GOKARAJU RANGARAJU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous)

B. Tech I Year (All Branches)

PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

Material

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PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING

DEPARTMENT OF CPDS/CSE

Name: ……………………………………….

Roll No: ……………Branch: ....……………..

Section………………Year…………………..

GOKARAJU RANGARAJU

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Nizampet Road, Bachupally , Hyderabad-500090

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 Preface

The main objective of the course entitled “Programming for Problem Solving” is to make first year
B.Tech students familiar with the Computer Programming concepts and language fundamentals in a
more systematic manner. This material is written according to GRIET GR-20(Autonomous)
syllabus. This book has been prepared to meet the requirements of Programming for Problem
Solving

This work is Contributed and verified by the faculty of CPDS/CSE

1. Dr. B. Srinivasa Rao

2. S T G Y .Sandhya

3. K. Ch. Suneetha

4. A. Sravanthi

5. D. Suguna Kumari

6. P. Rajesh

7. A.Sowmya

8. R.S.Shalini

9. M.Suresh Babu

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 COURSE: PROGRAMMING FOR PROBLEM SOLVING (T) CODE : GR20A1007

COURSE SYLLABUS

Prerequisite: Knowledge of Mathematics required.

Course Objectives:
To describe the fundamentals of computers.
To interpret the various steps in program development.
To recall and recite the syntax and semantics of C programming language.
To demonstrate using of structured and modular programming approach in solving problems.
To code, Interpret and debug the given program.
Course Outcomes:
The Student will learn:
To write algorithms and to draw flowcharts and convert them to programs using
fundamentals of C language.
To describe the use of decision making statements and arrays in c to solve problems.
To decompose a problem into functions and to develop modular reusable code.
To implement pointers and structures to write C programs.
5. To illustrate working with files in c.

Unit-1: Introduction to Programming

Introduction to Algorithms: Representation of Algorithm, Flowchart , Pseudo code with examples,

compiling & executing program, syntax and logical errors.

Introduction to C Programming Language: Structure of c program, variables, data types, constants,

Operators, expressions and precedence, Expression evaluation, type conversion.

I/O: Simple input and output with formatted I/O and unformatted I/O.

Unit- 2 : Decision Making and Arrays :

Conditional Branching and Loops: Conditional branching with if, if-else, nested if else, else if ladder, switch-case,
loops : for, while, do-while, jumping statements: goto, break, continue.

Arrays: one and two dimensional arrays, creating, accessing and manipulating elements of arrays.

Searching: Basic searching in an array of elements, linear and binary search.

Unit -3 : Strings and Functions:

Strings: Introduction to strings, operations on characters, basic string functions available in C

(strlen, strcat, strcpy, strrev, strcmp), string operations without string handling functions, arrays of
strings.

Functions: Designing structured programs, declaring a function, Signature of a function, Parameters

and return type of a function, call by value, call by reference, passing arrays to functions, recursion,
merits and demerits of recursive functions.

Unit-4: Pointers and Structures :

Pointers: Idea of pointers, Defining pointers, pointer to pointer, void pointer, Null pointer ,Pointers to Arrays and
Structures, function pointer.

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Structures and unions: Defining structures, initializing structures, Array of structures, arrays within structures,
nested structures, unions, typedef.

Unit-5: File handling and Preprocessor in c:

Files: Text and Binary files, Creating and Reading and writing text and binary files, Random access to files, Error
Handling in files Command line arguments, Enumeration data type.

Preprocessor: Commonly used Preprocessor commands like include, define, undef, if, ifdef, ifndef,elif.

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 UNIT-I

Unit-1: Introduction to Programming

Introduction to Algorithms: Representation of Algorithm, Flowchart , Pseudo code with examples,
compiling & executing program, syntax and logical errors.
Introduction to C Programming Language: Structure of c program, variables, data types, constants,
Operators, expressions and precedence, Expression evaluation, type conversion.

I/O: Simple input and output with formatted I/O and unformatted I/O.

Representation of Algorithm Flowchart and Pseudo code with Examples:

Algorithm:
Algorithm is a finite set of instructions that , if followed accomplishes a particular task. The
same problem can be solved with different methods. So, to solve a problem different
algorithms, may be accomplished. Algorithm may vary in time, space utilized.
User writes algorithm in his / her own language. So, it cannot be executed on
computer. Algorithm should be in sufficient detail that it can be easily translated into any
language.

Characteristics or properties of Algorithm:

1. Input:Zero or more quantities are externally supplied.
2. Output: At least one quantity is produced.
3. Definiteness: Each instruction is clear and unambiguous. Ex:Add B or C to A.
4. Finiteness : Algorithm should terminate after finite number of steps.
5. Effectivenes : Every Instruction must be basic.
i.e.,it can be carried out,by a person using Pencil and paper.

Advantages of Algorithms:
• It provides the core solution to a given problem. the solution can be implemented on a
computer system using any programming language of user‘s choice.
• It facilitates program development by acting as a design document or a blue print of a
given problem solution.
• It ensures easy comprehension of a problem solution as compared to an equivalent
computer program.
• It eases identification and removal of logical errors in a program.
• It facilitates algorithm analysis to find out the most efficient solution to a given
problem.

Disadvantages of Algorithms:
 In large algorithms the flow of program control becomes difficult to track.
 Algorithms lack visual representation of programming constructs like flowcharts.
 Understanding the logic becomes relatively difficult.

Examples:

Example1 :Add two numbers.

Step 1: Start
Step 2: Read 2 numbers as A and B
Step 3: Add numbers A and B and store result in C
Step 4 :Display C
Step 5: Stop
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 Example2: Average of 3 numbers.
Step 1.Start
Step 2.Read the numbers a , b , c
Step 3.Compute the sum and divide by 3
Step 4.Store the result in variable d
Step 5.Print value of d
Step 6.End

Example3: Average of n inputted numbers.

Step 1.Start
Step 2.Read the number n
Step 3.Initialize i to Zero
Step 4.Initialize sum to zero
Step 5.If i is greater than n
Step 6.Read a
Step 7.Add a to sum and goto step 5.
Step 9.Divide sum by n and store the result in avg
Step 10.Print value of Avg
Step 11.End

Flowchart:

A flowchart is a Visual representation of the sequence of steps for solving a problem. A

flowchart is a set of symbols that indicate various operations in the program.For every process,
there is a corresponding symbol in the flowchart. A pictorial representation of a textual
algorithm is done using a flowchart.A flowchart gives a pictorial representation of an
algorithm.

•The first flowchart is made by John Von Neumann in 1945.

• It is a symbolic diagram of operations sequence, dataflow, control flow and processing logic
in information processing.

•The symbols used are simple and easy to learn.

• It is a very helpful tool for programmers and beginners.

Purpose of a Flowchart :
•Provides communication.
•Provides an overview.
•Shows all elements and their relationships.
•Quick method of showing program flow.
•Checks program logic.
•Facilitates coding.
•Provides program revision.
•Provides program documentation.
Advantages of a Flowchart :
•Flowchart is an important aid in the development of an algorithm itself.
•Easier to understand than a program itself.
• Independent of any particular programming language.
•Proper documentation.
•Proper debugging.
•Easy and clear presentation.

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Limitations of a Flowchart :
•Complex logic.
•Drawing is time consuming.
•Difficult to draw and remember.
•Technical detail.

Symbols : Symbols are divided in to the following two parts.

I. Auxiliary Symbols.
II. Primary Symbols.

Prepare an algorithm and flow chart for swapping two numbers

To Swap two integer numbers:
Algorithm :
Using third variable

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Input num1 , num2
Step 3 : Temp = num1
Step 4 : num1 = num2
Step 5 : num2 = Temp
Step 6 : Output num1 , num2
Step 7 : Stop

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Flowcharts

Develop an algorithm and flowchart to find the largest among two numbers.

Ans: Algorithm:

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 : Input A , B
Step 3 : if A > B then output A
else output B
Step 4 : Stop

Flowchart :

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Develop an algorithm and flowchart to find the largest among three numbers. Algorithm:

Step 1 : Start
Step 2 :Input A, B, C
Step 3 :If A > B goto step 4 ,otherwise goto step 5.
Step 4 :if A > C goto step 6,otherwise goto step 8
Step 5 :if B > C go to step 7,otherwise goto step 8
Step 6 : print A is largest and goto step9
Step 7 : print B is largest and goto step9
Step 8 : print C is largest and goto step9
Step 9 :Stop

Flowchart:

Simulate an algorithm and flowchart to find factorial of a number

Flowchart:

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 Algorithm:

Step 1:Start
Step 2:Input n
Step 3:Initialize counter variable, i , to 1 and factors = 1 Step
4:if i<= n go to step 5 otherwise goto step 7
Step 5:Calculate factors = factors * i
Step 6:Increment counter variable, i, and goto step 4
Step 7:output factors.
Step 8:stop

Pseudocode:

Pseudocode is an informal way of programming description that does not require any strict
programming language syntax or underlying technology considerations. It is used for creating
an outline or a rough draft of a program. Pseudocode summarizes a program’s flow, but
excludes underlying details. System designers write pseudocode to ensure that programmers
understand a software project's requirements and align code accordingly.
Advantages of pseudocode –
• Pseudocode is understood by the programmers of all types.
• it enables the programmer to concentrate only on the algorithm part of the code
development.
• It cannot be compiled into an executable program.
Example of Pseudocode:
Bigger of 2 numbers:
Read A,B.

Example Sum of numbers from 1 to 5:

Program : Print sum 1 to 5

Sum=0;

A=1;

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While(A!=6)

Do sum=sum+A;
Endwhile.

Print sum;

End

Creating compiling and executing a program:

Creating and running programs:

It is the job of programmer to write and test the program. The following are four steps for creating
and running programs:

A. Writing and Editing the Program.

B. Compiling the Program.
C. Linking the Program with the required library modules.
D. Executing the Program.
A. Writing and Editing Program: The Software to write programs is known as text editor. A text
editor helps us enter, change and store character data. Depending on the editor on our system, it
could be used to write letters, create reports or write programs.

Example : word processor. The text editor could be generalized word processor, but every
compiler comes with associated text editor.

Some of the features of editors are Search :

To locate and replace statements.
Copy , Paste : To copy and move statements.
Format : To set tabs to align text.

After the program is completed the program is saved in a file to disk. This file will be input to the
compiler, it is known as source file. The following figure shows the various steps in building a C –
program

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 Fig: Steps followed to Build a C – program

A. Compiling Programs: The code in a source file on the disk must be translated into machine
language. This is the job of compiler which translates code in source file stored on disk into machine
language. The C compiler is actually two separate programs: the preprocessor and the translator. The
preprocessor reads the source code and prepares it for the compiler. It scans special instructions
known as preprocessor commands. These commands tell the preprocessor to take for special code
libraries, make substitutions in the code. The result of preprocessing is called translation unit. The
translator reads the translation unit and writes resulting object module to a file that can be combined
with other precompiled units to form the final program. An object module is the code in machine
language. This module is not ready for execution because it does not have the required C and other
functions included.

B. Linking Programs: C programs are made up of many functions.

Example: printf( ) , cos( )… etc Their codes exists elsewhere , they must be attached to our program.
The linker assembles all these functions, ours and the system‘s, into a final executable program.

C.Executing Programs : Once our program has been linked, it is ready for execution. To execute a
program, we use operating system command, such as run to load the program in to main memory
and execute it. Getting program into memory is the function of an Operating System programs
called loader. Loader locates the executable program and reads it into memory. In a typical program
execution, the program reads data for processing, either from user or from file. After the program
processes the data, it prepares output. Data output can be to user‘s monitor or to a file. When
program has executed, Operating System removes the program from memory.

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Syntax And Logical Errors In Compilation:

In computer programming, a logic error is a bug in a program that causes it to operate incorrectly, but
not to terminate abnormally (or crash). A logic error produces unintended or undesired output or other
behavior, although it may not immediately be recognized as such.

Logic errors occur in both compiled and interpreted languages. Unlike a program with a syntax error, a
program with a logic error is a valid program in the language, though it does not behave as intended. Often the
only clue to the existence of logic errors is the production of wrong solutions, though static analysis may
sometimes spot them.

Object and Executable Codes:

Object Code :

Object code is produced when an interpreter or a compiler translates source code into recognizable and
executable machine code. Object code is a set of instruction codes that is understood by a computer at the
lowest hardware level. Object code is usually produced by a compiler that reads some higher level computer
language source instructions and translates them into equivalent machine language instructions.

Executable Code :

It is Software in a form that can be run in the computer. It typically refers to machine language, which is the set
of native instructions the computer carries out in hardware. Executable files in the DOS/Windows world use
.exe and .com file extensions, while executable files in Unix and Mac do not require specific extensions. They
are identified by their file structure.

Structure of C Program:

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Documentation section :
This section consists of a set of comment lines giving the name of the program, and other details. which the programmer
would like to user later.
Ex:- /*Addition of two numbers */
Link section:Link section provides instructions to the compiler to link functions from thesystem library.
Ex:- # include<stdio.h>
# include<conio.h>
Definition section:Definition section defines all symbolic constants.
Ex:- # define A 10.
Global declaration section:Some of the variables that are used in more than one functionthroughout the program are
called global variables and declared outside of all the functions. This section declares all the user-defined functions.

Main() function section:

Every C program must have one main ( ) function section. This contains two parts.
i) Declaration part:This part declares all the variables used in the executable part.
Ex:-inta,b;
ii) Executable part:This part contains at least one statement .These two parts must appearbetween the opening and
closing braces. The program execution begins at the opening brace and ends at the closing brace. All the statements in the
declaration and executable parts end with a semicolon (;).
Sub program section:This section contains all the user-defined functions, that are called in themain () function. User-
defined functions are generally placed immediately after the main() function, although they may appear in any order.
Ex:

VARIABLES
It is a data name that may be used to store a data value. It cannot be changed during the
execution of a program. A variable may take different values at different times during
execution. A variable name can be chosen by the programmer in a meaningful way so as to
reflect its function or nature in the program.
Rules:
 Variable names may consist of letters, digits and under score( _ ) character.

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  First char must be an alphabet or an ‗-‘
 Length of the variable cannot exceed upto 8 characters, some C compilers can
 recognized upto 31 characters.
 White space is not allowed.
 Variables name should not be a keyword.
 Uppercase and lower case are significant.
Ex:- mark,sum1,tot_value,delhi (valid)
Prics$, group one, char (invalid)
Declaration and initialization of variables with examples:
Declaration does two things:
1. It tells the compiler what the variable name is.
2. It specifies what type of data the variable will hold.

The declaration of variables must be done before they are used in the program.
The syntax for declaring a variable is as follows:
data-type v1,v2,…….,vn;
v1,v2,…,vn are the names of variables. Variables are separated by commas. A declaration statement must end
with a semicolon. For example , valid declarations are:
int count;
int number, total;
double ratio;
The simplest declaration of a variable is shown in the following code fragment:
Example:
/*…………….ProgramName……….*/
int main()
{
//Declarations
float x,y;
int code;
short int count;
long int amount;
double deviation;
unsigned n;
char c;
/*…………………………Computation…………………………*/
}
/*…………………………Program ends…………………..*/

Initialization of variable :
Initialize a variable in c is to assign it a starting value. Without this we can't get
whatever happened to memory at that moment.
C does not initialize variables automatically. So if you do not initialize them properly,
you can get unexpected results. Fortunately, C makes it easy to initialize variables
when you declare them.
For Example :
int x=45;
intmonth_lengths[] ={23,34,43,56,32,12,24};
struct role = { "Hamlet", 7, FALSE, "Prince of Denmark ", "Kenneth Branagh"};
*Note : The initialization of variable is a good process in programming.

Data types :
A data type is a classification of the type of data that a variable can hold in computer programming.
Data type is the type of the data that are going to access within the program. C supports different data
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 types. Each data type may have pre-defined memory requirement and storage representation.

C supports 4 classes of data types.

1. Primary or (fundamental) data type(int, char, float, double)

2. User-defined data type(typedef,structures, unions)
3. Derived data type(arrays, pointers,)
4. Empty data type (void).

1. Primary or (fundamental) data type

All C compilers support 4 fundamentals data types, they are

i) Integer (int)
ii) Character(char)
iii) Floating (float)

iv) Double – precision floating point(double)

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i)Integer types:

Integers are whole numbers with a range of values supported by a particular machine. Integers
occupy one word of storage and since the word size of the machine vary. If we use 16 bit word
length the size of an integer value is -32768 to +32767. In order to control over the range of
numbers and storage space, C has 3 classes of integer storage, namely short, long, and unsigned.

FORMAT
DATA TYPE RANGE SIZE
SPECIFIER

-215 to 215 -1 4 bytes (on 32 bit

Int processors ) %d or %i
-32768 to +32767

Signed short int or 4 bytes

-128 to +127 %d or %i
Short int

4 bytes
Unsigned short int 0 to 255 %d or %i

0 to 65,535 4 bytes
Unsigned int %u

4 bytes
Unsigned long int 0 to 4,294,967,295 %lu

Long int or -2147483648 to

4 bytes %lu
signed long int +2147483647

Character type:-

Single character can be defined as a character (char) type data. Characters are usually stored in 8bits
of internal storage. Two classes of char types are there.

signed char, unsigned char.

signed char(or) char 1 byte- -128 to +127%c

unsigned char 1 byte0 to 255%c

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 iii) Floating point types:
Floating point (real) numbers are stored in 32 bits, with 6 digits of precision when
accuracy provided by a float number is not sufficient.

float 4 bytes3.4e-38 to 3.4e+38%f

iv). Double precision type:

double datatype number uses 64 bits giving a precision of 14 digits. These are known as double
precision numbers. Double type represents the same data type that float represents, but with a greater
precision. To extend the precision further, we may use long double which uses 80 bits.

Double8 bytes 1.7e-308 to 1.7e+308%lf

long double10 bytes 3.4e-4932 to 1.1e+4932%lf

2. User defined data types:

C –supports a feature known as ―type definition‖ that allows users define an identifier that would
represents an existing type.

Syntax: typedef data-type identifier; where data-type indicates the existing datatype identifier
indicates the new name that is given to the data type.

Ex:-typedef int marks;

marks m1, m2, m3;

typedef cannot create a new data type ,it can rename the existing datatype. The main advantage of
typedef is that we can create meaningful datatype names for increasing the readability of the
program.Another user-defined datatype is ―enumerated data type(enum)
Syntax: enumidentifier{value1, value2,… ............... valuen};

Where identifier is user-defined datatype which is used to declare variables that can have one of the
values enclosed within the braces. value1 ,value2,……valuen all these are known as enumeration
constants.

Ex:-enum identifier v1, v2,……vn

v1=value3;
v2=value1;…
……
Ex:-enum day {Monday,Tuesday………….
sunday}; enum day week-f,week-end
Week-f = Monday

enum day{Monday…Sunday}week-f, week-end;

CONSTANTS IN C
Constants is the most fundamental and essential part of the C programming language.
Constants in C are the fixed values that are used in a program, and its value remains the
same during the entire execution of the program.
 Constants are also called literals.
 Constants can be any of the data types.
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  It is considered best practice to define constants using only upper-case names.

Types of C constants:
1.Integerconstants
2.Real constants
3.Character constants
4. String constants

1. Integer constants: An integer constant refers to a sequence of digits. There are three
types ofintegers, namely, decimal integer, octal integer and hexadecimal integer.
Examples of Integer Constants:
426 ,+786 , -34(decimal integers)
037, 0345, 0661(octal integers)
0X2, 0X9F, 0X (hexadecimal integers)

2. Real constants:These quantities are represented by numbers containing fractional

parts like18.234. Such numbers are called real (or floating point) constants.
Examples of Real
Constants: +325.34426.0
-32.67 etc.
The exponential form of representation of real constants is usually used if the value of the
constant is either too small or too large. In exponential form of representation the real
constant is
represented in two parts. The first part present before 'e' is called Mantissa and
the part following 'e'is called Exponent.
For ex. .000342 can be written in Exponential form as 3.42e-4.

3. Single Character constants:Single character constant contains a single character

enclosedwithin a pair of single quote marks.
For ex. 'A',‘5‘,‘;‘,‘ ‗
Note that the character constant‘5‘ is not same as the number 5. The last constant is a
blank space.Character constant has integer values known as ASCII values. For example,
the statement
printf(“%d”,a); would print the number 97,the ASCII value of the letter a. Similarly,
thestatement printf(“%c”,97); would output the letter ‗a‘

Backslash Character Constants: C supports some special backslash character constants

that areused in output functions. Some of the back slash character constants are as follows:

CONSTANT MEANING
‘\0’ NULL
‘\t’ Horizontal tab
‘\b’ Backspace
‘\a’ Audible bell
‘\n’ New line
‘\v’ Vertical tab
‘\?’ Question mark
‘\’’ Single Quote
‘\”’ Double Quote
‘\\’ Backslash
These character combinations are called escape sequences.

String constants: A string constant is a sequence of character enclosed in double

quotes. Thecharacters may be letters, numbers, special characters and blank space.
Examples are: “HELLO!”
“1979”
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“welcome”
“.......!”
“5+3”
“A”

Rules for constructing integer constants:

a. An integer constant must have at least one digit.
b. It must not have a decimal point.
c. It can be either positive or negative.
d. The allowable range for constants is -32768 to 32767
In fact the range of integer constants depends upon
compiler. For ex. 435

Rules for constructing real constants:

a. A real constant must have at least one digit
b. It must have a decimal point.
c. It could be either positive or negative.
d. Default sign is positive.
For ex.
+325.34
426.0
In exponential form of representation, the real constants is represented in two parts.
The part appearing before ‗e‘ is called mantissa where as the part following ‗e‘ is
called exponent.
Range of real constants expressed in exponential form is -3.4e38 to
3.4e38. Ex. +3.2e-5

Rules for constructing character constants:

a. A character constant is a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol
enclosed within single inverted commas.
b. The maximum length of character constant can be one character.
Ex `A`

Operators :
An operator is a symbol that tells the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical
manipulations. Operators are used in programs to manipulate data and variables.

C operators can be classified into a number of categories, they are

1. Arithmetic Operators 2. Relational Operators 3.Logical Operators 4.Assignment

Operators
5.Increment and decrement operators 6.Conditional operators 7.Bitwise Operators
8.Special operators

1. Arithmetic Operators: C provides all the basic arithmetic operators. These can operate onany
built –in data type allowed in C.

The arithmetic operators are listed as follows:

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 Operator Meaning Examples

+ Addition c=a+5;a=b+c;h=9+6;

- Subtraction d=e-f;

* Multiplication k=3*g;

/ Division (quotient) m=u/v;

% Modulo division (remainder) I=j%k

NOTE:

1. Integer division truncates any fractional part.

2. The modulodivision operation produces the remainder of an integer division.
3. Modulus operator is not valid for real and mixed mode arithmetic.

Integer Arithmetic:

If both the operands in an arithmetic expression are integers then it is known as integer
arithmetic and the result is an integer.

Real Arithmetic:

If both the operands in an arithmetic expression are real operands then it is known as real
arithmetic and the result is real.

Mixed mode Arithmetic:

If the operands in an arithmetic expression are of different types then it is known as mixed mode
arithmetic and the result is a bigger type.

2. Relational Operators:
Relational operators are used for comparing two quantities, and used for decision making.
For example we may compare the age of two persons or the price of two items which can be
done with the help of relational operators.
An expression containing a relational operator is termed as a relational expression. The

value of a relational expression is either one or zero. It is one if the specified relation is true and
zero if the relation is false. Ex:- 13<34 (true) 23>35(false)

C supports 6 relational operators

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 Operator Meaning Example Result

< is less than a<6 (a=7) 0

<= is less than or equal to x<=y (x=4,y=7) 1

> is greater than t 9>8 1

>= is greater than or equal to x+10 >=y (x=4,y=7) 1

== is equal to 8==8 1

!= is not equal to 6!=5 1

When arithmetic expression are used on either side of a relational operator, the arithmetic
expression will be evaluated first and then the results compared, that means arithmetic
operators have a higher priority over relational operators.

3. Logical Operator:
C has 3 logical operators. The logical operators are used when we want to test more than one
condition and make decisions. The operators are as follows:

Operator Meaning Example Result

&& Logical AND 4>3 && 5!=6 1

|| Logical OR 5<=7 || 5==5 1

! Logical NOT !(5==4) 1

The logical operators && and || are used when we test more than one condition and make decisions.
Logical expressions combines two or more relational expressions, is also known as compound
relational expression. The truth table for Logical AND and Logical OR is as below

OP1 OP2 OP1&&OP2 OP1||OP2

0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1

1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1

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4. Assignment operator:
These operators are used to assign the result of an expression to a variable. The usual assignment
operator is “=‟. In addition ,C has a set of shorthand assignment operators of the form:

v op = exp;

Where v is a variable, exp is an expression and op is a C binary arithmetic operator. The

operator op=is known as the shorthand assignment operator.

Operator Meaning Example

= Assignment a=5; x=y; r=s*t;

+= Sum equal to b+=5 implies b=b+5

-= Subtract and assign c-=55 implies c=c-55

*= Multiply equal to b*=5 implies b=b*5

/= Divide equal to a/=10 implies a=a/10

%= Remainder equal to d%=7 implies d=d%7

The assignment statement v op=exp; is equivalent tov =v op (exp);

The use of short hand assignment operators has the following advantages:

i. What appears on the left- hand side need not be repeated and therefore it becomes easier to
write
ii. The statement is more concise and easier to read
iii. The statement is more efficient

5. Increment and Decrement operators:

++ and - - are increment and decrement operators in C. The operator ++ adds 1 to the operand,
while - - subtracts 1.Both are unary operators. They exist in postfix and prefix forms.

Operator Form Meaning Examples

++ a++ Post increment i++

++a Pre increment ++sum

-- b-- Post decrement j--

--b Pre decrement --count

31
++m; or m++; is equal to m=m+1(m+=1;)

--m; or m- - is equal to m=m-1(m- = 1;)

We use the increment and decrement statements in for and while loops extensively

Consider the following example when m=5,then

y=++m; the value of y=6 and m =6. Suppose if we write the above statement as m=5;

y= m++; the value of y=5 and m=6.

A prefix operator first adds 1 to the operand and then the result is assigned to the variable on left. On
the other hand, a postfix operator first assigns the value to the variable on left and then increments the
operand. Likewise for decrement operator.

6. Conditional operator:

A ternary operator pair “? :” is available in C to construct conditional expressions of the form

exp1 ?exp2 : exp3 where exp1,exp2 and exp3 are expressions.

The operator?: works as follows: exp1 is evaluated first. If it is non-zero (true), then
theexpression exp 2 is evaluated and becomes the value of the expression. If exp1 is false, exp3 is
evaluated and it becomes the value of the expression.

Ex:- a=10; b=45;

Big= (a>b) ?a:b;

o/p:- Big will be assigned the value of b (45) since a>b is false.

7. Bitwise Operators:

C supports a special operator knows as bitwise operators for manipulation of data at bit
level.These operators are used for testing the bits, or shifting them right to left.
Note: Bitwise operators may not be applied to float or double.

Operator Meaning Example

& Bitwise AND X&y

| Bitwise OR x|y

^ Bitwise exclusive OR X^y

<< Shift left X<<y

>> Shift right X>>y

~ Bitwise ones complement ~y

32
8. Special operators:

C supports some special operators such as comma operator, size of operator, pointer operators(&
and *) and member selection operators (. and -> ).
comma operator: The comma operator is used to link the related expressions together. Acomma-
linked list of expressions is evaluated left to right and the value of right- most expression is the value
of the combined expression. For example, the statement

value = (x=10, y=5, x+y);

This statement first assigns the value 10 to x, then assigns 5 to y and finally assigns 15. In for loops: for

(n=1 , m=10; n<=m; n++, m++);

sizeof operator: The sizeof is a compile time operator and when used with an operand, itreturns the
number of bytes the operand occupies. The operand may be variable, a constant or a data type qualifier.

m = sizeof (sum);

n = sizeof (long int);

The sizeof operator is normally used to determine the lengths of arrays and structures when their sizes are not known to
the programmer. It is also used to allocate memory space dynamically to variables during execution of a program

Expressions:
An expression in C is some combination of constants, variables, operators and function calls.
Examples:C= a + b;
tan (angle)
•Most expressions have a value based on their contents.
•A statement in C is just an expression terminated with a semicolon. For
Example:
sum = x + y + z;
The rules given below are used to evaluate an expression,
1. If an expression has parenthesis, sub expression within the parenthesis is evaluated first and
arithmetic expression without parenthesis is evaluated first.
2. The operators of high level precedence are evaluated first.
3. The operators at the same precedence are evaluated from left to right or right to left depending on
the associativity of operators.
Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement of the form:

variable = expression;

33
Expression evaluation:
variable is any valid C variable name. When the statement is encountered, the expression is
evaluated first and the result then replaces the previous value of the variable on the left-hand side.
All variables used in the expression must be assigned values before evaluation is attempted

Ex:- x = a*b-c;

y = b/c*a;
z = a-b / c+d;

Ex:- x= a-b/3+c*2-1 when a=9, b=12, and c=3 the expression becomes. x = 9-

12/3 +3*2-1
Step1: x = 9-4+3*2-1
Step2: x = 9-4+6-1
Step3: x = 5+6-1
Step4: x = 11-1
Step5: x = 10

Precedence and Associativity of operators:

Operator precedence:

Various relational operators have different priorities or precedence. If an arithmetic expression

contains more operators then the execution will be performed according to their properties. The
precedence is set for different operators in C.

Type of operator Operators Associativity

Unary operators +,-,!,++,--,type, ͂,size of Right to left

Arithmetic operators *, /,%,+,- Left to right

Bit – manipulation operators <<,>> Left to right

Relational operators >,<,>=,<=,==,!= Left to right

Logical operators &&,|| Left to right

Conditional operators ?,: Left to right

Assignment operators =,+=,-=,*=,/=,%= Right to left

Note:

1. Precedence rules decide the order in which different operators are applied

2. Associativity rule decides the order in which multiple occurrences of the same level
operators are applied.

34
Hierarchy of operators in C :

The higher the position of an operator is, higher is its priority.When an expression
contains two operators of equal priority the tie between them is settled using the
associativity of the operators.

Associativity can be of two types—Left to Right or Right to Left

Left to Right means, as you go from left to right in an expression which operator among the two is
found, execute it first.Right to left means, as you go from right to left in an expression which operator
among the two is found, execute it first.
Consider expression a=3/2*5 Here there is a tie between operators of same priority, that is between /
and *. This tie is settled using the associativity of / and *. But both enjoy Left to Right associativity,
which means as you go from left to right / is found so execute it first.
The table clearly shows the associativity and precedence of operators in c.

RANK OPERATORS MEANING ASSOCIATIVIT

Y
1 ++ POSTFIX INCREMENT
-- POSTFIX DECREMENT
() FUNCTION CALL
[] ARRAY SUBSCRIPTING LEFT TO
. STRUCTURE AND UNION MEMBER ACCESS RIGHT
STRUCTUTRE AND UNION MEMBER ACESS
THROUGH POINTER
2 ++ PREFIX INC REMENT
-- PREFIX DECREMENT
+ UNARY PLUS
- UNARY MINUS
RIGHT TO
! LOGICAL NOT
~ BITWISE NOT LEFT
(TYPE) TYPE CAST
* INDIRECTION
& ADDRESS OF
sizeof() SIZE OF
3 * MULTIPLICATION
/ DIVISION LEFT TO
% MODULO DIVISION RIGHT
4 + ADDITION LEFT TO
- SUBTRACTION RIGHT
5 << BITWISE SHIFT LEFT LEFT TO
>> BITWISE SHIFT RIGHT RIGHT
6 < RELATIONAL OPERATORS LESSER
<= LESSER THAN OR EQUAL TO LEFT TO
> GREATER THAN RIGHT
>= GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO
7 == IS EQUAL TO LEFT TO

35
 != IS NOT EQUAL TO RIGHT
8 & BITWISE AND LEFT TO
RIGHT
9 ^ BITWISE XOR LEFT TO
RIGHT
10 | BITWISE OR LEFT TO
RIGHT
11 && LOGICAL AND LEFT TO
RIGHT
12 || LOGICAL OR LEFT TO
RIGHT
13 ?: TERANARY LEFT TO
RIGHT
14 = ASSIGNMENT OPERATOR SIMPLE
+= ASSIGNMENT BY SUM
-= ASSIGNMENT BY DIFFERENCE
*= ASSIGNMENT BY PRODUCT RIGHT TO
/= ASSIGNMENT BY QUOTIENT LEFT
%= ASSIGNMENT BY REMAINDER
<< = ASSIGNMENT BY BITWISE LEFT SHIFT
>>= ASSIGNMENT BY BITWISE RIGHT SHIFT
&= ASSIGNMENT BY BITWISE AND
^= ASSIGNMENT BY BITWISE XOR
|= ASSIGNMENT BY BITWISE OR
15 , COMMA LEFT TO
RIGHT

For Example:
i= 2*3/4+4/4+8-2+5/8
i=6/4+4+8-2+5/8
i=1+4/4+8-2+5/8
i=1+1+8-2+5/8
i=1+1+8-2+0
i=2+8-2+0
i=10-2+0
i=8+0
i=8

Type conversion:
It is a process of converting a variable value or a constant value temporarily from one data type to
other data type for the purpose of calculation is known as type conversion.

There are two types of conversions

i.. Automatic type conversion (or) Implicit conversion.

ii . Type Casting (or) explicit conversion (or) manual conversion.

Implicit: In this lower data type can be converted into higher data type automatically. The figure
36
below shows the C conversion hierarchy for implicit –type conversion in an expression:

The sequence of rules that are applied while implicit type conversion is as follows: All

short and char are automatically converted into int then

1. if one of the operands is long double the other will be converted to long double and the result
will be long double.

2. else, if one of the operand is double, the other will be converted to double and the result will be
double.

3. else, if one of the operand is float ,the other will be converted to float and the result will be float.

4. else, if one of the operand is unsigned long int, the other will be converted to unsigned long int and
the result will be unsigned long int.

5. else, if one of the operand is long int, the other is unsigned int then

a) if unsigned int can be converted into long int, the unsigned int operand will be converted as such
and the result will be long int.

b) else both operands will be converted to unsigned long int and the result will be unsigned long
int.

6. else if one of the operand is long int ,the other will be converted into long int and the result will be
long int.

7. else if one of the operand unsigned int ,the other will be converted into unsigned int and the result
will be unsigned int.

The final result of an expression is converted to the type of the variable on the left of the assignment
sign before assigning the value to it. The following changes are introduced during the final
assignment.

i. float to int causes truncation of the fractional part

37
ii. double to float causes rounding of digits

iii. long int to int causes dropping of the excess higher order bits

Example : Consider the following variables along with their datatypes: int

i,x; float f; double d; longint l;

Explicit:

In this type of conversion, the programmer can convert one data type to other
datatype explicitly .Such conversions are also known as forced conversions
or manual conversions or type casting.
Syntax: (datatype) (expression) Expression can be a constant or a variable

Ex:y = (int) (a+b) y= cos(double(x)) double a = 6.5; double b = 6.5;

int result = (int) (a) + (int) (b); result = 12 instead of 13.

int a=10;

float(a)> 10.00000

Example:

//converting fahrenheit to celsius by type casting #include<stdio.h>

#include<conio.h> void main()

float c,f;

clrscr();

printf("\n enter fahrenheit:");

scanf("%f",&f);

c=(float)5/9*(f-32);
38
 printf("\n c=%f",c);

getch();

Managing Input and Output:

Managing input and output operations:

Reading, processing and writing of data are the three essential functions of a computer program. Most
programs take some data as input and display the processed data. We have two methods of providing
data to the program variables. One method is to assign values to variables through the assignment
statements like x=5, a=0 and so on. Another method is to use the input function scanf, which can read
data from a keyboard. We have used both the methods in programs. For outputting results, we have
used extensively the function printf, which sends results out to a terminal.

Input – Output functions:

The program takes some I/P- data, process it and gives the O/P.We have two methods for providing
data to the program

(i) Assigning the data to the variables in a program.

(ii)By using I/P-O/P statements.

C language has 2 types of I/O statements. All these operations are carried out through function calls.

1. Unformatted I/O statements 2.Formatted I/O statements

Unformatted I/O statements:

i/p function o/p function

1)getchar() putchar()
2) gets() puts()
3)getc() putc()
4)getw() putw()
5)getch() putch()
6)getche()

getchar ( ):- It reads single character from standard input device. This function don‘t require
anyarguments.

Syntax : - char variable _name = getchar( );

Ex:- char x;

x = getchar( );

putchar ( ):- This function is used to display one character at a time on the standard
outputdevice.
39
 Syntax:-putchar(variable_name);

Ex:- char x;

putchar(x);

program:

void main( )

char ch;

printf("enter a character:");

ch=getchar( );

printf("\ncharacter is:");

putchar(ch);

Output:

enter a char a

char is a

gets( ):- This function is used to read group of characters(string) from the standard I/P device.

Syntax:-gets(string name);

Ex:- gets(s);

puts( ):- This function is used to display string to the standard O/P device.

Syntax:-puts(string name);

Ex:- puts(s);

program:

void main()
{
char s[10];
puts(“enter name”);
gets(s);
puts(“print name:”);
puts(s);

40
}
Output:

enter name ramu

print name : ramu

getch():- This function reads a single character directly from the keyboard without displaying
onthe screen. This function is used at the end of the program for displaying the output (without
pressing (Alt-F5).

Syntax: char variable_name = getch();

Ex:- char c;

c = getch();

getche():- This function reads a single character from the keyboard and echoes(displays) it tothe
current text window.

Syntax:-char variable_name = getche();

Ex:- char c;

c = getche();

Program:

void main()
{
char ch, c;
printf("enter char");
ch = getch();

41
 printf("%c", ch);
printf("enter char");
c = getche();
printf("%c",c);
}
Output :-
enter character a
enter character b
b

Character test functions:

ctype.h

Function Test

isalnum(c) Is c an alphanumeric character?

isalpha(c) Is c an alphabetic character

isdigit(c) Is c a digit?

islower(c) Is c alower case letter?

isprint(c) Is c a character?

ispunct(c) Is c a punctuation mark?

isspace(c) Is c a white space character?

isupper(c) Is c an upper case letter?

tolower(c) Convert c to lower case

toupper(c) Convert c to upper case

program:

void main()
{
char a;
printf(“enter char”);
a = getchar();
if (isupper(a))
{
x= tolower(a);
putchar(x);
}
else

42
putchar(toupper(a));
}
Output:-
enter char A
a

Formatted I/O Functions:

Formatted I/O refers to input and output that has been arranged ina particular format.

Formatted I/P functions---------- scanf( ) ,fscanf()

Formatted O/P functions -------- printf( ) ,fprintf()

scanf( ) :-scanf() function is used to read information from the standard I/P device.

Syntax:-scanf(“controlstring”, &variable_names);

Control string (also known as format string) represents the type of data that the user is going
to accept and gives the address of variable.

(char-%c , int-%d , float - %f , double-%lf).

Control string and variables are separated by commas. Control string and the variables going
to I/P should match with each other.

Ex:-int n;

scanf(“%d”,&n);

Inputting Integer Numbers:

The field specification for reading an integer number is: %w d

The percentage sign(%) indicates that a conversion specification follows. w is an integer number
that specifies the field width of the number to be read and d known as data type character
indicates that the number to be read is in integer mode.

Ex:-scanf(“%2d,%5d”,&a,&b);

The following data are entered at the console: 50

31426

Here the value 50 is assigned to a and 31426 to b

43
Inputting Real Numbers:

The field width of real numbers is not to be specified unlike integers. Therefore scanf reads
real numbers using the simple specification %f.

Ex: scanf(“%f %f”,&x,&y);

Suppose the following data are entered as input: 23.45 34.5 The

value 23.45 is assigned to x and 34.5 is assigned to y.

Inputting character strings:

The field specification for reading character strings is %ws or %wc

%c may be used to read a single character.

Ex:scanf(“%s”,name1);

Suppose the following data is entered as input:Griet

Griet is assigned to name1.

Formatted Output:

printf( ): This function is used to output any combination of data. The outputs are produced insuch a
way that they are understandable and are in an easy to use form. It is necessary for the programmer to
give clarity of the output produced by his program.

Syntax:- printf(“control string”, var1,var2……);

Control string consists of 3 types of items

1. Characters that will be printed on the screen as they appear.

2. Format specifications that define the O/P format for display of each item.

3.Escape sequence chars such as \n , \t and \b…..

The control string indicates how many arguments follow and what their types are.

The var1, var2 etc..are variables whose values are formatted and printed according to the
specifications of the control string.

The arguments should match in number, order and type with the format specifications

44
45
 UNIT-II
Conditional Branching and Loops: Conditional branching with if, if-else, nested if else, else if ladder, switch-
case, loops : for, while, do-while, jumping statements: goto, break, continue.
Arrays: one and two dimensional arrays, creating, accessing and manipulating elements of arrays.
Searching: Basic searching in an array of elements, linear and binary search.

Conditional Branching and Loops:

Writing and Evaluation of conditional statements (examples).
In C, when a logical operation is being evaluated, if the result is known before all sub expressions
have been evaluated, then the evaluation stops, or short circuits. The two situations where this can
occur is when the first expression of a logical AND operation is FALSE (zero) or the first expression
of a logical OR operation is TRUE (non-zero). In both of these cases, the result is already known. For
AND, if either of the two expressions is FALSE, the result will be FALSE. For OR, if either of the
two expressions is TRUE, then the result will be TRUE.
Example :

If we have two expressions being tested in a logical AND operation:

expr1 && expr2
The expressions are evaluated from left to right. If expr1 is 0 (FALSE), then expr2 would not be
evaluated at all since the overall result is already known to be false.
Truth table for AND (&&)
FALSE=0
TRUE=1

expr1 expr2 Result

0 X (0) 0

0 X (1) 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

Expr2is not evaluated in the first two cases since its value is not relevant to the result.

Examples:

1.if (5 || ++x)
{
printf("%d\n",x);
}

2.int x =0;
if(5||2&&++x)
printf("%d", x);
46
 3.(a >= 0) && (b < 10)

4.(a > b) || (b++ / 3)

5. (13 * a) * (b/13 – 1)

6 if((a || b || c || d || e || f || g || h ||i|| j || k)==1)

7.while((x && y)==1)

8. if ((x < 10) && (y > 3))

Conditional Branching:
Conditional statements help you to make decision based on certain conditions. These conditions are
specified by a set of conditional statements having boolean expressions which are evaluated to a
boolean value true or false.
When we need to execute a block of statements only when a given condition is true then we use
variants of if statements .

There are 4 if statements available in C:

1. Simple if statement.
2. if…else statement.
3. Nested if…else statement.
4. else if ladder

1. Simple if statement: Simple if statement is used to

make a decision based on the available choice. It has
the following form:

Syntax: if ( condition )

stmt block;

stmt-x;

In this syntax,

 if is the keyword. <condition>is a relational expression or logical expression or any expression that
returns either true or false. It is important to note that the condition should be enclosed within
parentheses ‘(‘ and ’ )’.
 The stmt block can be a simple statement or a compound statement or a null statement.
 stmt-xis any valid C statement.
The flow of control using simple if statement is determined as follows:
Whenever simple if statement is encountered, first the condition is tested. It returns either true or false.

47
 If the condition is false, the control transfers directly to stmt-x without considering the stmt block. If
the condition is true, the control enters into the stmt block. Once, the end of stmt block is reached, the
control transfers to stmt-x.

Example Program for if statement:

#include<stdio.h>

void main()
{
int age;
printf("enter age\n");
scanf("%d",&age);
if(age>=55)
printf("person is retired\n");
}
Output: enter age 57

person is retired

2. if—else statement:
if…else statement is used to make a decision based on two choices. It has the following form:

Whenever if...else statement is encountered, first the condition is tested. It returns either true or false.
If the condition is true, the control enters into the true stmt block. Once, the end of true stmt block is
reached, the control transfers to stmt-x without considering else-body.

If the condition is false, the control enters into the false stmt block by skipping true stmt block.
Once, the end of false stmt block is reached, the control transfers to stmt-x.

Syntax: if(condition)
{
truestmt block;
}
else
{
falsestmt block;
}
stmt-x;

In this syntax,

 if and else are the keywords.

 <condition>is a relational expression or logical expression or any expression that returns either true or
false. It is important to note that the condition should be enclosed within parentheses ( and ).
 The true stmt block and false stmt block are simple statements or compound statements or null
statements.
 stmt-x is any valid C statement.

48
 The flow of control using if...else statement is determined as follows:

Program for if else statement:

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int age;
printf("enter age\n");
scanf("%d",&age);
if(age>=55)
printf("person is retired\n");
else
printf("person is not retired\n");
}

Output: enter age 47

person is not retired

Nested if Statements:
• The statement executed as a result of an if statement or else clause could be another if statement

• These are called nested if statements

• An else clause is matched to the last unmatched if (no matter what the indentation implies)

• Braces can be used to specify the if statement to which an else clause belongs

Flow chart:

49
 Example program:

void main ( )

int a, b;

scanf(“%d%d”, &a, &b);

if(a>b)

if(a>c)

printf("%d\n", a);

else

printf("%d\n", b);

else

if(c>b)

printf("%d\n“ , c);

else

printf("%d\n“ , b); }

Else-if ladder:
 Else if ladder is one of the conditional control-flow statements.
 It is used to make a decision among multiple choices.

Flow chart:

50
 Example Program:
void main()

int m1,m2,m3,avg,tot;

printf("enter three subject marks");

scanf("%d%d%d", &m1,&m2,&m3);

tot=m1+m2+m3;

avg=tot/3;

if(avg>=75) {

printf("distinction"); }

else if(avg>=60 && avg<75) {

printf("first class"); }

else if(avg>=50 && avg<60) {

printf("second class"); }

else if (avg<50) {

printf("fail");

Switch Statement:
51
 switch statement is one of decision-making control-flow statements. Just like else if ladder, it is also
used to make a decision among multiple choices. switch statement has the following form:

Syntax:

switch(<exp>)
{
case<exp-val-1>: statements block-1;
break;
case<exp-val-2>: statements block-2;
break;
case<exp-val-3>: statements block-3;
break;
case<exp-val-N>: statements block-N;
break; default:
default statements block;
}
Next-statement;

In this syntax,

 switch, case, default and break are keywords.

 <exp>is any expression that should give an integer value or character value. In other words, it should
never return any floating-point value. It should always be enclosed with in parentheses ( and ). It
should also be placed after the keyword switch.
 <exp-val-1>, <exp-val-2>, <exp-val-3>…. <exp-val-N> should always be integer constants or
character constants or constant expressions. In other words, variables can never be used as
<exp-val>. There should be a space between the keyword case and <exp-val>. The keyword case
along with its <exp-val> is called as a case label. <exp-val> should always be unique; no duplications
are allowed.
 statements block-1, statements block-2, statements block-3… statements block-N and default
statements block are simple statements, compound statements or null statements. It is important to note
that the statements blocks along with their own case labels should be separated with a colon ( : )
 The break statement at the end of each statements block is an optional one. It is recommended that
break statement always be placed at the end of each statements block. With its absence, all the
statements blocks below the matched case label along with statements block of matched case get
executed. Usually, the result is unwanted.

 The statement block and break statement can be enclosed with in a pair of curly braces { and
}.
 The default along with its statements block is an optional one. The break statement can be placed at
the end of default statements block. The default statements block can be placed at anywhere in the
switch statement. If they are placed at any other place other than at end, it is compulsory to include a
break statement at the end of default statements block.
 Next-statement is a valid C statement.

52
 Whenever, switch statement is encountered, first the value of <exp> gets matched with case
values. If suitable match is found, the statements block related to that matched case gets executed. The
break statement at the end transfers the control to the Next-statement.

If suitable match is not found, the default statements block gets executed and then the control gets
transferred to Next-statement.

Example Program:

#include<stdio.h> void main()

{ inta,b,c,ch;
printf("\nEnter two numbers :");

scanf("%d%d",&a,&b); printf("\nEnter the choice:"); scanf("%d",&ch);

switch(ch)
{
case 1: c=a+b;
break; case 2: c=a-b;
break; case 3: c=a*b;
break; case 4: c=a/b;
break;
default: printf(“ enter a valid choice \n”);
}
printf("\nThe result is: %d",c);
}
Output: enter the choice 1

Enter two numbers 4 2

Use of switch statement:

 We can use switch statements alternative for an if...else ladder.

 The switch statement is often faster than nested if...else Ladder.
53
  Switch statement syntax is well structured and easy to understand.

Iteration and Loops: while, do-while, for loops.

It is the process where a set of instructions or statements is executed repeatedly for a specified
number of time or until a condition is satisfied.These statements also alter the control flow of
the program. It can also be classified as control statements in C Programming Language.

Iteration statements are most commonly known as loops.

There are three types of looping statements:

1. while Loop
2. do while loop

3. for loop

54
1. while Loop:
The simplest of all the looping structures in c is the
while statement. A WHILE loop has one control
expression, andexecutes as long as that expression
is true.
The basic format of the while statement is:

Syntax:

while(condition)

statements;

} Flow chart for while loop

The while is an entry –controlled loop statement. The condition is evaluated and if the condition is true
then the statements will be executed. After execution of the statements the condition will be evaluated
and if it is true the statements will be executed once again. This process is repeated until the condition
becomes false and the control is transferred out of the loop .On exit the program continues with the
statement immediately after the body of the loop.

Program to print n natural numbers using using while

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
inti,n;
printf("enter the range\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
i=1;
while(i<=n)
{
printf("%d ",i);
i=i+1;
}
}

Output: enter the range 10 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

2. dowhile statement:
It is one of the looping control statements. It is also called as exit-controlled looping control
statement. i.e., it tests the condition after executing the do-while loop body.

55
The main difference between “while” and “do-while” is that in “do-while” statement, the loop body
gets executed at least once, though the condition returns the value false for the first time, which is not
possible with while statement. In “while” statement, the control enters into the loop body only when
the condition returns true.
Flow chart for do while
Syntax:

Initialization statement;

do

statement(s);

} while(<condition>);

next statement;

In this syntax:

while and do are the keywords. <condition> is a relational expression or a compound relational
expression or any expression that returns either true or false. initialization statement, statement(s) and
next_statement are valid ‘c’ statements.

The statements within the curly braces are called as do-while loop body. The updating statement
should be included with in the do-while loop body. There should be a semi-colon (;) at the end of
while(<condition>).

Whenever “do-while” statement is encountered, the initialization statement gets executed

first. After then, the control enters into do-while loop body and all the statements in that body will be
executed. When the end of the body is reached, the condition is tested again with the updated loop
counter value.

If the condition returns the value false, the control transfers to next statement without
executing do-while loop body. Hence, it states that, the do-while loop body gets executed for the first
time, though the condition returns the value false.

Program to print n natural numbers using using do while

#include<stdio.h>
voidmain()
{
inti,n;
printf("enter the range\n");
scanf("%d",&n);
i=1;
do

55
 printf("%d ",i);
i=i+1;
}
while(i<=n);
}
Output: enter the range 8

1 2345678

3. for statement:
It is one of the looping control statements. It is also called as entry-controlled looping control
statement. i.e., it tests the condition before entering into the loop body. The syntax for “for” statement
is as follows:

Syntax:

for(exp1;exp2;exp3)

for-body;

next_statement;

In this syntax,

for is a keyword. exp1 is the initialization statement. If there is more than one statement, then
the statements must be separated with commas. exp2 is the condition. It is a relational expression or a
compound relational expression or any expression that returns either true or false. The exp3 is the
updating statement. If there is more than one statement then, they must be separated with commas.
exp1, exp2 and exp3 should be separated with two semi-colons. exp1, exp2, exp3, for-body and
next_statement are valid ‘c’ statements. for-body is a simple statement or compound statement or a
null statement.

Whenever “for” statement is encountered, first exp1 gets executed. After then, exp2 is tested.If exp2 is
true then the body of the loop will be executed otherwise loop will be terminated.

When the body of the loop is executed the control is transferred back to the for statement after
evaluating the last statement in the loop. Now exp3 will be evaluated and the new value is again tested
.if it satisfies body of the loop is executed .This process continues till condition is false.

Program to print n natural numbers using for loop

#include<stdio.h>
void main()

56
 inti,n;
printf("enter the value");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=1;i<=n;i++)
printf("%d\n",i);
}
Output: enter the value 5 12345

Nested for Loop:

Nested for loop refers to the process of having one loop inside another loop. We can have
multiple loops inside one another. The body of one ‘for’ loop contains the other and so on. The
syntax of a nested for loop is as follows(using two for loops):

Syntax:

for(initialization ; condition; update)

{
for(initialization ; condition ;update) //using another variable
{
body of the inner loop
}
body of outer loop //(might or might not be present)
}

Example Program :

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
inti,j;
for(i=1;i<=5;i++)
{
for(j=1;j<=i;j++)
{
printf("%d",j);
}
printf("\n");
}
}

Output:
1
12
123
1234
12345

57
Jumping control-flow statements:
Jumping control-flow statements are the control-flow statements that transfer the control to the
specified location or out of the loop or to the beginning of the loop. There are 3 jumping
control statements:

break statement:

The ―break statement is used within the looping control statements, switch statement and nested
loops. When it is used with the for, while or do-while statements, the control comes out of the
corresponding loop and continues with the next statement.

When it is used in the nested loop or switch statement, the control comes out of that loop / switch
statement within which it is used. But, it does not come out of the complete nesting.

Syntax for the ―break statement is:

break;

Any loop
{
statement_1;
statement_2;
break;
:
}
next_statement;
In this syntax, break is the keyword.

The following representation shows the transfer of control when break statement is used:
Program for break statement:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main( )
{
int i;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++)
{

if(i==6) break;
printf("%d",i);

58
 }
}
Output:1 2 3 4 5

continue statement:
A continue statement is used within loops to end the execution of the current iteration and
proceed to the next iteration. It provides a way of skipping the remaining statements in that
iteration after the continue statement. It is important to note that a continue statement should be
used only in loop constructs and not in selective control statements.

Syntax for continue statement is:

continue;

where continue is the keyword.The following representation shows the transfer of control when
continue statement is used:

Any loop
{
statement_1;
statement_2;
.....
continue;
......
}
next_statement;

Program for continue statement:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<coni o.h>
int main()
{
int i, sum=0;
for(i=1; i<=n; i++)
{
if(n==6)
continue;
printf("%d\n"i);
}
}
Output: 1 2 3 4 5 7 8 9 10

Exit :
The C library function void exit(int status) terminates the calling process immediately.This function does not
return any value.
void exit(int status)

//Example
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
int main ()
{
59
printf("Start of the program. \n");
printf("Exiting the program. \n");
exit(0);
printf("End of the program. \n");
return(0);
}

Output:
Start of the program....
Exiting the program....

Arrays
Introduction :

The fundamental data types, namely char, int, float, double and variations of int and
double can store only one value at any given time. Therefore they can be used only to handle
limited amounts of data.In many applications , we need to handle a large volume of data in
terms of reading, processing and printing. To process such large volume of data C supports a
derived data type known as ARRAY that facilitate efficient storing, accessing and
manipulation of data items.

Definition :

An array is a fixed-size sequenced collection of elements of the same data type.

Examples where the concept of an array can be used are :

 List of employees in an organization
 List of products and their cost
 Test scores of a class of students.
 List of customers and their telephone numbers. etc..

Since an array provides a convienent structure for representing data, it is classified as one of
the data structures in C.
Types of Arrays :

1. One-dimensional arrays
2. Two-dimensional arrays
3. Multi-dimensional arrays.

60
ONE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

A list of items can be given one variable name using only one subscript and such a
variable is called a single-subscripted variable or a one-dimensional array.

DECLARATION OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

Like anyother variable, arrays must be declared before they are used so that the compiler
can allocate space for them in memory.

Syntax:
type variable-name[size];

The type specifies the type of element that will be contained in the array, such as int, float
or char.
The size indicates the maximum number of elements that can be stored inside the array

For e.g.-

int number[5];

Declares the number to be an array containing 5 elements. Any subscripts 0 to 4 are valid
and the computer reserves five storage locations as shown below

number[0]

number[1]

number[2]

number[3]

number[4]

Note :

1. any reference to the arrays outside the declared limits would not necessarily cause
an error. Rather, it might result in unpredictable program results.
2. The size should be either a numeric constant or a symbolic constant.

INITIALIZATION OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

After an array is declared, its elements must be initialized. Otherwise, they will
contain “garbage” . an array can be initialized at either of the following stages:
 At Compile time

 At run time

61
COMPILE TIME INITIALIZATION :

We can initialize the elements of arrays in the same way as the ordinary variables when
they are declared .

Syntax:

type array-name[size]={list of values};

the values in the list are separated by commas. For example, the
statement int number[5]={35,40,50,20,25};

will declare the variable number as an array of size 5 and will assign the value to each element
as follows

number[0] 35
number[1] 40

number[2] 50

number[3] 20

number[4] 25

If the number of values in the list is less than the number of elements, then only that
many elements will be initialized. The remaining elements will be set to zero automatically if the
array type is numeric and NULL if the type is char.

For e.g.- float total[5]={0.0,5.2,-10};

Will initialize the first three elements to 0.0, 5.2 and -10.0 and the remaining two
elements to zero.

If we have more initializers than the declared size, the compiler will produce an
error. int number[3]={10,20,30,40}; is illegal in C.

The size may be omitted in the declaration statement. In such cases, the
compiler allocates enough space for all initialized elements.

For e.g.-Int count[]={1,1,1,1};

Will declare the count array to contain four elements with initial values 1. This
approach works fine as long as we initialize every element in the array.

62
Character arrays may be initialized in a similar manner. Thus the
statement
char name[]={‘h’,’e’,’l’,’l’,’o’,’\0’};

Declares the name to be array of five characters, initialized with the string “hello” ending
with the null character. Alternatively we can assign the string literal directly as

char name[]=”hello”;

RUN TIME INITIALIZATION

An array can be explicitly initialized at run time. This approach is usually applied for
initializing large arrays. For example, consider the following segment of C program

for(i=0;i<100;i=i+1)
{
if(i<50)
sum[i]=0.0;
else
sum[i]=1.0;
}

The first 50 elements of the array sum are initialized to 0 while the remaining 50 are
initialized
to 1.0 at run time.
We can also use a read function such as scanf to initialize an array. For example, the
statements
int x[3];
scanf(“%d%d%d”,&x[0],&x[1],&x[2]);
will initialize array elements with the values entered through the key board.

EXAMPLE PROGRAMS : 10

1. write a program to evaluate the following expression ∑x 2

i
I=1

program :
void main()
{
int i;
float x[10],total;
printf(“enter the 10 real numbers”);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
scanf(“%f”, &x[i]);

63
 total=0.0;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
total=total+x[i]*x[i];
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
printf(“x[%d]=%f\n”,i,x[i]);
printf(“\n sum of the squares =%f”,total);
}

TWO- DIMENSIONAL ARRAYS:

1D array variables stores a list of values only but there could be a situations where a table
of values have to be stored which need 2D arrays. For examples
 Periodic table
 Sales information of a company
 Data in spread sheets etc.

The two dimensional (2D) array in C programming is also known as matrix. A

matrix can be represented as a table of rows and columns. A particular value in a matrix
can be accessed by using two subscripts such as Vij . here V denotes the entire matrix
and Vij refers to the value in the ith row and jth column. An array of arrays is known as
2D array.

Syntax:

type array-name[row_size][column_size];

2D arrays are stored in memory as shown below :

[0][0] [0][1] [0][2]

→
Row 0 ---- 310 275 365

[1][0] [1][1] [1][2]

→ 10 190 325
Row 1 ----

64
INITIALIZING 2D ARRAYS:
Like the 1D arrays, 2D arrays can be initialized by following their declaration with a list
of initial values enclosed in braces. For example

int table[2][3]={0,0,0,1,1,1};

Initializes the elements of the first row to zero and the second row to one. The initialization is done
row by row. The above statement is equivalently written as int table[2][3]={{0,0,0},{1,1,1}};

by surrounding the elements of each row by braces.

We can also initialize a two-dimensional array in the form of a matrix as shown below: int
table[2][3]={
{0,0,0},
{1,1,1}
};
When the array is completely initialized with all values, explicitly, we need not specify the
size of the first dimension. That is, the below statement is permitted.

int table[][3]= ]={

{0,0,0},
{1,1,1}
};
If the values are missing in an initialize, they are automaticaaly set to zero. For
example int table[2][3]={ {1,1},{2}};

Will initialize the first two elements of the first row to one, the first element of the
second row to two, and all other elements to zero.When all the elements are to be
initialized to zero, the following short-cut method may be used.
int m[3][5]={{0},{0},{0}};
the first element of each row is explicitly initialized to zero while other
elements are automatically initialized to zero.

Example program:

#include<stdio.>
void main()
{
int
disp[2][3];
int i, j;
for(i=0; i<2; i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("Enter value fordisp[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d", &disp[i][j]);
}

65
 }
//Displaying array elements
printf("Two Dimensional array elements:\n");
for(i=0; i<2; i++)
{
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
printf("%d ",
disp[i][j]);
if(j==2)
{
printf("\n");
}
}
}

Multidimensional arrays :
C allows arrays of three or more dimensions. The exact limit is determined by the compiler.
Syntax:
type array-name[s1][s2][s3] ------- [sm];

Where si is the size of the ith dimension.

e.g.- int a[3][3][3];

int b[5][4][5][3];
A 3D array is essentially an array of arrays of arrays: it's an array or collection of 2D
arrays,
and a 2D array is an array of 1D array.

Initializing 3d array:
int arr[3][3][3]= { {
{11, 12, 13},
{14, 15, 16},
{17, 18, 19}
},

{
{21, 22, 23},
{24, 25, 26},
{27, 28, 29}
},
{
{31, 32, 33},
{34, 35, 36},
{37, 38, 39}
66
 }
};

67
 Example Programs:

1.Develop a program to Find the Largest Two Numbers in a given Array and also
calculate their average

#include <stdio.h>

#define MAX 4

void main()

int array[MAX], i, largest1, largest2, temp;

printf("Enter %d integer numbers \n", MAX); for (i

= 0; i < MAX; i++)

printf("Input interger are \n");

for (i = 0; i < MAX; i++)

printf("%5d", array[i]);

printf("\n");

/* assume first element of array is the first

larges t*/ largest1 = array[0];

/* assume first element of array is the second largest */

largest2 = array[1];

if (largest1 < largest2)

{
temp = largest1;
largest1 = largest2;
largest2 = temp;
}
for (i = 2; i < 4; i++)

68
 {
if (array[i] >= largest1)
{
largest2 = largest1;
largest1 = array[i];
}

else if (array[i] > largest2)

{
largest2 = array[i];
}
}

printf("n%d is the first largest \n", largest1);

printf("%d is the second largest \n", largest2);
printf("nAverage of %d and %d = %d \n", largest1, largest2,(largest1 + largest2) / 2);
}

Output:
Enter 4 integer numbers 80
23
79
58
Input integer are
80 23 79 58
80 is the first largest 79
is the second largest

Average of 80 and 79 = 79

2.Implement a program to insert an elements of an Array in the required position

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int array[100], position, c, n, value;
printf("Enter number of elements in array\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter %d elements\n", n);
for (c = 0; c < n; c++)

69
 scanf("%d", &array[c]);
printf("Enter the location where you wish to
insert an element\n");
scanf("%d", &position);
printf("Enter the value to insert\n");
scanf("%d", &value);
for (c = n - 1; c >= position - 1; c--)
array[c+1] = array[c];
array[position-1] = value;
printf("Resultant array is\n");
for (c = 0; c <= n; c++)
printf("%3d", array[c]);
return 0;
}

Output:
Enter the value of the n = 4
Enter the numbers 3
40

100
68
Enter the location where you wish to insert an element 2
Enter the value to insert 35
3 35 40 100 80

3. Develop a program to reverse an array

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
int n, c, d, a[100], b[100];
printf("Enter the number of elements in array\n");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Enter the array elements\n");
for (c = 0; c < n ; c++)
scanf("%d", &a[c]);
for (c = n - 1, d = 0; c >= 0; c--, d++)
b[d] = a[c];
for (c = 0; c < n; c++)

70
 a[c] = b[c];
printf("Reverse array is\n");
for (c = 0; c < n; c++)
printf("%d\n", a[c]);
}

4. Program to add two matrices

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5][5],b[5][5],c[5][5],r1,r2,c1,c2,i,j;
clrscr();
printf("\n enter r1,c1,r2,c2");
scanf("%d %d %d %d",&r1,&c1,&r2,&c2);
if(r1==r2&&c1==c2)
{
printf("\n matrix addition possible");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
printf("\n enter a[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<r2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
printf("\n enter b[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
c[i][j]=a[i][j]+b[i][j];
}
}
printf("\n sum of matrix c:"); for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
printf("\n");
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);

71
}
}
}
else
{
printf("\n matrix multiplication is not possible");
}
getch();
}

5. Program to multiply two matrices

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int a[5][5],b[5][5],c[5][5],r1,r2,c1,c2,i,j,k;
clrscr();
printf("\n enter r1,c1,r2,c2");
scanf("%d %d %d %d",&r1,&c1,&r2,&c2);
if(r1==r2&&c1==c2)
{
printf("\n matrix mutliplication possible");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c1;j++)
{
printf("\n enter a[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<r2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
printf("\n enter b[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d",&b[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
c[i][j]=0;
for(k=0;k<c1;k++)
{
c[i][j]=c[i][j]+a[i][k]*b[k][j];
}
}

72
}
printf("\n product of matrix c:");
for(i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
printf("\n");
for(j=0;j<c2;j++)
{
printf("\t%d",c[i][j]);
}
}
}
else
{
printf("\n matrix multiplication is not possible");
}
getch();
}

6. Program to display the transpose of a matrix

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int row,col,a[5][5],i,j,b[5][5];
clrscr();
printf("\n enter order of matrix r,c:"); scanf("%d
%d",&row,&col); for(i=0;i<row;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col;j++)
{
printf("\n enter a[%d][%d]:",i,j);
scanf("%d",&a[i][j]);
}
}
for(i=0;i<row;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<col;j++)
{
b[j][i]=a[i][j];
}
}
printf("\n transpose matrix b");
for(i=0;i<col;i++)
{
printf("\n");
for(j=0;j<row;j++)
{
printf("\t %d",b[i][j]);

73
 }
}
getch();
}

SEARCHING:

Searching is a technique of finding an element from the given data list or set of the
elements like an array, list, or trees. It is a technique to find out an element in a sorted or
unsorted list. For example, consider an array of 10 elements. These data elements are stored in
successive memory locations. We need to search an element from the array. In the searching
operation, assume a particular element n is to be searched. The element n is compared with all
the elements in a list starting from the first element of an array till the last element. In other
words, the process of searching is continued till the element is found or list is completely
exhausted. When the exact match is found then the search process is terminated. In case, no
such element exists in the array, the process of searching should be abandoned.

LINEAR SEARCH:
Linear search technique is also known as sequential search technique. The linear search
is a method of searching an element in a list in sequence. In this method, the array is searched
for the required element from the beginning of the list/array or from the last element to first
element of array and continues until the item is found or the entire list/array has been searched.

Algorithm:
Step 1: set-up a flag to indicate “element not found”
Step 2: Take the first element in the list
Step 3: If the element in the list is equal to the desired element
 Set flag to “element found”
 Display the message “element found in the list”
 Go to step 6
Step 4: If it is not the end of list,
 Take the next element in the list
 Go to step 3
Step 5: If the flag is “element not found”
Display the message “element not found”
Step 6: End of the Algorithm

Advantages:
1. It is simple and conventional method of searching data. The linear or sequential name
implies that the items are stored in a systematic manner.
2. The elements in the list can be in any order. i.e. The linear search can be applied on
sorted or unsorted linear data structure.
Disadvantage:
1. This method is insufficient when large number of elements is present in list.
2. It consumes more time and reduces the retrieval rate of the system.
74
 Time complexity:

O(n)

BINARY SEARCH:

Binary search is quicker than the linear search. However, it cannot be applied on
unsorted data structure. The binary search is based on the approach divide-and-conquer.The
binary search starts by testing the data in the middle element of the array. This determines
target is whether in the first half or second half. If target is in first half, we do not need to check
the second half and if it is in second half no need to check in first half. Similarly we repeat this
process until we find target in the list or not found from the list. Here we need 3 variables to
identify first, last and middle elements.
To implement binary search method, the elements must be in sorted order. Search is
performed as follows:
 The key is compared with item in the middle position of an array
 If the key matches with item, return it and stop
 If the key is less than mid positioned item, then the item to be found must be in first
half of array, otherwise it must be in second half of array.
 Repeat the procedure for lower (or upper half) of array until the element is found.
Recursive Algorithm:
Binary_Search(a,key,lb,ub) begin
Step 1: [initialization]
lb=0
ub=n-1;
Step 2: [search for the item]
Repeat through step 4 while lower bound(lb) is less than upper bound.
Step 3: [obtain the index of middle value]
mid = (lb+ub)/2
Step 4: [compare to search for item]
if(key < a[mid]) then
ub=mid-1
otherwise if( key > a[mid]) then
lb=mid+1;
otherwise if(key==a[mid]) Write “match found”
return (mid)
returnBinary_Search(a,key,lb,ub)
Step 5: [unsuccessful search]
Write “match not found”
Step 6: [end of algorithm]

/* C program that searches a value in a stored array using linear search.*/

75
#include<stdio.h>
int linear(int [ ],int,int);
void main( )
{
int a[20], pos = -1, n, k, i;
clrscr( );
printf("\nEnter the n value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter elements for an array:");
for(i=0; i<n ;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\nEnter the element to be searched:");
scanf("%d",&k);
pos=linear(a,n,k);
if(pos != -1)
printf("\n Search successful element found at position %d",pos);
else
printf("\n Search unsuccessful, element not found");
getch( );
}

int linear(int a[ ],intn,int k)

{
int i;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(a[i]==k)
return(i);
}
return -1;
}
Output:-
Enter the n value : 5
Enter elements for an array : 11 2 23 14 55
Enter the element to be searched: 14
Search successful element found at position : 3

/* C program for recursive binary search to find the given element within array. */

#include<stdio.h>
intbsearch(int [ ],int, int, int);
void main( )
{

76
 int a[20],pos,n,k,i,lb,ub;
clrscr( );
printf("\nEnter the n value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter elements for an array:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\nEnter the key value:");
scanf("%d",&k);
lb=0;
ub=n-1;
pos=bsearch(a,k,lb,ub);
if(pos!=-1)
printf("Search successful, element found at position %d",pos);
else
printf("Search unsuccessful, element not found");
getch( );
}

int bsearch(int a[ ], int k, intlb, intub)

{
int mid;
while(ub>=lb)
{
mid=(lb+ub)/2;
if(k<a[mid])
ub=mid-1;
else if(k>a[mid])
lb=mid+1;
else if(k==a[mid])
return(mid);
return(bsearch(a,k,lb,ub));
}
return -1;
}
OUTPUT:
Enter ‘n’ value : 6
Enter elements for an array : 10 32 25 84 55 78
Enter the element to be searched : 78
Search successful, Element found at Position : 5

/* recursive program for Linear Search*/

#include<stdio.h>

77
int linear(int [ ],int,int ,int);
void main( )
{
int a[20],pos=-1,n,k,i;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter n value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter elements for an array:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\n Enter the element to be searched:");
scanf("%d",&k);
pos=linear(a,n,k);
if(pos!=-1)
printf("\n Search successful, Element found at Position %d",pos);
else
printf("Search unsuccessful, element not found ");
}

78
 int linear(int a[ ],int n,int low, int k)
{
if(low>= n)
return -1;
else if(k==a[low]
return low;
else
return linear(a,n,low+1,k);
}
}
return -1;
}
Output:-
Enter ‘n’ value : 6
Enter elements for an array : 10 32 22 84 55 78
Enter the element to be searched : 55
Search successful, Element found at Position : 4

/*C program that searches a value in a stored array using non recursive binary search.*/

#include<stdio.h>

int bsearch(int [],int,int);

void main( )
{
int a[20],pos,n,k,i;
clrscr();
printf("\nEnter the n value:");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("\nEnter elements for an array:");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
scanf("%d",&a[i]);
printf("\nEnter the key value:");
scanf("%d",&k);
pos=bsearch(a,n,k);
if(pos!= -1)
printf("Search successful, element found at position %d",pos);
else
printf("Search unsuccessful, element not found");
getch( );
}
int bsearch(int a[ ],int n, int k)
{
79
 intlb=0,ub,mid;
lb=0;
ub=n-1;
while(ub>=lb)
{
mid=(lb+ub)/2;
if(k<a[mid])
ub=mid-1;
else if(k>a[mid])
lb=mid+1;
else if(k==a[mid])
return(mid);
}
return -1;
}

OUTPUT
Enter ‘n’ value : 67
Enter elements for an array : 35 10 32 25 84 55 78
Enter the element to be searched : 25
Search successful, Element found at Position : 3

80
 UNIT-III
Strings: Introduction to strings, operations on characters, basic string functions available in C (strlen, strcat,
strcpy, strrev, strcmp), string operations without string handling functions, arrays of strings.
Functions: Designing structured programs, declaring a function, Signature of a function, Parameters and
return type of a function, call by value, call by reference, passing arrays to functions, recursion, merits and
demerits of recursive functions.

STRINGS
INTRODUCTION:

A string is a sequence of characters that is treated as a single data item.

Any group of characters defined between double quotation marks is a string constant. Example :
“ hello world”.
The common operations performed on character strings include:
 Reading and writing strings
 Combining strings together
 Copying one strings to another
 Comparing strings for equality
 Extracting a portion of a string

DECLARING AND INITIALIZING STRING VARIABLES:

C does not support strings as a data type. However, it allows us to represent strings
as character arrays.The general form of declaration of a string variable is:
char string_name[size];
the size determines the number of characters in the string_name. for
example char city[10];
char name[30];
when the compiler assigns a character string to a character array, it automatically supplies
a null character(‘\0’) at the end of the string. Therefore, the size should be equal to the
maximum number of characters in the string plus one.
Like numeric arrays, character arrays may be initialized when they are declared. C
permits a character array to be initialized in either of the following two forms:
char city[9]=”NEW YORK”;
char city[9]={‘N’,’E’,’W’,’ ‘,’Y’,’O’,’R’,’K’,’\0’};
C also permits us to initialize a character array without specifying the number of elements. In
such cases, the size of the array will be determined automatically, based on the number of
elements initialized. For example

char string[]={‘G’,’O’,’O’,’D’,’\0’}; defines

the array string as a five element array.

We can also declare the size much larger than the string in the initialize. That
is, the statement.
char str[10]=”GOOD”;

is permitted. In this case,the computer creates a character array of size 10, places the
value “GOOD” in it, terminates with the null character, and initializes all other elements
to NULL.

81
 The storage will look like:
G O O D \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0

However, the following declaration is illegal

char str2[3]=”GOOD”;This will result in a compile time error.

Note: we cannot separate the initialization from declaration.

That is, char str[5];
Str=”GOOD”

is not allowed.

READING STRINGS FROM TERMINAL:

➢
Using scanf function:
using %s, it automatically terminates the string with ‘\0’ character, so the arrray size should
be large enough to hold the input plus null character.

e.g.- char name[10];

scanf(%s”,name);

Note: in the case of character arrays, the ampersand(&) is not required before the variable name.

Disadvantage : scanf terminates its input on the first white space it finds. e.g.-

if enters new york then only new will be read in array name.

We can also specify the field width using the form %ws in scanf for reading a specified
number of characters from the input string.

E.g.- scanf(“%ws”,name);

▪ If w is equal or greater than the number of charcters typed, then entire string
will be stored in the variable
▪ If w is less , then excess characters will be truncated and left unread. E.g.-
scanf(“%6s”,name)

griet---reads entire string

gokaraju---reads only gokara

Reading a Line of Text:

%s and %ws can read only strings without whitespaces. That is, they cannot be used for reading
a text containing more than one word. However, C supports a format specification known as the
edit set conversion code%[..] that can be used to read a line containing a variety of characters,
including whitespaces. For example

char line[80];
82
 scanf(“%[^\n]”,line);
printf(“%s”,line);
will read a line of input from the keyboard and display the same on the screen.

Using getchar and gets function:

Function getchar is used to read single character from the terminal. This function
repeatedly can be used to read successive single characters from the input and place them
into a character array. Thus, an entire line of text can be read , the reading is terminated
when the newline character (‘\n’) is entered and the null character is then inserted at the end
of the string.

Syntax:char ch;
ch=getchar();

Example program:

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char line[50],ch;
int i=0;
printf(“\n press enter at the end of input”); do
{
ch=getchar();
line[i]=ch; i++;
}while(ch!=’\n’);
i=i-1; line[i]=’\0’;
printf(“%s”,line);
}
another more convienent method of reading a string of text containing whitespaces is to use
the library function gets available in the <stdio.h> header file. syntax:gets(str);
str is a string variable, gets function reads a characters into str from the keyboard until a new- line

83
character is encountered and then appends a null character to the string. unlike scanf, it does not
skip whitespaces.
for example:char line[80];
gets(line);
printf(“%s”,line);
the last two statements can be combined as
follows printf(“%s”,gets(line));

WRITING STRINGS TO SCREEN

➢
Using printf function

The format %s can be used to display an array of characters that is terminated ny the
null character using printf function.
printf(%s”,line);
We can also specify the precision with which the array is displayed. for
instance, the specification
%10.4

indicates that the first four characters are to be printed in a field width of 10 columns. left-
justified.

Features of %s specifications:

1. when the field width is less than the length of the string, the entire string is printed.
2. the integer value on the right side of the decimal point specifies the number of
characters to be printed.
3. when the number of characters to be printed is specified as zero, nothing is printed.
4. the minus sign in the specification causes the string to be printed left-justified.
5. the specification %.ns prints the first n characters of the string.

Example program:

write a program to store the string and display the string under various format specifications. void
main()
{
char str[14]=”good morning”;
printf(“%14s”,str);
printf(“%4s”,str);
printf(“%14.4s”,str);
printf(“%-14.4s”,str);
printf(“%14.0s”,str);
printf(“%.3s”,str);
printf(“%s”,str);
}
Output:
good morning

84
 good
good

goo
good morning

Using putchar and puts functions:

putchar function is used to output the values of character

variables.

syntax:
char

ch='a';

putchar(

ch);

The function putchar requires one parameter. This statement is

equivalent to: printf(“%c”,ch);

we can use this function repeatedly to output a string of characters stored in an

array using a loop.

Example:

char str[13]=”good morning”;

for(i=0;i<12;i++)

putchar(name[i]);

Another and more convenient way of printing string values is to use the
function puts declared in the header file <stdio.h>.

syntax:
puts(str);

where str is a string variable containing a string value, this prints the value of the
string variable str and then moves the cursor to the beginning of the next line on the
screen.

85
ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON CHARACTERS:

C allows us to manipulate characters the same way we do with numbers.

Whenever a character constant or character variable is used in an expression, it
is automatically converted into an integer value by the system. For e.g.- x=‘a’;

printf(“%d”,x);
will display the number 97 on the screen.
x=‘a’-1;
printf(“%d”,x)---will print 96, a=97

character constants can also be used in relational expressions. E.g.- ch>=‘A’ &&
ch<=‘Z’ test whether the character in the variable ch is an upper-cas letter.

We can convert a character digit to its equivalent integer value using x=

character-’0’ E.g.- int x ;

x= ‘7’-’0’;

printf(“%d”,x)

prints x=7 // ASCII value of 7 = 55

ASCII value of 0=48

The C library supports a function atoi (string) that converts a string of digits into their integer

values.

e.g.- number =“1988”;

year=atoi(number)

The function converts the string constant “1988”, to its numeric equivalent 1988.

Present in header file <stdlib.h>.C does not provide operators that work on strings
directly like :

str1=“ABC”;

str2=str1; is invalid

STRING HANDLING FUNCTIONS

The C library supports a large number of string-handling functions that can be used
to carry out many of the string manipulations. following are the most commonly used
string-handling functions.
Function Action

Strcat() Concatenates two strings

Strcmp() Compares two strings

Strcpy() Copies one string over another

86
 Strlen() Finds the length of a string

Strrev() Reverse a string

strcat() Function:

the strcat function joins two strings together. it takes the following form:
strcat(string1, string2);
string1 and string2 are character arrays. when the function strcat is executed, string2 is
appended to string1. it does by removing the null character at the end of string1 and
placing string2 from there. the string at the string2 remains unchanged. For example
consider the following three strings:

str1 V E R Y \0

str2 G O \0

strcat(str1,str2) will result in:

V E R Y G O \0

We must make sure that the size of str1 to which str2 is appended is large
enough to accommodate the final string.

strcat function may also append a string constant to a string variable. the following is valid:
strcat(str1,”good”);
C permits nesting of strcat functions. for
example, the statement
strcat(strcat(str1,str2),str3);

is allowed and concatenates all the three strings together. the resultant string is stored in str1.

strcmp() Function:

the strcmp function compares two strings identified by the arguments and has a value
0 if they are equal. if they are not, it has the numeric difference between the first
nonmatching characters in the strings. it takes the form:

strcmp(str1,str2);

str1 and str2 may be string variables or string constants. examples are:
strcmp(str1,str2);
strcmp(str1, “john”);

87
 strcmp(“rom”, “ram”);

strcpy() Function:

The strcpy() function works almost like a string-assignment operator. it takes a form:
strcpy(str1,str2);
and assigns the contents of str2 to str1. str2 may be a character array variable or a
string constant.

for example:
strcpy(city, “DELHI”);

will assign the string “DELHI” to the string variable city. similarly,the statement
strcpy(city1,city2) will assign the contents of the string variable city2 to the string variable
city1. the size of the array city1 should be large enough to store the contents of city2.

strlen() Function:

This function counts and returns the number of characters in a string. it takes the
form n=strlen(string)

where n is an integer variable, which receives the value of the length of the string.

Example :
write a program that reads 2 strings s1,s2, and check whether they are equal or not, if they
are not , join them together. then copy the contents of s1 to the variable s3. at the end , the
program should print the contents of all the 3 variables and their lengths.

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char s1[20],s2[20],s3[20];
int x,l1,l2,l3;
printf("\n enter two strings constants");
scanf("%s%s",s1,s2);
x=strcmp(s1,s2);
if(x!=0)
{
printf("\n strings are not equal");
strcat(s1,s2);
}
else
printf("\n strings are equal"); strcpy(s3,s1);
l1=strlen(s1);

l2=strlen(s2);
l3=strlen(s3);
printf("\n s1=%s length=%d characters",s1,l1);
printf("\n s2=%s length=%d characters",s2,l2);
printf("\n s3=%s length=%d characters",s3,l3);
}
88
 output:
enter two strings constants
welcome students
strings are not equal
s1=welcome length=15 characters
s2=students length=8 characters
s3=welcomestudents length=15 characters

strrev() function:
strrev( ) function reverses a given string in C language. Syntax for strrev( ) function is given below.
char *strrev(char *string);
example: string “Hello” is reversed using strrev( ) function and output is displayed as “olleH”.

Program:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main()
{
char s[100];
printf("Enter a string to reverse:\n");
gets(s);
strrev(s);
printf("Reverse of the string: %s\n", s);
}

output:
Enter a string to reverse: rajesh
Reverse of the string: hsejar

Strings with out string handling function:

string length:
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str[30];
int i,len=0;
clrscr();
printf("\n enter the string");
gets(str);
for(i=0;str[i]!='\0';i++)
len++;
printf("\n the total no.of characters in the given string is:%d",len-1);
getch();
}
//String concatenation with out string handling function

#include <stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[50], str2[50], i, j;
printf("\nEnter first string: ");
scanf("%s",str1);
89
 printf("\nEnter second string: ");
scanf("%s",str2);
/* This loop is to store the length of str1 in i
* It just counts the number of characters in str1
* You can also use strlen instead of this.
*/
for(i=0; str1[i]!='\0'; ++i);

/* This loop would concatenate the string str2 at

* the end of str1
*/
for(j=0; str2[j]!='\0'; ++j, ++i)
{
str1[i]=str2[j];
}
// \0 represents end of string
str1[i]='\0';
printf("\nOutput: %s",str1);
}

// string copy with out string handling function

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[30],str2[30];
int i;
printf("enter the string 1:");
gets(str1);
for(i=0;str1[i]!='\0';i++)
str2[i]=str1[i];
str2[i]='\0';
printf("the string after copy is :");
puts(str2);
getch();
}

// string reverse with out string handling function

#include<stdio.h> void main()
{
char str1[20],str2[20];
int i,len=1,j=0;
printf("\n enter the string");
scanf("%s",str1);
for(i=0;str1[i]!='\0';i++)
{
len++;
}
printf("the length of the string is:%d",len);
for(i=len-1;i>=0;i--,j++)
str2[j]=str1[i];
str2[j]='\0';
printf("the reverse of a given string is %s",str2); getch();
}

90
String comparison with out string handling function
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
char str1[30],str2[30];
int i,j,flag=0;
printf("enter the strings to be compared:");
scanf("%s %s",str1,str2);
for (i=0,j=0;str1[i]!='\0'||str2[i]!='\0';i++,j++)
{
if(str1[i]!=str2[j])
{
flag=1; break;
}
}
if(flag==0)
printf("the two strings are equal");
else
printf("the two strings are not equal");
getch();
}

Array of Strings:
We often use list of character strings, such as a list of the names of students in a class,
list of the names of employees in an organization etc. A list of names can be treated as a table
of strings and a two-dimensional character array can be used to store the entire list.

for example, a character array city[5][15] may be used to store a list of 30 city names, each of
length not more than 15 characters. e.g.-
C H A N D I G A R h \0

M A D R A S \0

A H M E D A B A D \0

H Y D E R A B A D \0

B O M B A Y \0

This table can be conveniently stored in a character array city by using the following
declaration:

char city[ ][ ]=

{ “CHANDIGARH”, “MADRAS”, “AHMEDABAD”, “HYDERABAD”, “BOMBAY”};

Example Programs:
C Program to Display the Characters in Prime Position a given String
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>
void main()
{
91
int i, j, k, count = 0;
char str[50];
printf("enter string\n");
scanf("%[^\n]s", str);
k = strlen(str);
printf("prime characters in a string are\n");
for (i = 2;i <= k;i++)
{
count = 0;
for (j = 2;j <= k;j++)
{
if (i % j == 0)
{
count++;
}
}

if (count == 1)
{
printf("%c\n", str[i - 1]);
}
}
}

Functions:

Why Use Functions? (Need for Functions)

The ability to divide a program into abstract, reusable pieces is what makes it possible to write
large programs that actually work right.

The following reasons make functions extremely useful and practically essential:

Enhances redability
Easy to understand.
Allows Code reusability
Structured organization.
Achieves Modular programming
Easy identification of bugs
Data abstraction
Reduction of code repetition so reduces lines of code.
Best suited for large programs or complex programs.
It is used to check logical conditions involving multiple objects and just returns the result.

Designing structured programs:

Structured programming is a programming technique in which a larger program is

divided into smaller subprograms to make it easy to understand, easy to implement and makes the
92
code reusable etc,. The structured programming enables code reusability.

Code reusability is a method of writing code once and using it many times. Structured
programming also makes the program easy to understand, improves the quality of the program, easy
to implement and reduces time.

In C, the structured programming can be designed using functions concept.

93
 Definition:

A function is a group of statements that together

perform a task. Every C program has at least one
function, which is main(), and all the most trivial
programs can define additional functions.

Main Function in C:

In C, the "main" function is treated the same as every function, it has a return type (and in some
cases accepts inputs via parameters called command line arguments).

In C, program execution starts from the main () function. The only difference is that the main
function is "called" by the operating system when the user runs the program.

The main function can in-turn may call other functions. When main calls a function, it passes the
execution control to that function. The function returns control to main when a return statement is
executed or when end of function is reached.

Types of Functions:

Depending on whether a function is defined by the user or already included in C

compilers, there are two types of functions in C programming.

Standard library functions

User defined functions

Standard library functions:

The standard library functions are built-in functions in C programming .

They handle tasks such as mathematical computations, I/O processing, string handling etc.
These functions are defined in the header file.
When we include the header file, eg: #include<string.h> these functions are available for
use.
For example: The “printf()” is a standard library function to send formatted output to the
screen (display output on the screen). This function is defined
in “stdio.h” header file.
Implementation details are not known to the user.
In order to use these functions programmers should only know the
 name of the function
 header file in which it is available.
 Inputs and their type and order.
 Return type of the function.

94
User Defined Functions in C:

A user can create their own functions for performing any specific task of program are called
user defined functions. To create and use these function we have to know these 3 elements.

A. Function Declaration

B. Function Definition

C. Function Call

1. Function declaration

The program or a function that calls a function is referred to as the calling program or calling
function. The calling program should declare any function that is to be used later in the program
this is known as the function declaration or function prototype.

2. Function Definition

The function definition consists of the whole description and code of a function. It tells that
what the function is doing and what are the input outputs for that. A function is called by simply
writing the name of the function followed by the argument list inside the

95
 parenthesis. Function definitions have two parts:

Function Header

The first line of code is called function

Header. int sum( int x, int y)

It has three parts

(i) The name of the function i.e. sum

(ii) The parameters of the function enclosed in parenthesis

(iii) Return value type i.e. int

Function Body

Whatever is written with in { } is the body of the function.

3. Function Call

In order to use the function we need to invoke it at a required place in the program.
This is known as the function call.

Signature of a function:

A function’s signature includes the function's name and the number, order and type of its formal
parameters.

Syntax: return-type function-name (parameters)

{
declarations
Statements
return value
}

Different Sub parts of Above Syntax :

return-type

1. Return Type is Type of value returned by function

2. Return Type may be “Void” if function is not going to return a value.

function-name

1. It is Unique Name that identifies function.

2. All Variable naming conversions are applicable for declaring valid function name.

parameters

Comma-separated list of types and names of parameters

Parameter injects external values into function on which function is going to operate.

96
 Parameter field is optional.
If no parameter is passed then no need to write this field value

1. It is value returned by function upon termination.

2. Function will not return a value if return-type is void.

It contain Executable Code (Executable statements )

First Line is called as Function Header .
Function Header should be identical to function Prototype with the exception of semicolon

Example:

Terminology associated with functions:

Parameter:The term parameter refers to any declaration within the parentheses following the
function name in a function declaration or definition.

Example:void sum (int a, int b); // a,b are parameters.

Argument:The term argument refers to any expression within the parentheses of a function call.

Example: sum(num1, num2); //Call Function Sum With Two Parameters

Calling function: The function which is making a call to any function is called calling function

Example: Calling function main()

Called function: The function which is being executed due to function call is known as called
function.

Example: // sum is a called function by main function int

sum(num1, num2)
{
return(num1+num2);
}

97
Parameter Passing Techniques in C:
In C functions exchange information by means of parameters and arguments (which are inputs
given to a function).
There are two ways to pass arguments/parameters to function calls -- call by value and call by
reference.

Call by value:
In call by value a copy of actual arguments is passed to respective formal arguments.
#include <stdio.h>
void swap(int, int);
int main ()
{
int x, y;
printf("Enter the value of x and y\n");
scanf("%d%d",&x,&y);
printf("Before Swapping\nx = %d\ny = %d\n", x, y);
swap(x, y);
printf("After Swapping\nx = %d\ny = %d\n", x, y);
return 0;
}
void swap(int a, int b)
{
int temp;
temp = a;
a = b;
b = temp;
printf("Values of a and b is %d %d\n",a,b);
}
Output:

Enter the value of x and y 2

3
Before Swapping
x=2
y=3
Values of a and b is 3 2
After Swapping
x=2
y=3

Call by reference:
In call by reference the location (address) of actual arguments is passed to formal arguments, hence
any change made to formal arguments will also reflect in actual arguments.
#include <stdio.h> void
swap(int*, int*); int
main()
{
int x, y;
printf("Enter the value of x and y\n");

98
 scanf("%d%d",&x,&y);
printf("Before Swapping\nx = %d\ny = %d\n", x, y);
swap(&x, &y);
printf("After Swapping\nx = %d\ny = %d\n", x, y); return 0;
}

void swap(int *a, int *b)

{
int temp;
temp = *a;
*a = *b;
*b = temp;
}
Output:
Enter the value of x and y 2
3
Before Swapping
x=2
y=3
Values of a and b is 3 2
After Swapping
x=3
y=2

Call by Value vs Call by Reference:

S NO CALL BY VALUE CALL BY REFERENCE

1 It is also known as pass by value It is also known as pass by reference.

2 Values are passed as inputs. Addresses are passed as inputs.

1 The actual arguments are variables, The actual arguments are addresses of
constants or expressions. variables.

4 The formal arguments are also variables. The formal arguments are pointers.

5 Changes made in the called function are Changes made in the called function are
not reflected back in the calling reflected back in the calling function.
function.

6 The calling and the called function The calling and the called function
maintains separate copies of data. maintains or shares a common location.

7 A copy of contents is maintained by The called function shares common data.

calling function

99
 8 Example of function proto type: Example of function proto type:

void Swap(int a, int b); void Swap(int *p, int *q);

9 Example of function call: Example of function call:

Swap(a,b); Swap(&a,&b);

Parameters vs Arguments in C:
The term parameter (sometimes called formal parameter) is often used to refer to the
variable as found in the function definition, while argument (sometimes called
actual parameter) refers to the actual input supplied at function call.

Actual parameters vs Formal parameters:

S Actual parameters Formal parameters

NO

1 These are the variable found in the These are the variable found in the
function call. function definition or declaration.

2 They can be variables, constants or They can only be variables

expressions or another function calls.

3 Example: Example:

func1(12, 23); // constants Void func1(int x, int y); //always variables

unc1(a, b); // variables

func1(a + b, b + a); // expression

4 They are the original source of information They get the values after function call occurs.

5 They are supplied by the caller or They are initialized with the values of actual
programmer. arguments.

Note:

1. Order, number, and type of the actual arguments in the function call must match with formal
arguments of the function (except for functions with variable list of arguments).
2. If there is type mismatch between actual and formal arguments then the compiler will try to convert
the type of actual arguments to formal arguments if it is legal, otherwise a garbage value will be
passed to the formal argument.

100
 3. When actual arguments are less than formal arguments, the garbage value is supplied to the formal
arguments.
4. Changes made in the formal argument do not affect the actual arguments.

Passing arrays to functions (Arrays with functions)

To process arrays in a large program, we need to pass them to functions. We can pass arrays in two
ways:

1. passing individual elements

2. passing the whole array.

Passing Individual Elements:

One-dimensional Arrays:
We can pass individual elements by either passing their data values or by passing their
addresses. We pass data values i.e; individual array elements just like we pass any data value
.As long as the array element type matches the function parameter type, it can be passed. The called
function cannot tell whether the value it receives comes from an array, a variable or an expression.

Program using call by value

void func1( int );

void main()
{
int a[5]={ 1,2,3,4,5};
func1(a[3]);
}
void func1( int x)
{
printf(“%d”,x+100);
}
Two-dimensional Arrays:
The individual elements of a 2-D array can be passed in the same way as the 1-D array. We can
pass 2-D array elements either by value or by address.

Ex: Program using call by value

void fun1(int );
void main()
{
int a[2][2]={1,2,3,4};
fun1(a[0][1]);
}
void fun1(int x)
{
printf(“%d”,x+10);
}

101
 2. Passing whole array (idea of call by reference)

As array name is a constant pointer pointing to first element of array(storing the base
address),Passing array name to a function itself indicates, that we are passing address of first
element of array .

One-dimensional array(passing array name as base address to a function)

To pass the whole array we simply use the array name as the actual parameter. In the called
function, we declare that the corresponding formal parameter is an array. We do not need to specify the
number of elements.

Program:

void fun1(int x[],int);

void main()
{
int a[5]={ 1,2,3,4,5};
fun1(a,5);
}
void fun1( int x[],int n)
{
int i, sum=0;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
sum=sum+x[i];
printf(“\nSum of the elements in an array is : %d ”,sum);
}

Two-dimensional array:
When we pass a 2-D array to a function, we use the array name as the actual parameter.
The formal parameter in the called function header, however must indicate that the array has two
dimensions.

Rules:
1. The function must be called by passing only the array name.
2. In the function definition, the formal parameter is a 2-D array with the size of the second
dimension specified.
Program:
void fun1(int a[][2]);
void main()
{
int a[2][2]={1,2,3,4};

102
 fun1(a);
}
void fun1(int x[][2])
{
int i,j;
for(i=0;i<2;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<2;j++)
printf(“%3d”,x[i][j]);
printf(“\n”);
}
}

Recursion :

Recursion is the process of repeating items in a self-similar way. In programming languages,

if a program allows you to call a function inside the same function, then it is called a
recursive call of the function.

The C programming language supports recursion, i.e., a function to call itself. But while
using recursion, programmers need to be careful to define an exit condition from the
function, otherwise it will go into an infinite loop.

Recursive functions are very useful to solve many mathematical problems, such as
calculating the factorial of a number, generating Fibonacci series, etc.

The recursion continues until some condition is met to prevent it.

To prevent infinite recursion, if...else statement (or similar approach) can be used where one branch
makes the recursive call and other doesn't.

When a function calls itself, a new set of local variables and parameters are allocated storage

103
 on the stack, and the function code is executed from the top with these new variables. A recursive
call does not make a new copy of the function. Only the values being operated upon are new. As each
recursive call returns, the old local variables and parameters are removed from the stack, and
execution resumes immediately after the recursive call inside the function.

The main advantage of recursive functions is that we can use them to create clearer and simpler
versions of several programs.

Example1: Factorial of a Number Using Recursion

The factorial of a positive number n is given by:

factorial of n (n!) = 1*2*3*4. .......n

The factorial of a negative number doesn't exist. And the factorial of 0 is 1.

#include <stdio.h>
long int multiplyNumbers(int n);
int main()
{
int n;
printf("Enter a positive integer: ");
scanf("%d", &n);
printf("Factorial of %d = %ld", n, multiplyNumbers(n)); return 0;
}
long int multiplyNumbers(int n)
{
if (n >= 1)
return n*multiplyNumbers(n-1);
else
return 1;
}

Output
Enter a positive integer: 6
Factorial of 6 = 720

Example 2:C program to generate Fibonacci series using recursive functions.

#include<stdio.h>
void fibo_rec(int n, int f1, int f2); void
main()
{
int f1=0, f2=1,n;
printf("Enter any number to print the fibonacci series: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
if(n<=0)
printf("Enter a valid number\n");
else if(n==1)
printf("fibonacci series is: %d",f1);
else if(n==2)

104
printf("fibonacci series is: %d %d",f1,f2);
else {
printf("fibonacci series is: %d %d ",f1,f2);
fibo_rec(n-2,f1,f2);
printf("\n\n");
}
}
void fibo_rec(int n, int f1, int f2)
{
int f3;
if(n==0)
return;
f3=f1+f2;
printf("%3d ",f3);
fibo_rec(n-1,f2,f3);
}

Difference between Recursion and Non recursion( Iteration)

Both recursion and iteration are used for executing some instructions repeatedly until some
condition is true. A same problem can be solved with recursion as well as iteration but still there are
several differences in their working and performance that I have mentioned below.

Recursion Iteration
definition Recursion refers to a situation where Iteration refers to a situation where
a function calls itself again and again some statements are executed again
until some base and again using loops until some
condition is reached condition is true
Performance It is comparatively slower because Its execution is faster because it doesn’t
before each function call the current use stack.
state of function is stored in stack.
After the return statement the
previous function state is again
restored from stack.
memory Memory usage is more as stack is Memory usage is less as it doesn’t use
used to store the current function stack.
state.
Size of code is comparatively Iteration makes the code size bigger.
Code Size smaller in

recursion.

Limitations of recursion:
Slower than its iterative solution.
For each step we make a recursive call to a function. ...

105
May cause stack-overflow if the recursion goes too deep to solve the problem.
Difficult to debug and trace the values with each step of recursion.

106
 UNIT-IV
Pointers: Idea of pointers, Defining pointers, pointer to pointer, void pointer, Null pointer ,Pointers to Arrays and
Structures, function pointer.
Structures and unions: Defining structures, initializing structures, Array of structures, arrays within structures,
nested structures, unions, typedef.

POINTERS:
A Pointer is a constant or variable that contains an address that can be used to access data.
Examples:
int *ptr;

In c programming every variable keeps two types of value Value of variable. Address of variable where it has
stored in the memory. Meaning of following simple pointer declaration and definition:
int a=5;
int* ptr; ptr=&a;

Explanation:
About variable ―a
Name of variable: a
Value of variable which it keeps: 5
Address where it has stored in memory: 1025 (assume)
About variable ―ptr :
Name of variable: ptr
Value of variable which it keeps: 1025 6.Address where it has stored in memory: 5000

As you know, every variable is a memory location and every memory location has its address defined which can
be accessed using ampersand (&) operator, which denotes an address in memory. Consider the following
example, which prints the address of the variables defined –

#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int var1;
char var2[10];
printf("Address of var1 variable: %x\n", &var1 );
printf("Address of var2 variable: %x\n", &var2 );
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result –
Address of var1 variable: bff5a400 Address of var2 variable: bff5a3f6

107
What are Pointers?
A pointer is a variable whose value is the address of another variable, i.e., direct address of the memory
location. Like any variable or constant, you must declare a pointer before using it to store any variable address.
The general form of a pointer variable declaration is –
type *var-name;
Here, type is the pointer's base type; it must be a valid C data type and var-name is the name of the pointer
variable. The asterisk * used to declare a pointer is the same asterisk used for multiplication. However, in this
statement the asterisk is being used to designate a variable as a pointer. Take a look at some of the valid pointer
declarations –
int *ip; /* pointer to an integer */
double *dp; /* pointer to a double */
float *fp; /* pointer to a float */
char *ch /* pointer to a character */

The actual data type of the value of all pointers, whether integer, float, character, or otherwise, is the same, a long
hexadecimal number that represents a memory address. The only difference between pointers of different data
types is the data type of the variable or constant that the pointer points to.

Benefits of using pointers are:-

Pointers are more efficient in handling arrays and data tables.
Pointers can be used to return multiple values from a function via function arguments.
The use of pointer arrays to character strings results in saving of data storage space in memory.
Pointers allow C to support dynamic memory management.

Pointers provide an efficient tool for manipulating dynamic data structures such as structures, linked lists,
queues, stacks and trees.
Pointers reduce length and complexity of programs.
They increase the execution speed and thus reduce the program execution time.
How to Use Pointers?
There are a few important operations, which we will do with the help of pointers very frequently. (a) We define
a pointer variable, (b) assign the address of a variable to a pointer and (c) finally access the value at the address
available in the pointer variable. This is done by using unary operator * that returns the value of the variable
located at the address specified by its operand. The following example makes use of these operations –
include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int var = 20; /* actual variable declaration */
int *ip; /* pointer variable declaration */
ip = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable*/
printf("Address of var variable: %x\n", &var ); /* address stored in pointer variable */
printf("Address stored in ip variable: %x\n", ip ); /* access the value using the pointer */
printf("Value of *ip variable: %d\n", *ip );
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result – Address of var variable:
bffd8b3c
Address stored in ip variable: bffd8b3c Value of *ip variable: 20
Declaration and Initializing a Pointer:
In C, every variable must be declared for its type. Since pointer variable contain addresses that belong to a
separate data type, they must be declared as pointers before we use them.
Declaration of a pointer variable: The declaration of a pointer variable takes the following form:
data type *pt_name;

This tells the compiler three things about the variable pt_name:

108
The * tells that the variable pt_name is a pointer variable. 2)pt_name needs a memory location
3)pt_name points to a variable of type
data_type Ex: int *p;
Declares the variable p as a pointer variable that points to an integer data type.

Initialization of pointer variables:

The process of assigning the address of a variable to a pointer variable is known as initialization. Once a pointer
variable has been declared we can use assignment operator to initialize the variable.
Ex:
int quantity ;
int *p; //declaration
p=&quantity; //initialization
We can also combine the initialization with the declaration:
int *p=&quantity;
Always ensure that a pointer variable points to the corresponding type of data.
It is also possible to combine the declaration of data variable, the declaration of pointer variable and the
initialization of the pointer variable in one step.
int x, *p=&x;
Example program:

void main( )
{
int a = 5 ;
printf ( "\nAddress of a = %u", &a );
printf ( "\nValue of a =%d", a );
}
Output: The output of the above program would be:

Address of a=1444 value of a=5

The expression &a returns the address of the variable a, which in this case happens to be 1444
.Hence it is printed out using %u, which is a format specified for printing an unsigned integer.
Accessing a variable through its pointer:

Once a pointer has been assigned the address of a variable, to access the value of the variable using pointer we
use the operator ‘*’, called ‘value at address’ operator. It gives the value stored at a particular address. The
„value at address‟ operator is also called ‘indirection’ operator (or dereferencing operator).
Ex:
Int main()
{
int a = 5 ;
printf ( "\nAddress of a = %u", &a );
printf ( "\nValue of a = %d", a ) ;
printf ( "\nValue of a = %d", *( &a));
return 0;
}
Output: The output of the above program would be:

Address of a = 1444 Value of a = 5 Value of a = 5

Example To Demonstrate Working of Pointers

/* Source code to demonstrate, handling of pointers in C program */ #include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int* pc; int c; c=22;
109
 printf("Address of c:%u\n",&c); printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c); pc=&c;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%u\n",pc); printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc); c=11;
printf("Address of pointer pc:%u\n",pc); printf("Content of pointer pc:%d\n\n",*pc);
*pc=2;
printf("Address of c:%u\n",&c); printf("Value of c:%d\n\n",c); return 0;
}

Pointer expressions and Pointer arithmetic:

A pointer in c is an address, which is a numeric value. Therefore, you can perform arithmetic operations on a
pointer just as you can on a numeric value. There are four arithmetic operators that can be used on pointers: ++, --,
+, and -
To understand pointer arithmetic, let us consider that ptr is an integer pointer which points to the address 1000.
Assuming 32-bit integers, let us perform the following arithmetic operation on the pointer −
ptr++
After the above operation, the ptr will point to the location 1004 because each time ptr is incremented, it will
point to the next integer location which is 4 bytes next to the current location. This operation will move the
pointer to the next memory location without impacting the actual value at the memory location. If ptr points to a
character whose address is 1000, then the above operation will point to the location 1001 because the next
character will be available at 1001.
Incrementing a Pointer
We prefer using a pointer in our program instead of an array because the variable pointer can be
incremented, unlike the array name which cannot be incremented because it is a constant pointer. The following
program increments the variable pointer to access each succeeding element of the array –
#include <stdio.h>
const int MAX = 3;
int main ()
{
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
ptr = var; /* let us have array address in pointer */
for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i++)
{
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr );
printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
ptr++; /* move to the next location */
}
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −
Address of var[0] = bf882b30 Value of var[0] = 10
Address of var[1] = bf882b34 Value of var[1] = 100 Address of var[2] = bf882b38 Value of var[2] = 200

Decrementing a Pointer
The same considerations apply to decrementing a pointer, which decreases its value by the number of bytes of its
data type as shown below –
#include <stdio.h> const int MAX = 3; int main ()
{
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have array address in pointer */
ptr = &var[MAX-1]; for ( i = MAX; i > 0; i--)
{
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i-1, ptr ); printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i-1, *ptr );
/* move to the previous location */ ptr--;
110
 }
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result –
Address of var[2] = bfedbcd8 Value of var[2] = 200 Address of var[1] = bfedbcd4 Value of var[1] = 100
Address of var[0] = bfedbcd0 Value of var[0] = 10

Pointer Comparisons
Pointers may be compared by using relational operators, such as ==, <, and >. If p1 and p2 point to variables that
are related to each other, such as elements of the same array, then p1 and p2 can be meaningfully compared.
The following program modifies the previous example − one by incrementing the variable pointer so long as the
address to which it points is either less than or equal to the address of the last element of the array, which is
&var[MAX - 1] –
#include <stdio.h> const int MAX = 3; int main ()
{
int var[] = {10, 100, 200};
int i, *ptr;
/* let us have address of the first element in pointer */ ptr = var;
i = 0;
while ( ptr <= &var[MAX - 1] )
{
printf("Address of var[%d] = %x\n", i, ptr ); printf("Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, *ptr );
/* point to the previous location */ ptr++;
i++;
}
return 0;
}

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result – Address of var[0] = bfdbcb20
Value of var[0] = 10
Address of var[1] = bfdbcb24 Value of var[1] = 100 Address of var[2] = bfdbcb28 Value of var[2] = 200 Pointer
Operations:

C language allows us to add integers to pointers and to subtract integers from pointers
Ex: If p1, p2 are two pointer variables then operations such as p1+4, p2 - 2, p1 - p2 can be performed.
Pointers can also be compared using relational operators. Ex: p1>p2, p1==p2, p1! =p2 are valid operations.

We should not use pointer constants in division or multiplication. Also, two pointers cannot be added. p1/p2,
p1*p2, p1/3, p1+p2 are invalid operations.
Pointer increments and scale factor:-
Let us assume the address of p1 is 1002. After using p1=p1+1, the value becomes 1004 but not 1003.
Thus when we increment a pointer, its values is increased by length of data type that points to. This length is
called scale factor.

Pointer Expressions:
Like other variables pointer variables can be used in expressions.
If p1 and p2 are properly declared and initialized pointers, then the following statements are valid:

Y=*p1**p2;
Sum=sum+*p1;
Z=5*-*p2/*p1;
*p2=*p2+10;
*p1=*p1+*p2;
*p1=*p2-*p1;
111
 NOTE: in the third statement there is a blank space between ‘/’ and * because the symbol /*is considered as
beginning of the comment and therefore the statement fails. if p1 and p2 are properly declared and initialized
pointers then, ‘C’ allows adding integers to a pointer variable.
EX:
Int a=5,b=10;
Int *p1,*p2;
p1=&a;
p2=&b;
Now, P1=p1+1=1000+2=1002;
P1=p1+2=1000+(2*2)=1004; P1=p1+4=1000+(2*4)=1008; P2=p2+2=3000+(2*2)=3004;
P2=p2+6=3000+(2*6)=3012;
Here addition means bytes that pointer data type hold are subtracted number of times that is subtracted to the
pointer variable.

C program using pointers to determine the length of a character String.

/*program to find the length of a char string */
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
Void main ()
{
Char str [20],*p;
Int l=0;
printf (“enter a string \n”);
scanf (“ % s”, str);
p=str; while(*p!=’\0’)
{
l++;
p++;
}
printf (“the length of the given string is %d”, l); getch ();
}

void pointer:
Pointers can also be declared as void type. Void pointers cannot be dereferenced without explicit type
conversion. This is because, being void the compiler cannot determine the size of the object that the pointer points
too. Though void pointer declaration is possible, void variables declaration is not allowed. Thus, the declaration
void P displays an error message. "size of ‘p’ is unknown or zero" after compilation. C program to declare a void
pointer. Assign address of int, float and char variables to the void pointer using type casting method. Display the
contents of various variables.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h> Void main()
{
int p;
float d;
char c;
void *pt;
clrscr();
pt=&p;
*(int*)pt=10;
printf("\n p=%d",p);
pt=&d;
*(float *)pt=3.4;
112
 printf("\n d=%f",d);
pt=&c;
*(char *)pt= ‘s’;
printf("\n c=%c",c); getch();
}

O/P:
p=10 d=3.4
c=s

In the above example, the statement *(int *)pt=10 assigns the integer value 10 to pointer pt i.e., to variable ‘p’. the
declaration *(int *) tells the compiler that the value assigned is of integer type. Thus, assignments of float and
char type are carried out. The statements *(int *)pt=10,
*(float *)pt=3.4, *(char *)pt=’s’ helps the compiler to exactly determine the size of data type.

Null pointer:
A null pointer is a pointer which points nothing.
Some uses of the null pointer are:
 To initialize a pointer variable when that pointer variable isn’t assigned any valid memory address yet.
 To pass a null pointer to a function argument when we don’t want to pass any valid memory address.
 To check for null pointer before accessing any pointer variable. So that, we can perform error handling in pointer
related code e.g. dereference pointer variable only if it’s not NULL.
Example program:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int *p= NULL;//initialize the pointer as null.
printf("The value of pointer is %u",p);
return 0;
}

o/p: The value of pointer is 0

Pointers to pointers:
A pointer to a pointer is a form of multiple indirection, or a chain of pointers. Normally, a pointer contains the
address of a variable. When we define a pointer to a pointer, the first pointer contains the address of the second
pointer, which points to the location that contains the actual value as shown below.

A variable that is a pointer to a pointer must be declared as such. This is done by placing an additional asterisk in
front of its name. For example, the following declaration declares a pointer to a pointer of type int –
int **var;
When a target value is indirectly pointed to by a pointer to a pointer, accessing that value requires that the
asterisk operator be applied twice, as is shown below in the example −
#include <stdio.h> int main ()
{
int var; int *ptr;
int **pptr; var = 3000;
/* take the address of var */
113
 ptr = &var;
/* take the address of ptr using address of operator & */
pptr = &ptr;
/* take the value using pptr */
printf("Value of var = %d\n", var );
printf("Value available at *ptr = %d\n", *ptr );
printf("Value available at **pptr = %d\n", **pptr);
return 0;
}

Output:
Value of var = 3000
Value available at *ptr = 3000 Value available at **pptr = 3000
Example 2: program to print value of a variable through pointer and pointer to pointer.
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h> Void main ()
{
int x=10,*p, **q;
P=&x;
Q=&p;
clrscr ();
printf("value of x=%d address of x=%u", x, &x);
printf("through *p value of x=%d address of x=%u",*p, p);
printf("through **q value of x=%d address of x=%u", **q,*q);
getch ();
}

Output:
Value of x=10 address of x=2000
Through*p value of x=10 address of x=2000
Through **q value of x=10 address of x=2000

Pointer arrays (Array of Pointers):

We have array of different primitive data types such as int, float, char etc. Similarly C supports array of
pointers i.e. collection of addresses.

Example :-

void main()

int *ap[3];

int al[3]={10,20,30};

int k;

for(k=0;k<3;k++)

ap[k]=al+k;

printf(“\n address element\n”);

114
 for(k=0;k<3;k++)

printf(“\t %u”,ap[k]);

printf(“\t %7d\n”,*(ap[k]));

Output:

Address Element

4060 10

4062 20

4064 30

In the above program , the addresses of elements are stored in an array and thus it represents array of pointers.

A two-dimensional array can be represented using pointer to an array. But, a two-dimensional array can be
expressed in terms of array of pointers also. The conventional array definition is,

data_type array name [exp1] [exp2];

Using array of pointers, a two-dimensional array can be defined as,

data_type *array_name [exp1];

Where,

- data_type refers to the data type of the array.

- array_name is the name of the array.
- exp1 is the maximum number of elements in the row.

Note that exp2 is not used while defining array of pointers. Consider a two-dimensional vector initialized with 3
rows and 4 columns as shown below,

int p[3][4]={{10,20,30,40},{50,60,70,80},{25,35,45,55}};

The elements of the matrix p are stored in memory row-wise (can be stored column-wise also) as shown in Fig.

Using array of pointers we can declare p as,

int *p[3];
115
Here, p is an array of pointers. p[0] gives the address of the first row, p[1] gives the address of the second row
and p[2] gives the address of the third row. Now, p[0]+0 gives the address of the

element in 0th row and 0th column, p[0]+1 gives the address of the elements in 0 th row and 1st column and so
on. In general,

- Address of ith row is given by a[i].

- Address of an item in ith row and jth column is given by, p[i]+j.
-
The element in ithrow and jth column can be accessed using the indirection operator * by specifying,
*(p[i]+j)

Pointers to structures:
We have pointers pointing to int, float, arrays etc., We also have pointers pointing to structures. They are called
as structure pointers.

To access the members of a structure using pointers we need to perform The following
operations:

1 Declare the structure variable

2 Declare a pointer to a structure

3 Assign address of structure variable to pointer

4 Access members of structure using (. ) operator or using (->)member selection operator or arrow
operator.

Syntax:

struct tagname

datatype member1;

datatype member2;

};

struct taganme var;

struct tagname *ptr;

ptr=*var;

to access the members

(*ptr).member1; or ptr->member1;

The parentheses around *ptr are necessary because the member operator ‟.‟ has a higher precedence than the
116
operator „*‟

Example:

struct student

int rno;

char name[20]; };

struct student s1; struct student *ptr;

ptr=&s1;

to access (*ptr).rno; (*ptr).name;

(or)
ptr->rno; ptr->name;

Ex: Program to read and display student details using pointers to structures
struct student
{
int HTNO;
char NAME[20];
float AVG;
};

void main()

struct student s1; struct student *ptr; ptr=&s1;

printf(“Enter student details”);

scanf(“%d%s%f”,&ptr>HTNO,ptr->NAME,&ptr->AVG); printf(“HTNO=%d”,ptr-
>HTNO); printf(“NAME=%s”,ptr>NAME);

printf(“AVERAGE MARKS=%f”,ptr->AVG);

Pointers to functions:-

A function, like a variable has a type and address location in the memory. It is therefore possible to declare a
pointer to a function, which can then be used as an argument in another function.

A pointer to a function can be declared as follows.

type (*fptr)();

This tells the complier that fptr is a pointer to a function which returns type value the parentheses around *fptr
is necessary.
117
 Because type *gptr(); would declare gptr as a function returning a pointer to type.

We can make a function pointer to point to a specific function by simply assigning the name of the function
to the pointer.

Eg: double mul(int,int);

double (*p1)();

p1=mul();

It declares p1 as a pointer to a function and mul as a function and then make p1 to point to the
function mul.
To call the function mul we now use the pointer p1 with the list of parameters.
i,e (*p1)(x,y); //function call equivalent to mul(x,y);
Program:

double mul(int ,int);

void main()

int x,y;

double (*p1)();

double res;

p1=mul;

printf("\n enter two numbers:");

scanf("%d %d",&x,&y); res=(*p1)(x,y);

printf("\n The Product of X=%d and Y=%d is res=%lf",x,y,res);

double mul(int a,int b)

double val; val=a*b;

return(val);

Output:

118
 Structures
Definition: A structure is a collection of one or more variables of similar or different data types, grouped together
under a single name. By using structures variables, arrays, pointers etc can be grouped together.

Structures can be declared using two methods as follows:

(i) Tagged Structure:

The structure definition associated with the structure name is referred as tagged structure. It doesn‟t create an instance
of a structure and does not allocate any memory.

The general form or syntax of tagged structure definition is as follows,

struct TAG Ex:- struct student

{ {

Type varaible1; int htno[10];

Type variable2; char name[20];

…… float marks[6];

…… };

Type variable-n;

};

Where,

1. struct is the keyword which tells the compiler that a structure is being defined.

2. Tag_name is the name of the structure.

3. variable1, variable2 … are called members of the structure.

4. The members are declared within curly braces.

5. The closing brace must end with the semicolon.

(ii) Type-defined structures:-

A. The structure definition associated with the keyword typedef is called type-defined structure.

B. This is the most powerful way of defining the structure.

119
 The syntax of typedefined structure is

typedef struct Ex:- typedef struct

{ {

Type varaible1; int htno[10];

Type variable2; char name[20];

…… float marks[6];

…… }student;

Type variable-n;

}Type;

where

A. typedef is keyword added to the beginning of the definition.

B. struct is the keyword which tells the compiler that a structure is being defined.

C. variable1, variable2…are called fields of the structure.

D. The closing brace must end with type definition name which in turn ends with semicolon.

Variable declaration:
Memory is not reserved for the structure definition since no variables are associated with the structure definition. The
members of the structure do not occupy any memory until they are associated with the structure variables.

After defining the structure, variables can be defined as follows:

For first method,

struct TAG v1,v2,v3….vn;

For second method, which is most powerful is,

Type v1,v2,v3,….vn;

Alternate way:

struct TAG

{
Type varaible1;

Type variable2;

……

……

120
 Type variable-n; } v1, v2, v3;

Ex:

struct book

char name[30];
int pages;

float price; }b1,b2,b3;

Example for the following scenario:

College contains the following fields: College code (2characters), College Name, year of
establishment, number of courses. Each course is associated with course name (String),
duration, number of students. (A College can offer 1 to 50 such courses)

(i). Structure definition for college :-

struct college

char code[2];

char college_name[20];

int year;

int no_of_courses;

};

Variable declaration for structure college :-

void main( )

struct college col1,col2,col3;

….

(ii). Structure definition for course :-

struct course

char course_name[20];

float duration;
121
 int no_of_students;

};

Variable declaration for structure course :-

void main( )

struct course c1,c2,c3;

….

Initialization structures :
The rules for structure initialization are similar to the rules for array initialization. The initializers are enclosed in
braces and separated by commas. They must match their corresponding types in the structure definition.

The syntax is shown below:

struct tag_name variable = {value1, value2,… value-n};

Structure initialization can be done in anyone of the following ways:

(i) Initialization along with Structure definition:-

Consider the structure definition for student with three fields name, roll number and average marks. The initialization of
variable can be done as shown below,

struct student

char name [5];

int roll_number;

float avg;

} s1= {“Ravi”, 10, 67.8};

122
(ii) Initialization during Structure declaration:-

Consider the structure definition for student with three fields name, roll number and average marks. The initialization of
variable can be done as shown below:

typedef struct

int x;

int y;

float t;

char u;

} SAMPLE;

Figure: Initializing Structures

The figure shows two examples of structure in sequence. The first example demonstrates what happens when not all
fields are initialized. As we saw with arrays, when one or more initializers are missing, the structure elements will be
assigned null values, zero for integers and floating-point numbers, and null (‘\0’) for characters and strings.

Example: Construct a structure type personal, that would contain person name, date of joining and salary.
Develop a program to initialize one person data and display the same.

struct personal

char name[20]; int day;

char month[10]; int year;

float salary;

};

void main( )

struct personal person = { “RAMU”, 10 JUNE 1998, 20000}; printf(“Output values

are:\n”);

123
 printf(“%s%d%s%d%f”,person.name,person.day,person.month,person.year,person.salary );

Output:- RAMU 10 JUNE 1998 20000

Access the data for structure variables using member operator(.)

We know that variables can be accessed and manipulated using expressions and operators. On the similar lines,
the structure members can be accessed and manipulated. The members of a structure can be accessed by using dot(.)
operator.

Structures use a dot (.) operator(also called period operator or member operator) to refer its elements. Before dot,
there must always be a structure variable. After the dot, there must always be a structure element.

The syntax to access the structure members as follows:

structure_variable_name . structure_member_name

Consider the example as shown below,

struct student

char name [5];

int roll_number;

float avg;

};

struct student s1= {“Ravi”, 10, 67.8};

The members can be accessed using the variables as shown below,

s1.name --> refers the string “ravi” s1.roll_number --> refers the
roll_number 10 s1.avg --> refers avg 67.8

Example : Create a structure type book, that would contain book name, author, pages and price. Simulate a
program to read this data using member operator (.) and display the same.

struct book

char name[20]; int day;

char month[10]; int year;

float salary;

};

void main( )

124
 {

struct book b1;

printf(“Input values are:\n”);

scanf(“%s %s %d %f”, b1.title,b1.author,b1.pages,b1.price);

printf(“Output values are:\n”);

printf(“%s\n %s\n %d\n %f\n”, b1.title, b1.author,b1.pages,b1.price);

Output:-

Input values are: C& DATA STRUCTURES KAMTHANE 609 350.00

Output values are:

C& DATA STRUCTURES KAMTHANE

609

350.00

Pass a structure member as an argument to a function:

Structures are more useful if we are able to pass them to functions and return them.

By passing individual members of structure

This method is to pass each member of the structure as an actual argument of the function call. The actual arguments are
treated independently like ordinary variables. This is the most elementary method and becomes unmanageable and
inefficient when the structure size is large.

Program:

#include<stdio.h>
void main ( )

float arriers (char *s, int n, float m);

typedef struct emp

{
char name[15]; int emp_no;
float salary; }record;

record e1 = {"smith",2,20000.25};

e1.salary = arriers(e1.name,e1.emp_no,e1.salary);

float arriers(char *s, int n, float m)

{
125
 m = m + 2000;

printf("\n%s %d %f ",s, n, m);

return m;

}
}

Output

smith 2 22000.250000

Pass an entire structure as an argument of a function :

Structures are more useful if we are able to pass them to functions and return them.

Passing Whole Structure:

This method involves passing a copy of the entire structure to the called function. Any changes to structure members
within the function are not reflected in the original structure. It is therefore, necessary for the function to return the
entire structure back to the calling function.

The general format of sending a copy of a structure to the called function is:

return_type function_name (structure_variable_name);

The called function takes the following form:

data_type function_name(struct_typetag_name)

………

………

return(expression);

The called function must be declared for its type, appropriate to the data type it is expected to return.

The structure variable used as the actual argument and the corresponding formal argument in the called function must be
of the same struct type.

The return statement is necessary only when the function is returning some data back to the calling function. The
expression may be any simple variable or structure variable or an expression using simple variables.

When a function returns a structure, it must be assigned to a structure of identical type in the calling function. The called
functions must be declared in the calling function appropriately.

Program:

126
#include <stdio.h>

#include <string.h>

struct student

int id;

char name[20];

float percentage;

};

void func(struct student record);

int main()

struct student record;

record.id=1;

strcpy(record.name, "Raju");

record.percentage = 86.5;

return 0;

void func(struct student record)

{
printf(" Id is: %d \n", record.id);
printf(" Name is: %s \n", record.name);

printf(" Percentage is: %f \n", record.percentage);

Output:

Id is: 1

Name is: Raju

Percentage is: 86.500000

Function returning a structure:

typedef struct

127
 {

char name [15]; int emp_no; float

salary;

} record; #include<stdio.h.> #include<string.h>

void main ( )

record change (record);

record e1 = {"Smith", 2, 20000.25};

printf ("\nBefore Change %s %d %f",e1.name,e1.emp_no,e1.salary); e1 = change(e1);

printf ("\nAfter Change %s %d %f ",e1.name,e1.emp_no,e1.salary);

record change (record e2)

strcpy (e2.name,"Jones"); e2.emp_no = 16;

e2.salary = 9999;

return e2;

Output:

Smith 2 20000.25

Jones 16 9999.99

Array of structures:
An array is a collection of elements of same data type that are stored in contiguous memory locations. A structure is a
collection of members of different data types stored in contiguous memory locations. An array of structures is an array
in which each element is a structure. This concept is very helpful in representing multiple records of a file, where each
record is a collection of dissimilar data items.

As we have an array of integers, we can have an array of structures also. For example, suppose we want to store the
information of class of students, consisting of name, roll_number and marks, A better approach would be to use an array
of structures.

Array of structures can be declared as follows:

struct tag_name arrayofstructure[size];

Let‟s take an example, to store the information of 3 students, we can have the following structure definition and
declaration,

128
 struct student

char name[10]; int rno;

float avg; };

struct student s[3];

Defines an array called s, which contains three elements. Each element is defined to be of type struct student.

For the student details, array of structures can be initialized as follows,

struct student s[3]={{“ABC”,1,56.7},{“xyz”,2,65.8},{“pqr”,3,82.4}};

Ex: An array of structures for structure employee can be declared as

struct employee emp[5];

Let‟s take an example, to store the information of 5 employees, we can have the following structure definition and
declaration,

struct employee

int empid;
char name[10]; float salary;

};

struct employee emp[5];

Defines array called emp, which contains five elements. Each element is defined to be of type struct employee.

For the employee details, array of structures can be initialized as follows:

struct employee emp[5] = {{1,”ramu”25,20000},

{2,”ravi”,65000}, {3,”tarun”,82000},
{4,”rupa”,5000}, {5,”deepa”,27000}};

Ex: C program to calculate student-wise total marks for three students using
array of structures.

#include<stdio.h> struct student

char rollno[10];
char name[20]; float sub[3]; float total;

};
129
 void main( )

int i, j, total = 0; struct student s[3];

printf("\t\t\t\t Enter 3 students details"); for(i=0; i<3; i++)

printf("\n Enter Roll number of %d Student:",i);gets(s[i].rollno);

printf(" Enter the name:"); gets(s[i].name);

printf(" Enter 3 subjects marks of each student:");

total=0;

for(j=0; j<3; j++)

scanf("%d",&s[i].sub[j]);
total = total + s[i].sub[j];

printf("\n******************************************"); printf("\n\t\t\t Student

details:"); printf("\n******************************************"); for(i=0; i<n;
i++)

printf ("\n Student %d:",i+1);

printf ("\n Roll number:%s\n name:%s",s[i].rollno,s[i].name);

printf ("\nTotal marks =%f", s[i].total);

Ex: Develop a C program using array of structures to create employee records with the following fields: emp-id, name,
designation, address, salary and display it.
#include<stdio.h>
struct employee
{
int emp_id;
char name[20];

char designation[10]; char address[20];

float salary; }emp[3];
void main( )

130
{

int i;
printf("\t\t\t\t Enter 3 employees details");
for(i=0; i<3; i++)

scanf(“%d”,&emp[i].emp_id); gets(emp[i].name);
gets(emp[i].designation); gets(emp[i].address);
scanf(“%f”,&emp[i].salary);

printf("\n******************************************"); printf("\n\t\t\t Employee

details:"); printf("\n******************************************"); for(i=0; i<3;
i++)

printf(“%d”,emp[i].emp_id); puts(emp[i].name);
puts(emp[i].designation); puts(emp[i].address);

printf(“%f”,emp[i].salary);

Nested Structure (Structure within structure) :

A structure which includes another structure is called nested structure or structure within structure. i.e a structure
can be used as a member of another structure. There are two methods for declaration of nested structures.

(i) The syntax for the nesting of the structure is as follows:

struct tag_name1

type1 member1;

…….

…….

};

struct tag_name2

type1 member1;

……
131
 ……

struct tag_name1 var;

……

};

The syntax for accessing members of a nested structure as follows,

outer_structure_variable . inner_structure_variable.member_name

(ii) The syntax of another method for the nesting of the structure is as follows

struct structure_nm

<data-type> element 1; <data-type> element

2;

- ----------

- ----------

<data-type> element n;

struct structure_nm

<data-type> element 1; <data-type> element

2;

- ----------

- ----------

<data-type> element n; }inner_struct_var;

}outer_struct_var;

Example : struct stud_Res

int rno;

char nm[50]; char std[10]; struct

stud_subj

char subjnm[30]; int marks;

132
 }subj;

}result;

In above example, the structure stud_Res consists of stud_subj which itself is a structure with two members. Structure
stud_Res is called as 'outer structure' while stud_subj is called as 'inner structure.'

The members which are inside the inner structure can be accessed as follow: result.subj.subjnm

result.subj.marks

Program to demonstrate nested structures.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <conio.h> struct stud_Res

int rno;

char std[10];
struct stud_Marks

char subj_nm[30];
int subj_mark;

}marks;

}result;
void main()

printf("\n\t Enter Roll Number :"); scanf("%d",&result.rno);

printf("\n\t Enter Standard : "); scanf("%s",result.std);

printf("\n\t Enter Subject Code : ");

scanf("%s",result.marks.subj_nm);
printf("\n\t Enter Marks : ");
scanf("%d",&result.marks.subj_mark); printf("\n\n\t Roll Number
: %d",result.rno); printf("\n\n\t Standard : %s",result.std);

printf("\nSubject Code : %s",result.marks.subj_nm); printf("\n\n\t Marks :

%d",result.marks.subj_mark);

Output:

Enter roll number : 1 Enter standard

:Btech

Enter subject code : GR11002 Enter marks : 63

133
 Roll number :1 Standard :Btech Subject
code : GR11002 Marks : 63

Ex: Design a C program using nested structures to read 3 employees details with the following fields; emp-id, name,
designation, address, da ,hra and calculate gross salary of each employee.

#include<stdio.h>

struct employee

{
int emp_id; char name[20];

char designation[10];
char address[20];
struct salary

float da; float hra; }sal; }emp[3];

void main( )
{

int i;

printf("\t\t\t\t Enter 3 employees details"); grosssalary = 0;

for(i=0; i<3; i++)

scanf(“%d”,&emp[i].emp_id); gets(emp[i].name);
gets(emp[i].designation); gets(emp[i].address);
scanf(“%f”,&emp[i].sal.da); scanf(“%f”,&emp[i].sal.hra);

grosssalary = grosssalary + emp[i].sal.da + emp[i].sal.hra;

printf("\n******************************************");

printf("\n\t\t\t Employee details with gross salary:");

printf("\n******************************************"); for(i=0; i<3; i++)

printf(“%d”,emp[i].emp_id); puts(emp[i].name);
puts(emp[i].designation); puts(emp[i].address);
printf(“%f”,emp[i].sal.da); printf(“%f”,emp[i].sal.hra);
printf(“%f”,grosssalary);

}}

134
Difference between Arrays within Structures and Array of Structures :
Arrays within structure:
It is also possible to declare an array as a member of structure, like declaring ordinary variables. For example to
store marks of a student in three subjects then we can have the following definition of a structure.

struct student

char name [5];

int roll_number;

int marks [3];

float avg;

};

Then the initialization of the array marks done as follows:

struct student s1= {“ravi”, 34, {60,70,80}};

The values of the member marks array are referred as follows:

s1.marks [0] --> will refer the 0th element in the marks s1.marks [1] --> will
refer the 1st element in the marks s1.marks [2] --> will refer the 2ndt element
in the marks

Array of structures:

An array is a collection of elements of same data type that are stored in contiguous memory locations. A structure is a
collection of members of different data types stored in contiguous memory locations. An array of structures is an array
in which each element is a structure. This concept is very helpful in representing multiple records of a file, where each
record is a collection of dissimilar data items.

Ex:

An array of structures for structure employee can be declared as

struct employee emp[5];

Let‟s take an example, to store the information of 5 employees, we can have the following structure definition and
declaration,

struct employee

int empid; char name[10]; float salary;

};

struct employee emp[5];

Defines array called emp, which contains five elements. Each element is defined to be of type struct student.
135
 For the student details, array of structures can be initialized as follows, struct employee emp[5]
= {{1,”ramu”25,20000},

{2,”ravi”,65000},

{3,”tarun”,82000},

{4,”rupa”,5000}, {5,”deepa”,27000}};

Ex: Construct a C program using structure to create a library catalogue with the following fields: Access number,
author‟s name, Title of the book, year of publication, publisher‟s name, and price.

struct library

{
int acc_no;
char author[20];

char title[10];
int year_pub;

char name_pub[20];
float price;

};

void main( )

struct library lib; printf(“Input values are:\n”);

scanf(“%d %s %s %d %s%f”, &lib.acc_no, lib.author, lib.title, &lib.year_pub, lib.name_pub, &lib.price);

printf(“Output values are:\n\n”);

printf(“Access number = %d\n Author name = %s\n

Book Title = %s\n Year of publication = %d \n Name of publication = %s\n

Price = %f ”, lib.acc_no, lib.author, lib.title, lib.year_pub, lib.name_pub, lib.price);

Self referential structure:

A structure definition which includes at least one member as a pointer to the same structure is known as self-
referential structure.

It can be linked together to form useful data structures such as lists, queues, stacks and trees.

It is terminated with a NULL pointer .

136
 The syntax for using the self referential structure is as follows:

struct tag_name

{
Type1 member1;

Type2 member2;

……….

struct tag_name *next; };

Ex:-

struct node

int data;

struct node *next; } n1, n2;

Unions:
A union is one of the derived data types. Union is a collection of variables referred under a single name. The
syntax, declaration and use of union is similar to the structure but its functionality is different.

The general format or syntax of a union definition is as follows,

Syntax:

union union_name

<data-type> element 1;

<data-type> element 2;

………………

}union_variable;

Example:
union techno
{
int comp_id; char nm; float sal;
}tch;

A union variable can be declared in the same way as structure variable. union tag_name var1,
var2...;

137
A union definition and variable declaration can be done by using any one of the following

We can access various members of the union as mentioned: a.c a.i a.f and memory organization
is shown below,

In the above declaration, the member f requires 4 bytes which is the largest among all the members. Figure 5.8 shows
how all the three variables share the same address. The size of the union here is 4 bytes.

A union creates a storage location that can be used by any one of its members at a time. When a different member is
assigned a new value, the new value supersedes the previous members‟ value.

Difference between structure and union:-

Structure Union

(i) Keyword Struct Union

(ii) Definition A structure is a collection of A union is a collection of

logically related elements, logically related elements,
possibly of different types, possibly of different types,
having a single name. having a single name, shares
single memory location.

(iii) Declaration struct tag_name union tag_name

{ {
type1 member1; type1 member1;
type1 member2; type1 member2;

138
 …………… ……………
}; };
struct tag_name var; union tag_name var;

(iv) Initialization Same. Same.

(v) Accessing Accessed by specifying Accessed by specifying

structure_ variable_name.member_ union_ variable_name.member_name
Name

(vi)Memory Each member of the structure Memory is allocated by

Allocation occupies unique location, stored considering the size of the largest
member. All the members share the
in contiguous locations. common location

(vii) Size Size of the structure depends Size is given by the size of the
on the type of members, adding largest member
size of all the members. sizeof(un_variable)
sizeof (st_var);

(viii) Using Structure members can be same as structure.

pointers accessed by using dereferencing
operator dot and selection
operator(->)

We can have arrays as a member We can have array as a member

of structures. All members can be of union. Only one member can
accessed at a time. be accessed at a time.

Nesting of structures is possible. same.

It is possible structure may It is possible union may contain

contain union as a member. structure as a member

139
 UNIT-V
Files: Text and Binary files, Creating and Reading and writing text and binary files, Random access to files,
Error Handling in files Command line arguments, Enumeration data type.
Preprocessor: Commonly used Preprocessor commands like include, define, undef, if, ifdef, ifndef, elif.

File : A file is an external collection of related data treated as a unit. A file is a place on a disk where a group of
related data is stored and retrieved whenever necessary without destroying data
The primary purpose of a file is to keep record of data. Record is a group of related fields. Field is a group of
characters which convey meaning.
Files are stored in auxiliary or secondary storage devices. The two common forms of secondary
storage are disks (hard disk, CD and DVD) and tapes.

Each file ends with an end of file (EOF) at a specified byte number, recorded in file structure.

A file must first be opened properly before it can be accessed for reading or writing. When a file is opened an
object (buffer) is created and a stream is associated with the object.
It is advantageous to use files in the following circumstances.

When large volume of data are handled by the program and

When the data need to be stored permanently without getting destroyed when program is terminated.

There are two kinds of files depending upon the format in which data is stored:

1)Text files
2) Binary files

Text files:
A text file stores textual information like alphabets, numbers, special symbols, etc.

actually the ASCII code of textual characters its stored in text files. Examples of some text files include c, java,
c++ source code files and files with .txt extensions. The text file contains
the characters in sequence. The computer process the text files sequentially and in forward direction. One can
perform file reading, writing and appending operations. These operations are performed with the help of inbuilt
functions of c.
Binary files:

Text mode is inefficient for storing large amount of numerical data because it occupies large space. Only solution
to this is to open a file in binary mode, which takes lesser space than the text mode. These files contain the set of
bytes which stores the information in binary form. One main drawback of binary files is data is stored in human
unreadable form. Examples of binary files are .exe files, video stream files, image files etc. C language supports
binary file operations with the help of various inbuilt functions

Modes of opening files :

To store data in a file three things have to be specified for operating system. They include
FILENAME :

It is a string of characters that make up a valid file name which may contain two parts,a primary name and an
optional period with the extension.
Prog1.c
Myfirst.java Data.t
xt store
140
 DATA STRUCTURE:
It is defined as FILE in the library of standard I/O function definitions. Therefore all files are declared as type
FILE.FILE is a define data type.
FILE *fp;

PURPOSE:

It defines the reason for which a file is opened and the mode does this job. fp=fopen(“filename”,”mode”);

The different modes of opening files are :

“r” (read) mode:

The read mode (r) opens an existing file for reading. When a file is opened in this mode, the
file marker or pointer is positioned at the beginning of the file (first character).The file must already exist: if it
does not exist a NULL is returned as an error. If we try to write a file opened in read mode, an error occurs.
Syntax:fp=fopen (“filename”,”r”);

“w” (write) mode:

The write mode (w) opens a file for writing. If the file doesn‟t exist, it is created. If it already exists, it is opened
and all its data is erased; the file pointer is positioned at the beginning of the file It gives an error if we try to
read from a file opened in write mode.
Syntax: fp=fopen (“filename”,”w”);

“a” (append) mode:

The append mode (a) opens an existing file for writing instead of creating a new file. However, the writing starts
after the last character in the existing file ,that is new data is added, or appended, at the end of the file. If the file
doesn‟t exist, new file is created and opened. In this case, the writing will start at the beginning of the file.
Syntax: fp=fopen (“filename”,”a”);

“r+” (read and write) mode:

In this mode file is opened for both reading and writing the data. If a file does not exist then NULL, is returned.
Syntax: fp=fopen (“filename”,”r+”);

“w+” (read and write) mode:

In this mode file is opened for both writing and reading the data. If a file already exists its contents are erased
and if a file does not exist then a new file is created.
Syntax:fp=fopen (“filename”,”w+”);

“a+” (append and read) mode:

In this mode file is opened for reading the data as well as data can be added at the end.

Syntax:fp=fopen (“filename”, “a+”);

NOTE: To perform operations on binary files the following modes are applicable with an extension b like
rb,wb,ab,r+b,w+b,a+b,which has the same menaing but allows to perform operations on binary files.

141
Basic operations on file:
Naming a file
Opening a file
Reading data from file
Writing data into file
Closing a File
In order to perform the basic file operations C supports a number of functions .Some of the Important file
handling functions available in the C library are as follows:

FUNCTION OPERATION
NAME
fopen() Creates a new file for use or Opens an existing file for use

fclose() Closes a file which has been opened for use

fcloseall() Closes all files which are opened

getc()/fgetc() Reads a character from a file

putc()/fputc() Writes a character to a file

fprintf() Writes a set of data values to files

fscanf() Reads a set of data values from files

getw() Reads an integer from file

putw() Writes an integer to a file

gets() Reads a string from a file

puts() Writes a string to a file

fseek() Sets the position to a desired point in a file

ftell() Gives the current position in the file

rewind() Sets the position to the beginning of the file

Naming and opening a file:

A name is given to the file used to store data. The file name is a string of characters that make up a valid file name
for operating system. It contains two parts. A primary name and an optional period with the extension.

Examples: Student.dat, file1.txt, marks.doc, palin.c The general format of declaring and opening a file is
FILE *fp; //declaration
fp=fopen (“filename”,mode”); //statement to open file.

Here FILE is a data structure defined for files. fp is a pointer to data type FILE. filename is the name of the file.
mode tells the purpose of opening this file.
142
Reading data from file:
Input functions used are ( Input operations on files)

getc(): It is used to read characters from file that has been opened for read operation.

Syntax: c=getc (file pointer);

This statement reads a character from file pointed to by file pointer and assign to
c. It returns an end-of-file marker EOF, when end of file has been reached

fscanf();

This function is similar to that of scanf function except that it works on files.

Syntax: fscanf (fp, ”control string”, list);

Example fscanf(f1,”%s%d”,str,&num);

The above statement reads string type data and integer type data from file.

getw(); This function reads an integer from file.

Syntax: getw (file pointer);

fgets(): This function reads a string from a file pointed by a file pointer. It also copies the string to a memory
location referred by an array.
Syntax: fgets(string,no of bytes,filepointer);

fread(): This function is used for reading an entire structure block from a given file.

Syntax: fread(&struct_name,sizeof(struct_name),1,filepointer);

Writing data to a file:

To write into a file, following C functions are used

putc():This function writes a character to a file that has been opened in write mode.

Syntax: putc(c,fp);

This statement writes the character contained in character variable c into a file whose pointer is fp.
fprintf():This function performs function, similar to that of printf.

Syntax: fprintf(f1,”%s,%d”,str,num); c. putw():It writes an integer to a file.

Syntax: putw (variable, fp);

d. fputs(): This function writes a string into a file pointed by a file pointer.

Synatax: fputs(string, filepointer);

e. fwrite(): This function is used for writing an entire block structure to a given file.

Syntax: fwrite(&struct_name, sizeof(struct_name),1,filepointer);

143
Closing a file:
A file is closed as soon as all operations on it have been completed.Closing a file ensures that all outstanding
information associated with the file is flushed out from the buffers and all links to the file are broken. Another
instance where we have to close a file is to reopen the same file in a different mode.
Library function for closing a file is,

fclose(file pointer);

Example: fclose(fp);

Where fp is the file pointer returned by the call to fopen(). fclose() returns 0 on success (or)
- 1 on error. Once a file is closed, its file pointer can be reused for another file. Note: fcloseall() can be used to
close all the opened files at once.

File I/O functions :

In order to perform the file operations in C we must use the high level I/O functions which are in C standard I/O
library. They are

getc() and fgetc() functions:

getc()/fgetc() : It is used to read a character from a file that has been opened in a read mode. It reads a character
from the file whose file pointer is fp. The file pointer moves by one character for every operation of getc(). The
getc() will return an end-of –marker EOF, when an end of file has been reached.
Syntax:
getc(fp); Ex:
char ch; ch=getc(fp);

putc()/fputc() -:
It is used to write a character contained in the character variable to the

file associated with the FILE pointer fp. fputc() also returns an end-of –marker EOF, when an end of file has
been reached.

Syntax: putc(c,fp); Example: char c; putc(c,fp);

Program using fgetc() and fputc():
#include<stdio. h> void main()
{
FILE *fp; char ch;

fp=fopen("input1.txt","w");
printf("\n enter some text hereand press cntrl D or Z to stop:\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,fp); fclose(fp); fp=fopen("input1.txt","r"); printf("\n The entered text is : \n");
while((ch=fgetc(fp))!=EOF)
putchar(ch);
fclose(fp);
}

fprintf() and fscanf():

In order to handle a group of mixed data simultaneously there are two functions that are fprintf() and
fscanf().These two functions are identical to printf and scanf functions,except that they work on files. The first
144
 argument of these functions is a file pointer which specifies the file to be used.
fprintf(): The general form of fprintf() is
Syntax: fprintf(fp,”control string”,list);
where fp is a file pointer associated with a file that has been opened for writing . The control string contains
output specifications for the items in the list. .
Example: fprintf(fp,”%s%d”,name,age);
fscanf() : It is used to read a number of values from a file.
Syntax: fscanf(fp,”control string”,list); Example: fscanf(fp2,”%s %d”,item,&quantity);
like scanf , fscanf also returns the number of items that are successfully read. when the end of file is reached it
returns the value EOF.

Program using fscanf() and fprintf():

#include<stdio.h
> void main()
{
int a=22,b; char
s1[20]="Welocme_to_c",s2[20]; float c=12.34,d;
FILE *f3;
f3=fopen("mynew3","w"); fprintf(f3,"%d %s
%f",a,s1,c); fclose(f3);
f3=fopen("mynew3","r"); fscanf(f3,"%d %s
%f",&b,s2,&d);
printf("\n a=%d \t s1=%s \t c=%f \n b=%d \t s2=%s \td=%f",a,s1,c,b,s2,d); fclose(f3);
}

getw() and putw():

The getw() and putw()are integer oriented functions .They are similar to the getc() and putc() functions and are
used to read and write integer values . These functions would be useful when we deal with only integer data. The
general form of getw() and putw() are
Syntax: putw(integer,fp); Syntax: getw(fp);
Program using getw() and putw():
/*Printing odd numbers in odd file and even numbers in even file*/ #include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int x,i;
FILE *f1,*fo,*fe;//creating a file pointer f1=fopen("anil.txt","w"); //opening a file
printf("\n enter some numbers into file or -1 to stop\n"); for(i=0;i<20;i++)
{
scanf("%d",&x)
; if(x== - 1)break;
putw(x,f1); //writing read number into anil.txt file one at a time
}
fclose(f1); //closing a file opened for writing input

printf("\n OUTPUT DATA\n"); f1=fopen("anil.txt","r");//open anil in read mode to read data

fo=fopen("odd3f","w");
fe=fopen("even3f","w"); while((x=getw(f1))!=EOF)
{
printf("%d\t",x); if(x%2==0) putw(x,fe);
else putw(x,fo);
}
fcloseall(); fo=fopen("odd3f","r");
printf("\n contents of odd file are :\n"); while((x=getw(fo) )!= EOF)
printf(" %d\t",x);
fe=fopen("even3f","r");
145
 printf("\n contents of even file are :\n"); while((x=getw(fe)) != EOF)
printf("
%d\t",x); fcloseall();
}

fputs() and fgets():

fgets(): It is used to read a string from a file pointed by file pointer. It copies the string to a memory location
referred by an array.
Syntax: fgets(string,length,filepointer); Example: fgets(text,50,fp1);
fputs(): It is used to write a string to an opened file pointed by file pointer.

Syntax: fputs(string,filepointer); Example: fputs(text,fp); Program using fgets() and fputs():

#include<stdio.h> void main()
{
FILE *fp; char str[50];
fp=fopen("fputget.txt","r"); printf("\n the read string is :\n"); fgets(str,50,fp);
puts(str); fclose(fp);

fp=fopen("fputget.txt","a+"); printf("\n Enter string : \n"); gets(str);

fputs(str,fp); puts(str); fclose(fp);
}

Block or structures read and write:

Large amount of integers or float data require large space on disk in text mode and turns out to be inefficient
.For this we prefer binary mode and the functions used are
fread() and fwrite():

fwrite(): It is used for writing an entire structure block to a given file in binary mode.
Syntax: fwrite(&structure variable,sizeof(structure variable),1,filepointer);
Example: fwrite(&stud,sizeof(stud),1,fp);
fread(): It is used for reading an entire structure block from a given file in binary mode.
Syntax: fread(&structure variable,sizeof(structure variable),1,filepointer);
Example: fread(&emp,sizeof(emp),1,fp1);

Program using fread() and fwrite():

#include<stdio.h>
struct player
{
char pname[30]; int age;
int runs; };
void main()
{
struct player p1,p2; FILE *f3;
f3=fopen("player.txt","w");
printf("\n Enter details of player name ,age and runs scored :\n"); fflush(stdin);
scanf("%s %d %d",p1.pname,&p1.age,&p1.runs);
fwrite(&p1,sizeof(p1),1,f3); fclose(f3); f3=fopen("player.txt","r"); fread(&p2,sizeof(p2),1,f3); fflush(stdout);
printf("\nPLAYERNAME:=%s\tAGE:=%d\tRUNS:=%d",p2.pname,p2.age,p2.runs
); fclose(f3);
}

146
Random access to files :
At times we needed to access only a particular part of a file rather than accessing all the data sequentially, which
can be achieved with the help of functions fseek, ftell and rewind available in IO library.
ftell():-

ftell takes a file pointer and returns a number of type long, that corresponds to the current position. This function
is useful in saving the current position of the file, which can later be used in the program.
Syntax: n=ftell(fp);

n would give the Relative offset (In bytes) of the current position. This means that already n
bytes have a been read or written

rewind():-

It takes a file pointer and resets the position to the start of the file.

Syntax: rewind(fp);

n=ftell(fp);

would assign 0 to n because the file position has been set to start of the file by rewind(). The first byte in the file
is numbered 0, second as 1, so on. This function helps in reading the file more than once, without having to close
and open the file.
Whenever a file is opened for reading or writing a rewind is done implicitly.

fseek:- fseek function is used to move the file pointer to a desired location within the file.
Syntax: fseek(file ptr,offset,position);

file pointer is a pointer to the file concerned, offset is a number or variable of type long and position is an integer
number which takes one of the following values. The offset specifies the number of positions(Bytes) to be
moved from the location specified by the position
which can be positive implies moving forward and negative implies moving backwards.

POSITION VALUE VALUE MEANING

CONSTANT
0 SEEK_SET BEGINNING OF FILE

1 SEEK_CUR CURRENT POSITION

2 SEEK_END END OF FILE

Example: fseek(fp,10,0) ;

fseek(fp,10,SEEK_SET);// file pointer is repositioned in the forward direction 10 bytes. fseek(fp,-

10,SEEK_END); // reads from backward direction from the end of file.
When the operation is successful fseek returns 0 and when we attempt to move a file beyond boundaries fseek
returns -1. Some of the Operations of fseek function are as follows:

STATEME MEANING
NT

147
 fseek(fp,0L,0); Go to beginning similar to rewind()

fseek(fp,0L,1); Stay at current position

fseek(fp,0L,2); Go to the end of file, past the last character of the file.

fseek(fp,m,0); Move to (m+1)th byte in the file.

fseek(fp,m,1); Go forward by m bytes

fseek(fp,-m,1); Go backwards by m bytes from the current position

fseek(fp,-m,2); Go backwards by m bytes from the end.(positions the file to the mth
character from the end)

Program on random access to files:

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{

FILE *fp;
char ch; fp=fopen("my1.txt","r"); fseek(fp,21,SEEK_SE
T); ch=fgetc(fp);
while(!feof(fp))
{
printf(“%c\t”,ch); printf(“%d\n”,ftell(fp
)); ch=fgetc(fp);
}
rewind(fp); printf(“%d\n”,ftell(fp
)); fclose(fp);
}

Error handling in files:

It is possible that an error may occur during I/O operations on a file. Typical error situations include:
Trying to read beyond the end of file mark. Device overflow.
Trying to use a file that has not been opened.

Trying to perform an operation on a file, when the file is opened for another type of operations.
Opening a file with an invalid filename. Attempting to write a write protected file.
If we fail to check such read and write errors, a program may behave abnormally when an error occurs. An
unchecked error may result in a premature termination of the program or incorrect output. In C we have two
status - inquiry library functions feof and ferror that can help us detect I/O errors in the files.
a). feof(): The feof() function can be used to test for an end of file condition. It takes a FILE pointer as its only
argument and returns a non zero integer value if all of the data from the specified file has been read, and returns
zero otherwise. If fp is a pointer to file that has just opened for reading, then the statement
if(feof(fp)) printf(“End of data”);
would display the message “End of data” on reaching the end of file condition.

ferror(): The ferror() function reports the status of the file indicated. It also takes a file pointer as its argument
and returns a nonzero integer if an error has been detected up to that point, during processing. It returns zero
otherwise. The statement
if(ferror(fp)!=0)

148
 printf(“an error has occurred\n”);

would print an error message if the reading is not successful

fp==null: We know that whenever a file is opened using fopen function, a file pointer is returned. If the file
cannot be opened for some reason, then the function returns a null pointer. This facility can be used to test
whether a file has been opened or not.
Example

if(fp==NULL)

printf(“File could not be opened.\n”);

perror(): It is a standard library function which prints the error messages specified by the compiler. For
example:
if(ferror(fp)) perror(filename);

Program for error handling in files:

#include<stdio.h> void main()

{ FILE
*fp; char ch;
fp=fopen("my1.txt","r"); if(fp==NULL) printf(“\n file cannot be
opened”); while(!feof(fp))
{
ch=getc(fp); if(ferror(fp))
perror(“problem in file”); else
putchar(ch);
}
fclose(fp);
}

Introduction to stdin, stdout and stderr (or) Special File Pointers:

When we say Input, it means to feed some data into a program. An input can be given in the form of a file or
from the command line. C programming provides a set of built-in functions to read the given input and feed it to
the program as per requirement.
When we say Output, it means to display some data on screen, printer, or in any file. C programming provides a
set of built-in functions to output the data on the computer screen as well as to save it in text or binary files.

The Standard Files

C programming treats all the devices as files. So devices such as the display are addressed in the same way as
files and the following three files are automatically opened when a program executes to provide access to the
keyboard and screen.
There are 3 special FILE *'s that are always defined for a program. They are stdin (standard input),
stdout (standard output) and stderr (standard error).

Standard File File Pointer Device

Standard input stdin Keyboard

Standard output stdout Screen

149
 Standard error stderr Your screen

The file pointers are the means to access the file for reading and writing purpose. This section explains how to
read values from the screen and how to print the result on the screen.

Standard Input
Standard input is where things come from when you use scanf(). In other words, scanf("%d", &val);
is equivalent to the following fscanf():
fscanf(stdin, "%d", &val);

Standard Output
Similarly, standard output is exactly where things go when you use printf(). In other words, printf("Value =
%d\n", val):
is equivalent to the following fprintf():
fprintf(stdout, "Value = %d\n", val):

Remember that standard input is normally associated with the keyboard and standard output with the screen,
unless redirection is used.

Standard Error
Standard error is where you should display error messages. We've already done that above: fprintf(stderr, "Can't
open input file in.list!\n");
Standard error is normally associated with the same place as standard output; however, redirecting standard
output does not redirect standard error.
For example,
% a.out > outfile

only redirects stuff going to standard output to the file outfile... anything written to standard error goes to the
screen.

Simulate a c program to read and display the contents of a file?

Program:
#include<stdio. h> void main()
{
FILE
*f1; char ch;
f1=fopen("data.txt","w");
printf("\n enter some text here and press cntrl D or Z to stop:\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,f1); fclose(f1);
printf(“\n the contents of file are \n:”); f1 = fopen(“data.txt”,"r");
while( ( ch = fgetc(f1) ) != EOF ) putchar(ch);
fclose(f1);
}

Develop a c program to copy the contents of one file to another? Program:

#include<stdio.h> void main()
{
FILE *f1,*f2; char ch;
f1=fopen("mynew2.txt","w");
printf("\n enter some text here and press cntrl D or Z to stop :\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,f1); fclose(f1);
f1=fopen("mynew2.txt","r"); f2=fopen("dupmynew2.txt","w"); while((ch=getc(f1))!=EOF) putc(ch,f2);
fcloseall();
printf(“\n the copied file contents are :”); f2 = fopen(“dupmynew2.txt”,"r"); while( ( ch = fgetc(f2) ) != EOF )
150
putchar(ch);
fclose(f2);
}

Construct a c program to merge two files into a third file? (Or)

Develop a c program for the following .there are two input files named “first.dat” and “second.dat” .The
files are to be merged. That is,copy the contents of first.dat and then second.dat to a new file named
result.dat?

Program:
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdlib.h> int main()
{
FILE *fs1, *fs2, *ft;
char ch, file1[20], file2[20], file3[20]; printf("Enter name of first file\n"); gets(file1);
printf("Enter name of second file\n"); gets(file2);
printf("Enter name of file which will store contents of 2 files\n"); gets(file3);
fs1=fopen(file1,"w");
printf("\n enter some text into file1 here and press cntrl D or Z to stop :\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,fs1); fclose(fs1); fs2=fopen(file2,"w");
printf("\n enter some text into file2 here and press cntrl D or Z to stop :\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF)
fputc(ch,fs2); fclose(fs2); fs1 =
fopen(file1,"r"); fs2
= fopen(file2,"r");
if( fs1 == NULL || fs2 == NULL )
{
perror("Error "); exit(1);
}
ft = fopen(file3,"w"); while( ( ch = fgetc(fs1) ) != EOF ) fputc(ch,ft);
while( ( ch = fgetc(fs2) ) != EOF ) fputc(ch,ft);
printf("Two files were merged to %s file successfully.\n",file3); fcloseall();
ft = fopen(file3,"r");
printf(“\n the merged file contents are
:”); while( ( ch = fgetc(fs1) ) != EOF ) putchar(ch);
fclose(f t); return 0;
}

Write a c program to append the contents of a file ?

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fp1; char ch;
fp1=fopen("sunday.txt","w");
printf("\n Enter some Text into file :\n"); while((ch=getchar())!='.')
fputc(ch,fp1); fclose(fp1);
fp1=fopen("sunday.txt","a+"); //to append
printf("\n Enter some MORE Text into file
:\n"); while((ch=getchar())!='.') fputc(ch,fp1);
rewind(fp1);
printf("\n The complete Text in file is
:\n"); while((ch=fgetc(fp1))!=EOF) putchar(ch);
fclose(fp1);
}

Construct a c program to display the reverse the contents of a file? Program:

#include
151
 <stdio.h> #include
<stdlib.h
>
int main()
{FILE
*fp1; char ch; int x;
fp1=fopen("any1.txt","w"); printf("\n Enter some text into file
:\n"); while((ch=getchar())!=EOF) fputc(ch,fp1);
fclose(fp1);
fp1=fopen("any1.txt","r"); if(fp1==NULL)
{
printf("\n cannot open file:"); exit(1);
}
fseek(fp1,- 1L,2);
x=ftell(fp1);
printf("\n Th text in the file in reverse order is : \n"); while(x>=0)
{
ch=fgetc(fp1); printf("%c",ch); x--;
fseek(fp1,x,0);
}
fclose(fp1);
}

Command line arguments :

Command line argument is the parameter supplied to a program when the program is invoked. This parameter
may represent a file name the program should process. For example, if we want to execute a program to copy the
contents of a file named X_FILE to another one name Y_FILE then we may use a command line like

C:> program X_FILE Y_FILE

Program is the file name where the executable code of the program is stored. This eliminates the need for the
program to request the user to enter the file names during execution. The „main‟ function can take two
arguments called argc, argv and information contained in the command line is passed on to the program to these
arguments, when „main‟ is called up by the system.

The variable argv is an argument vector and represents an array of characters pointers that point to the command
line arguments.

The argc is an argument counter that counts the number of arguments on the command line. The size of this
array is equal to the value of argc. In order to access the command line arguments, we must declare the „main‟
function and its parameters as follows:
main(argc,argv) int argc;
char *argv[ ];

……….
}

Generally argv[0] represents the program name.

Example:- A program to copy the contents of one file into another using command line

arguments.
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 #include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
void main(int argc,char* argv[]) /* command line arguments */
{
FILE *ft,*fs; /* file pointers declaration*/
int c=0; if(argc!=3)
Printf(“\n insufficientarguments”);
fs=fopen(argv[1],”r”);
ft=fopen(argv[2],”w”);
if (fs==NULL)
{
printf(“\nsource file opening error”); exit(1) ;
}
if (ft==NULL)
{
printf(“ target file openingerror”); exit(1) ;
}
while(!feof(fs))
{
fputc(fgetc(fs),ft);
c++;
}
printf(“\n bytes copied from %s file to %s file =%d”, argv[1], argv[2], c); c=fcloseall(); /*closing all files*/
printf(“files closed=%d”,c);
}

Simulate a c program to add two numbers using command line arguments?

Program:
#include<stdio.h>
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
int x, sum=0;
printf("\n Number of arguments are:%d",argc);
printf("\n The agruments are:");
for(x=0;x<argc;x++)
{
printf("\n agrv[%d]=%s", x,argv[x]);
if(x<2)
continue;
sum=sum+atoi(argv[x]);
}
printf("\n program name:%s",argv[0]);
printf("\n name is:%s",argv[1]);
printf("\n sum is:%d",sum);
return(0);
}

Write a C program to write all the members of an array of structures to a file using fwrite(). Read the array from
the file and display on the screen.
#include <stdio.h>
struct s
{
char name[50]; int height;
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 };
int main(){
struct s a[5],b[5];
FILE *fptr;
int i;
fptr=fopen("file.txt","wb");
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
fflush(stdin);
printf("Enter name: ");
gets(a[i].name);
printf("Enter height: ");
scanf("%d",&a[i].height);
}
fwrite(a,sizeof(a),1,fptr);
fclose(fptr);
fptr=fopen("file.txt","rb");
fread(b,sizeof(b),1,fptr);
for(i=0;i<5;++i)
{
printf("Name: %s\nHeight: %d",b[i].name,b[i].height);
}
fclose(fptr);
}

Output:
Enter name:ramu
Enter height:156
Enter name:sita
Enter height:140
Enter name:ravi
Enter height:172
Enter name:vijay
Enter height:167
Enter name:raju
Enter height:148
Name:ramu
Height:156
Name:sita
Height:140
Name:ravi
Height:172
Name:vijay
Height:167
Name:raju
Height:148

Preprocessors:
The C Preprocessor is not part of the compiler but is a separate step in the compilation process.In
simplistic terms, a C Preprocessor is just a text substitution tool and they instruct compiler to do required pre-
processing before actual compilation. We'll refer to the C Preprocessor as the CPP.All preprocessor commands
begin with a pound symbol #. It must be the first nonblank character,and for readability, a preprocessor directive
should begin in first column.
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 Invoked automatically by the C compiler o 1st pass: invokes C preprocessor
o 2nd pass: invokes compiler on the resulting C code
Manually invoke C preprocessor gcc –E foo.c
This section lists Three (3) kinds of preprocessor directives:

1.1 File Inclusion (#include):

1.1 #include: Inserts a particular header from another file

Eg: #include <stdio.h> #include "myheader.h"
These directives tell the CPP to get stdio.h from System
Libraries and add the text to the current
source file. The next line tells CPP to get myheader.h from the local
directory and add the content to the current source file.

Conditional compilation (#if, #ifdef, #ifndef, #elif, #else, #endif):

#if :
The #if directive tests an expression. This expression can be of any form used in a C program, with
virtually any operators, except that it can include only integer constant values No variables, or function calls are
permitted, nor are floating point, character or string constants. The #if directive is true, if the expression
evaluates to true (nonzero). Any undefined preprocessor symbol used in the #if expression is treated as

all preprocessors, and an attempt to do so might result in an error.

Eg:
#include <stdio.h>
#define WINDOWS 1
int main()
{
#if WINDOWS
printf("Windows");
#endif
return 0;
}
Here is the output of the executable program:Windows

#ifdef:
Returns true if this macro is defined
Eg:
#ifdef DEBUG
/* Your debugging statement enter here * / #endif
This tells the CPP to do the process the statements enclosed if DEBUG is defined.
This is useful if you pass the -DDEBUG flag to gcc compiler at the time of compilation.
This will define DEBUG, so you can turn debugging on and off on the fly during compilation.
#ifndef: Returns true if this macro is not defined
Eg:
#ifndef MESSAGE
#define MESSAGE "You wish!" #endif
This tells the CPP to define MESSAGE only if MESSAGE isn't already defined.
Few other
#else: The alternative for #if
#elif: #else an #if in one statement
#endif: Ends preprocessor conditional

155
 Macros (#define, #undef, #error, #pragma):
#define: Substitutes a preprocessor macro
eg: #define MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH 20. This directive tells the CPP to replace instances of
MAX_ARRAY_LENGTH with 20. Use #define for constants to increase readability.
#undef: Undefines a preprocessor macro Eg: #undef FILE_SIZE
#define FILE_SIZE 42
This tells the CPP to undefine existing FILE_SIZE and define it as 42.
#error: Prints error message on stderr
#pragma: Issues special commands to the compiler, using a standardized method

Preprocessors Examples Predefined Macros

ANSI C defines a number of macros. Although each one is available for your use in programming,
the predefined macros should not be directly modified.

Macro Description

DATE The current date as a character literal in "MMM DD YYYY" format

TIME The current time as a character literal in "HH:MM:SS" format

FILE This contains the current filename as a string literal.

LINE This contains the current line number as a decimal constant.

STDC Defined as 1 when the compiler complies with the ANSI standard.

Let's try the following example:

#include <stdio.h> m ain()

{
printf("File :%s\n", FILE );
printf("Date :%s\n", DATE );
printf("Tim e :%s\n", TIME );
printf("Line :%d\n", LINE );
printf("ANSI :%d\n", STDC );
}
When the above code in a file test.c is compiled and executed, it produces the following result:
File :test.c

Date :Jun 2 2012

Tim e :03:36:24

Line :8

ANSI :1

Preprocessor Operators
The C preprocessor offers following operators to help you in creating macros:
Macro Continuation (\)
A macro usually must be contained on a single line. The macro continuation operator is used to
continue a macro that is too long for a single line. For example:
#define message_for(a, b) \ printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n")

156
Stringize #
The stringize or number-sign operator '#' , when used within a macro definition, converts a macro
parameter into a string constant. This operator may be used only in a macro that has a specified
argument or parameter list. For example:
#include <stdio.h>
#define message_for(a, b) \
printf(#a " and " #b ": We love you!\n") int main(void)
{
message_for(Carole, Debra); return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: Carole and Debra: We love
you!
Token Pasting ##
The token-pasting operator ## within a macro definition combines two arguments. It permits two
separate tokens in the macro definition to be joined into a single token. For example: #include <stdio.h>
#define tokenpaster(n)
printf ("token" #n " = %d", token##n)
int main(void)
{
int token34 = 40;
tokenpaster(34);
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: token34 = 40
How it happened, because this example results in the following actual output from the preprocessor:
printf ("token34 = %d", token34);
This example shows the concatenation of token##n into token34 and here we have used both
stringize and token-pasting. The defined Operator
The preprocessor defined operator is used in constant expressions to determine if an identifier is
defined using #define. If the specified identifier is defined, the value is true non − zero. If the symbol
is not defined, the value is false zero. The defined operator is specified as follows: #include <stdio.h>
#if !defined (MESSAGE) #define MESSAGE "You wish!" #endif
int m ain(void)
{
printf("Here is the m essage: %s\n", MESSAGE); return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: Here is the m essage: You
wish!

Parameterized Macros
One of the powerful functions of the CPP is the ability to simulate functions using parameterized
macros. For example, we might have some code to square a number as follows: int square(int x) {
return x * x;
}
We can rewrite above code using a macro as follows: #define square(x) ((x) * (x))

157
Macros with arguments must be defined using the #define directive before they can be used.
The
argument list is enclosed in parentheses and must immediately follow the macro name.Spaces
are not allowed between and macro name and open parenthesis.
For example:
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX(x,y)
((x) > (y) ? (x) : (y))
int main(void)
{
printf("Max between 20 and 10 is %d\n", MAX(10, 20));
return 0;
}
When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result: Max between 20 and 10 is 20

158
 Frequently Asked Questions in Exams:

Unit-1:
1. Explain about operators in C with examples?
2. Define a variable? How to declare and initialize variables in C? What are the rules for naming variables in
C?
3. Define a flow chart and draw a flowchart for finding the factorial of a given umber?
4. Explain Define an algorithm and design an algorithm for finding bigger of three numbers?
5. Explain about loops in C with an example? Give their syntax and flowchart ?
6. Explain about switch statement in C with example? Give its syntax and flow chart?
7. Differentiate between break and continue in C?
8. Differentiate between while and do while loops in C?
9. Write a C program to determine if a number is palindrome or not?
10.Write a C program to display prime numbers till a given number?
UNIT-2:
1. Explain about string handling functions in C ?
2.Write a C program to add two matrices.
3.Implement a C program for Matrix multiplication?
4.Write a C program to find minimum and maximum in a list of elements?
5.Write a C program to sort a given list of elements?
6.Write a C program to determine if a string is palindrome or not?
7.Differentiate between structures and union
8.Explain about array of structures with an example program. Write a C program to find the total marks of n
students. Use a structure of student containing name ,id, and marks of 3 subjects.
9.Define a self-referential structure? Explain the use of pointers in self-referential structures and self-
referential structures in linked lists?
10.Explain about how to access members of a structures using pointers with an example program?

Unit-3:
1. Write a C program to merge two files into a third file?
2. Write a C program to append the contents of a file into another?
3. Define a File? Explain about different modes of opening a file?
4. Write a C program to read and display the contents of a file?
5. Explain about random access to files in detail with an example?
6. Explain about command line argument swith an example in C?
7. Explain about the following pre-processor commands with exam
(i) include (ii) define (iii) undef (iv) if (v) ifdef

Unit-4:
1. Explain about different parameter passing techniques in detail with an example program?
2. Define recursion? What are its merits and demerits? Write a C program to find the factorial
using recursion and non-recursion?
3. Explain about different dynamic memory allocation functions in detail with example?
4. Differentiate between static and dynamic memory allocation?
5. Differentiate between formal and actual argumnets?
6. Explain about various categories of functions with examples.
159
Unit-5:
1. Algorithm/ Program/Example for Linear search.
2. Algorithm/ Program/Example for binary search.
3. Algorithm/ Program/passes for insertion sort.
4. Algorithm/ Program/passes for Selection sort.
5. Algorithm/ Program/passes for Bubble sort.

Short answer Questions: (2 marks)

1. Write the output for the following code:
main()
{
char s[]=”STANDARD”;
int i;
for(i=0;s[i]!=’\0’;i++)
printf(“\n%c”,*(s+i));
}
2. Define Void Pointer.
3. Write an alogirthm to find biggest of two numbers.
4. Differentiate between Formal Arguments and Actual Arguments.
5. What are the differences between malloc() and calloc()?
6. What are the advantages of using typedef in a program?
7. List any four String Handling Functions.
8. What is the purpose of Structures in C?
9. Give the Syntax of ‘while’ loop in C.
10. Write a C Program to determine a number is Even or Odd Using Ternary Operator.
11. Draw a Flowchart to find greatest of two numbers.
12. With example Differentiate between Pre Increment and Post Increment Operators.
13. Differentiate between Entry Controlled Loops and Exit Controlled Loops.
14. Give the Syntax of Switch Statement.
15. Declare a Multidimensional Array.
16. Which String Handling Function reverses the given String? Give its syntax.
17. Declare a Character Pointer and an Integer Pointer? Give their sizes.
18. What are the different Storage Classes available in C Language.
19. Differentiate between Structure and Union.
20. What are Command Line Arguments?
21. Differentiate Variable and Constant.
22. What is Type Casting in C?
23. Write the syntax for Switch Statement.
24. How to declare and initialize an Array?
25. What is Recursion?
26. Write the syntax for declaring a Pointer to Pointer.
27. What ia a Nested Structure and how to declare?
28. Differentiate EOF and foef().
29. What are the limitations of Binary Search?
30. Define Algorithm. Write an algorithm for addition of two numbers.
160
31. List out different types of Programming Language.
32. Write about goto statement with appropriate example.
33. What are the advantages and disadvantage of array?
34. Write a C Program to concatenate two Strings.
35. Write about Nested Functions.
36. Different Call by Value and Call by Reference.
37. What is the necessity of storing data in Files?
38. What is Self-Referential Structure?
39. What is the best worst and average case time complexity of binary search?
40. When is the best case of binary search?
41. Differentiate between binary and linear search.
42. What is the best worst and average case time complexity of linear search?
43. When is the best case of linear search?
44. What is the best worst and average case time complexity of Bubble sort?
45. What is the best worst and average case time complexity of Insertion sort?
46. What is the best worst and average case time complexity of Selection sort?
47. When does insertion sort exhibit its best case behavior?
48. List the applications of pointers?
49. List the advantages of arrays in c?
50. What is the difference between text file and binary files?

161