingdom and Ireland, which
maintain the Common Travel Area amongst themselves).

The United States has notably increased measures taken in border

control on the Canada–United States border and the United
States–Mexico border during its War on Terrorism (See Shantz
2010). One American writer has said that the 3,600 km (2,200 mi)
US-Mexico border is probably "the world's longest boundary
between a First World and Third World country".[38]

Historic borders such as the Great Wall of China, the Maginot

Line, and Hadrian's Wall have played a great many roles and been US customs and border officers
marked in different ways. While the stone walls, the Great Wall of boarding a ship at the border.
China and the Roman Hadrian's Wall in Britain had military
functions, the entirety of the Roman borders were very porous,
which encouraged Roman economic activity with neighbors.[38] On the other hand, a border like the
Maginot Line was entirely military and was meant to prevent any
access in what was to be World War II to France by its neighbor,
Germany; Germany ended up going around the Maginot Line
through Belgium just as it had done in World War I.

Border conflict
Border conflicts are disputes between territories that occur at the
borders separating said territories. They occur when one party
The Swiss–Italian border
constructs identities or interests related to the border which are
incompatible with the other party's identities and interests.[39]
Border conflicts or the potential of such are the reason why many borders feature fortifications and
zoning like no man's lands, demilitarized zones, demarcation lines and buffer zones. Examples of border
conflicts include skirmishes and wars, such as the 38th Parallel (between North and South Korea),
Western Sahara conflict, andKashmir region conflicts between India and Pakistan.

A border conflict can occur due to several reasons. Most commonly, territorial disputes can result in
border conflicts, as it is the case with the Kashmir conflict.[40]

Border construction and crossings

Borders have sometimes been significantly shaped by physical border constructions and openings. From
border crossings, over border markers to border barriers these constructions fulfill many different
functions.

Crossings and transition

Even the most fortified borders reserve specific places to allow
crossing. The many forms of borders have different ways of
enabling and controlling passage.

Movement and permeability

Borders can have a significant impact on and function for
movement. It can enable and stop movement, across as well as
along borders. The car traffic on the Finnish side of
the Russian border at the Nuijamaa
The permeability of borders depends on its construction, Border Crossing Point in Nuijamaa,
availability of crossings, regulation and types or scope of activity. Lappeenranta, Finland
The permeability can vary, borders can be barriers for humans, but
also for animal migration or types of pollution.

Overlap and cooperation

Borders facilitate or block hybrids like border overlap and cooperation beyond mere encounter and
exchange.

Cross-border regions
Macro-regional integration initiatives, such as the European Union and NAFTA, have spurred the
establishment of cross-border regions. These are initiatives driven by local or regional authorities, aimed
at dealing with local border-transcending problems such as transport and environmental degradation.[41]
Many cross-border regions are also active in encouraging intercultural communication and dialogue as
well as cross-border economic development strategies.
In Europe, the European Union provides financial support to cross-border regions via its Interreg
programme. The Council of Europe has issued the Outline Convention on Transfrontier Co-operation,
providing a legal framework for cross-border co-operation even though it is in practice rarely used by
Euroregions.

Border studies
There has been a renaissance in the study of borders starting with the end of the 1990s, partially from the
creation of a counter-narrative to the discourse about the world becoming a borderless and
deterritorialized place, which has accompanied theories about globalization.[42][43] Examples of recent
initiatives are the Border Regions in Transition network of scholars,[44] the International Boundaries
Research Unit at the University of Durham,[45] the Association for Borderlands Studies based in North
America,[46] the African Borderlands Research Network[47] and the founding of smaller border research
centres at Nijmegen[48] and Queen's University Belfast.[49]

Border art
Border art is a contemporary art practice rooted in the socio-political experience(s), such as of those on
the U.S.-Mexico borderlands, or frontera. Since its conception in the mid-1980s, this artistic practice has
assisted in the development of questions surrounding homeland, borders, surveillance, identity, race,
ethnicity, and national origin(s).

Border art as a conceptual artistic practice, however, opens up the possibility for artists to explore similar
concerns of identity and national origin(s) but whose location is not specific to the U.S-Mexico border. A
border can be a division, dividing groups of people and families. Borders can include but are not limited
to language, culture, social and economic class, religion, and national identity. In addition to a division, a
border can also conceive a borderland area that can create a cohesive community separate from the
mainstream cultures and identities portrayed in the communities away from the borders, such as the
Tijuana-San Diego border between Mexico and the United States.

Border art can be defined as an art that is created in reference to any number of physical or imagined
boundaries. This art can but is not limited to social, political, physical, emotional and/or nationalist
issues. Border art is not confined to one particular medium. Border art/artists often address the forced
politicization of human bodies and physical land and the arbitrary, yet incredibly harmful, separations that
are created by these borders and boundaries. These artists are often "border crossers" themselves. They
may cross borders of traditional art-making (through performance, video, or a combination of mediums).
They may at once be artists and activists, existing in multiple social roles at once. Many border artists
defy easy classifications in their artistic practice and work.

See also
Border barrier
Border control
Border irregularities of the United States
Boundaries between the continents of Earth
Boundary delimitation
Enclave and exclave
Illegal entry
List of border conflicts
List of bordering countries with greatest relative differences in GDP (PPP) per capita
List of countries and territories by land borders
List of countries by land and maritime borders
List of countries that border only one other country
List of divided islands
List of international river borders
List of land borders with dates of establishment
List of national border changes from 1815 to 1914
List of national border changes (1914–present)
List of territorial disputes
Maritime boundary
Natural frontiers
Quadripoint
Tripoint

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Further reading
"Border Stories" (http://www.borderstories.org/). Border Stories – A website devoted to
stories from both sides of the U.S. Mexico Border.
"Talking Borders" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070915193412/http://www.qub.ac.uk/cibr/t
alkingborders.htm). Queen's University Belfast. Archived from the original (http://www.qub.a
c.uk/cibr/talkingborders.htm) on 15 September 2007.
The World in 2015: National borders undermined? (https://web.archive.org/web/2015010415
4356/http://www.france24.com/en/f24-interview/20141231-interview-bernard-guetta-national
-borders-undermined-syria-iraq-mali-ukraine/) 11-min video interview with Bernard Guetta, a
columnist for Libération newspaper and France Inter radio. "For [Guetta], one of the main
lessons from international relations in 2014 is that national borders are becoming
increasingly irrelevant. These borders, drawn by the colonial powers, were and still are
entirely artificial. Now, people want borders along national, religious or ethnic lines. Bernard
Guetta calls this a "comeback of real history"."
 Baramova, Maria (2010), Border Theories in Early Modern Europe (http://ieg-ego.eu/en/thre
ads/crossroads/border-regions/maria-baramova-border-theories-in-early-modern-europe?se
t_language=en&-C=), EGO - European History Online (http://www.ieg-ego.eu/), Mainz:
Institute of European History (http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/index.php), retrieved: March
25, 2021 (pdf (http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-2010092137)).
James, Paul (2014). "Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum
Seekers to Citizens" (https://www.academia.edu/7773440). Citizenship Studies. 18 (2): 208–
23. doi:10.1080/13621025.2014.886440 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13621025.2014.88644
0). S2CID 144816686 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144816686).
Mura, Andrea (2016). "National Finitude and the Paranoid Style of the One" (https://researc
h.gold.ac.uk/19373/1/Mura%20-%20National%20Finitude%20and%20the%20Paranoid%20
Style%20of%20the%20One.pdf) (PDF). Contemporary Political Theory. 15: 58–79.
doi:10.1057/cpt.2015.23 (https://doi.org/10.1057%2Fcpt.2015.23). S2CID 53724373 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53724373).
Said Saddiki, World of Walls: The Structure, Roles and Effectiveness of Separation Barriers
(https://www.openbookpublishers.com/htmlreader/978-1-78374-368-1/main.html).
Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2017. World of Walls: The Structure, Roles and
Effectiveness of Separation Barriers (https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0121)
Struck, Bernhard, Border Regions (http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/crossroads/border-regions/b
ernhard-struck-border-regions?set_language=en&-C=), EGO – European History Online (htt
p://www.ieg-ego.eu/), Mainz: Institute of European History (http://www.ieg-mainz.de/likecms/
index.php), 2013, retrieved: March 8, 2021 (pdf (https://d-nb.info/1043623418/34)).

External links
Media related to Borders at Wikimedia Commons

Collection of pictures of European borders, mainly intra-Schengen borders (https://web.archi

ve.org/web/20080104025114/http://www.grenzen.150m.com/border.htm)
Institut Européen des Itinéraires Culturels homepage (https://web.archive.org/web/2008022
2234042/http://www.culture-routes.lu/php/fo_index.php?lng=en&back=%2Fphp%2Ffo_inde
x.php%3Flng%3Den%26dest%3Dbd_ac_lst&dest=bd_ac_det&id=00002600)
Border Ireland – database of activities and publications on cross-border co-operation on the
island of Ireland since 1980's (https://web.archive.org/web/20170927191600/http://borderirel
and.info/)
Baltic Borderlands Greifswald (https://phil.uni-greifswald.de/institute/einrichtungen/gk-baltic-
borderlands/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181005153807/https://phil.uni-greifsw
ald.de/institute/einrichtungen/gk-baltic-borderlands/) 2018-10-05 at the Wayback Machine

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Border&oldid=1262897608"