Chemistry

Term 2 Summary Year 11 2019

Module 2
 Chemical Reactions, Stoichiometry
and the Mole
Balancing Equations:
A chemical equation shows us the substances involved in a chemical reaction - the substances that
react (reactants) and the substances that are produced (products). According to the law of
conservation of mass, when a chemical reaction occurs, the mass of the products should be equal
to the mass of the reactants. Therefore, the amount of the atoms in each element does not change
in the chemical reaction. As a result, the chemical equation that shows the chemical reaction needs
to be balanced.

Formula Mass and Mole Calculations:

Calculating Relative Formula Masses
Relative Atomic Mass
The relative atomic mass of an element shows its mass compared with the mass of atoms of other
elements. The relative atomic mass of carbon is 12, while the relative atomic mass of magnesium is
24. This means that each magnesium atom is twice the mass of a carbon atom.

Relative Formula Mass

Relative atomic masses can be used to find the relative formula mass of a compound.
To find the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound, you add together the relative atomic mass
values (Ar values) for all the atoms in its formula.

Example:
Find the Mr of carbon monoxide, CO.
The Ar of carbon is 12 and the Ar of oxygen is 16.
Chemistry 2

The Mr of carbon monoxide is 12 + 16 = 28.

The relative formula mass of a substance, shown in grams, is called ONE MOLE of that substance.
So one mole of carbon monoxide has a mass of 28 g, and one mole of sodium oxide has a mass of
62 g.

Chemists measure the amount of a substance in a unit called ‘the mole’. This is a convenient way of
counting atoms. It allows chemists to make predictions about the masses of different substances
that are involved in reactions.
One mole is the Avogadro number of particles (atoms, molecules, ions or electrons) in a substance.

Avagadro Number:
One mole of atoms contains 6.022 x 1023 atoms, no matter what element it is. This is a very large
number: it is 6 with 23 zeros after it. It is known as the Avogadro number.
This number is used in chemistry because if you could count out this many carbon atoms, the total
mass of carbon you would have is 12 g. On the other hand, weighing out 12 g of carbon allows you
to know how many atoms you have.

Mole Elements:
One mole of carbon atoms has a mass of exactly 12 g. Because magnesium atoms each have twice
the mass of carbon atoms (24Mg compared with 12C), one mole of magnesium has a mass of 24 g.
In fact, one mole of any element has a mass in grams that is equal to its relative atomic mass. One
mole of iron has a mass of 56 g.

Moles of Compounds:
A mole of a molecular compound contains 6 x 10 23 molecules. It has a mass that is equal to its
relative formula mass. So a mole of water (H2O) has a mass of 18 g. A mole of carbon dioxide (CO2)
has a mass of 44 g. This also works for ionic compounds, so a mole of sodium chloride (NaCl) has
a mass of 58.5 g.
This approach can also be used for elements that are made from molecules. For example, oxygen
gas O2 is diatomic (each molecule contains two atoms) so its relative formula mass is 32. One mole
Chemistry 3

of oxygen molecules would therefore have a mass of 32 g. One mole of oxygen atoms (if you could
ever isolate them) would have a mass of 16 g.

Mole Calculations:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 ÷ 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠

This formula can be rearranged to find the mass if the number of moles and molar mass (its relative
formula mass in grams) are known. It can also be rearranged to find the molar mass if the mass and
number of moles is known.
Divide by atomic molecular weight

Mass. Number of Moles

Multiply by atomic molecular weight

Law of Conservation of Mass

The law of Conservation of mass states that matter can be neither created or destroyed, but merely
changed from one form to another.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑠

To write a chemical Equation:

1. Write a word equation that includes all products and reactants.
2. Write the formula for all the substances involved (to make an unbalanced equation)
3. Balance the equation by putting numbers in front of symbols: start with atoms that occur in
once place only on each side of the equation.
4. Add state symbols.
Chemistry 4

Mass Moles Atoms/Molecules

Moles and Chemical Equations:

The Chemical Equation:
4𝑃(𝑠) + 502(𝑔) → 2𝑃2 𝑂5(𝑠)

Tells us that:
1. Qualitatively, solid phosphorus reacts with oxygen gas to form solid diphosphorus pentoxide
2. Four atoms of phosphorus react with 5 molecules of oxygen to form two molecules
diphosphorus pentoxide
Because atoms and molecules have such small masses, we usually have to work with very large
numbers of them to have masses that we can conveniently weigh in the laboratory. Because the
second statement above is true, multiplying by the Avagadro constant leads to:
3. Four molecules of phosphorus react with five molecules of oxygen to form two moles of
diphosphorus pentoxide.
This means that chemical equations can be read in terms of moles as well as in terms of atoms and
molecules.

Mass calculations from chemical equations:

The method of performing as mass-mass calculation can be summarized as follows:
1. Write a balanced equation
𝑚
2. Calculate the number of moles of the given substance using 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀(mass over molar mass)
3. Using the chemical equation to write an expression for:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

This is simply equal to the ratio of the stoichiometric coefficients in the equation.
4. Use this ratio to calculate the number of moles if the required substance
5. Calculate the mass of required substance by rearranging the formula (n=m over mm)
Chemistry 5

Percentage Composition:
The percentage composition of compound is the percentage of each element present in the
compound.
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
The Empirical formula of a compound can be calculated from the experimentally determined
percentage composition.

Limiting Reagents calculations:

Balance the chemical equation for the chemical reaction. Convert the given information into moles.
Use stoichiometry for each individual reactant to find the mass of product produced.
The reactant that produces a lesser amount of product is the limiting reagent. The limiting reagent
in a chemical reaction is the substance that is totally consumed when the chemical reaction is
complete. The amount of product formed is limited by this reagent, since the reaction cannot continue
without it
E.G.
Chemistry 6

Empirical Formula
Atoms or Ions present in compounds in fixed whole number ratio -> simplest whole number ration of
elements.

Determining Empirical Formula

1. Obtaining mass (m) of each element
𝑚
2. Calculating mole of each element in compound using 𝑛 = 𝑀𝑀
3. Convert mol of each element calculated -> whole number

Molecular Formula
Molecular compounds have a molecular formula in addition to an empirical formula. Molecular
formula gives the actual number of atoms of each element present in a molecule, rather than simplest
whole number

Determining Molecular Formula

A molecular formula can be determined from an empirical formula of a compound, if molar mass of
a compound is known. A molecular formula is always a whole number multiplied of the empirical
formula.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡

Mass calculations from chemical equations

A mole statement from an equation combined with relative atomic and molecular masses allows us
to calculate:

• The mass of one reactant needed to react completely with a given mass of a reactant
• The mass of a product that can be formed given mass of a reactant
E.G.
Chemistry 7

Solutions- Concentration and Molarity

A solution is formed when a substance (the solute) is dissolved in a liquid (the solvent). Concentration
of a solution describes the relative amount of solute and solvent present in a solution.
- A solution in which the ratio of solute to solvent is high is said to be concentrated
- A solution in which the ratio of solute to solvent is low, it is dilute.

Units of Concentration
Mass of solute per litre of solution (gram per litre/𝑔𝐿−1 )

Mass of solute per litre of solution (Moles per litre/𝑔𝐿−1 )

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

E.G
What is the concentration, in gL-1, of a solution 8g of sodium chloride in 500 ml of solution?
1. Change volume to express in liters
2. Calculate concentration
500
1. 1000 = 0.500𝐿
8
2. 𝑐 = therefore, = 16.0gL
0.500
Chemistry 8

Concentration in grams per litre

Concentration of a solution in grams per litre = the mass, in grams, of a solute dissolved in one litre
of the solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑔)
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐿)

CONCENTRATION IN MgL AND PPM (PARTS PER MILLION) ARE EQUIVALENT

Since 1L has a mas of 1kg, a concentration measured in MgL can be the same as ppm. In simple
tersm, the concentration in parts per million can be thought of as the mass in grams of solute that is
dissolved 1000,000g of solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑝𝑝𝑚) =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝐾𝑔)

E.G.
A saturated solution of calcium carbonate contains 0.0198g of (CaC𝑂3 ) dissolved on 2000g solution.
Calculate the concentration of calcium carbonate in the solution in ppm.
1. Calculate the mass of solute in mg. [mass(mg)= mass(g) x 1000]
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠(𝑔)
2. Calculate the mass of solution in kg. [𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑘𝑔) = 1000
3. Calculate the concentration of solution in mgkg

1. Mass of solute (CaCo3) in mg = 0.0198 x1000 = 19.8mg

2000
2. Mass of solution in kg = 1000 = 2.000 𝑘𝑔
3. Concentration of CaCo3 in ppm
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑔)
=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑘𝑔)
19.8
= 9.90 𝑝𝑝𝑚
2.000

Percentage mass/volume (%(w/v))

Percentage mass/volume describes the mass of solute, measured in grams, present in 100mL of the
solution.
E.G. if a solution of a plant food contains a particular potassium compound at a concentration of 3%
(w/v), this indicates that there are 3g of potassium compound in 100ml of a solution.
Concentration (%(w/v))
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑙)
= × 100
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑚𝑙)
Chemistry 9

Dilution
The process of adding more solvent to a solution is known as dilution. When a solution is diluted, its
concentration is decreased.

Same number of particles

E.G.
50ml of water is added to 50mn of 0.10 mol sugar solution, the amount of sugar remains unchanged
but volume increases. Therefore, if you have V1 liters of solution, and the concentration was C1 mol.
The amount of solute, in moles is
𝑛 = 𝑐1 × 𝑣1

Suppose water was added to make new volume, V2 and change concentration to c2. The amount
of solute, n2 in this diluted solution.
𝑐1 𝑣1 = 𝑐2 × 𝑣2

Therefore, the amount of moles of solute has not changed, n2=n2

𝑐1 𝑣1 = 𝑐2 𝑣2

Steps:
1. Write down the known values
2. Transpose equation to calculate concentration of new solution
3. Calculate concentration of diluted solution.

Change units of concentration

Steps:
1. Calculate number of mol of solute in 1L
2. Calculate the mass, in g, of solute in 1L
3. Calculate the mass, in mg, of solute in 1L
4. Express concentration of solute in ppm
REMEMBER: CONCENTRATION IN PPM IS THE SAME AS MGL
Example:
What is the concentration in ppm of a 0.00200molL solution of NaCl.
𝑛(𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙) = 𝑐 × 𝑣
= 0.000200 × 1 = 0.00200𝑚𝑜𝑙

58.44(𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙)𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙

Chemistry 10

= 58.44 × 0.00200
= 0.117𝑔

0.117𝑔 × 1000 (𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑝𝑝𝑚)

= 117𝑝𝑝𝑚

Gas Laws
Purpose of the experiment:
To Demonstrate the complexities involved in measuring properties of gas relating to
1. Complications in weighing due to the buoyancy of air
2. Problems in pressure
3. Non-identical

Physical Properties of gas

Physical Characteristics Typical units
Volume (v) Liters (L)
Pressure (P) Atomsphere (1 atm = 1.015 × 105 𝑁/𝑀2 )
Temperature (T) Kelvin (K)
Number of Atoms or Molecules (N) Mole (1𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 6.022 × 1023

Boyles Law
Robert Boyle: Chemist and Natural Philosopher
Pressure and volume are inversely related at constant
As one goes up the other goes down.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝐾

𝑝1 𝑣1 = 𝑝2 𝑣2
Chemistry 11

Charles Law
Jacques-Alexandre Charles: Mathematician, Physicist.
Volume of a gas varies directly with the absolute temp at constant pressure.
𝑉 = 𝐾𝑇

𝑉1 𝑇1 = 𝑉2 𝑇2
Kinetic molecular theory states that increasing the temp of a gas increases kinetic energy of the
molecules. Therefore molecules move faster and collide faster.

Gay-Lussac Law
At constant volume pressure and absolute temp at directly related.
𝑃 = 𝐾𝑇
𝑃1 𝑇1 = 𝑃2 𝑇2

Boyle and Charles law combined

𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃1 𝑉1
=
𝑇2 𝑇1
Chemistry 12

Avagadro’s Law

𝑉 = 𝑘𝑛
Where N is the number of moles of the gas and the constant, k is the same for all gases.

Avagadro, Charles and Boyles law combined

𝑃𝑉
= 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑛𝑇