Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1 (2021) 75–82

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ajsep

The effects of mindfulness training on mindfulness, anxiety, emotion

dysregulation, and performance satisfaction among female
student-athletes: The moderating role of age ✩
Megan Hut1,∗, Carol R. Glass, Kathryn A. Degnan, Thomas O. Minkler
Department of Psychology, The Catholic University of America, USA

a b s t r a c t

Research has suggested that mindfulness can help combat stress, increase self-compassion, and improve well-being. Although mindfulness is also beneficial for
student-athletes, little is known about how developmental differences due to age may influence intervention efficacy. The present study investigated whether 6-week
Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) training had a differential effect on younger (first and second year) compared to older (third and fourth year)
college student-athletes’ mindfulness, sport anxiety, emotion dysregulation, and satisfaction with both attention/emotion regulation and physical sport performance.
Participants were 39 younger and 21 older female athletes from three teams (lacrosse, field hockey, track & field) at a private university in the United States, ranging
in age from 18-22. Multiple 2 × 2 mixed-design ANOVAs revealed significant reductions in sport anxiety as well as significant improvements on self-ratings of
satisfaction with both attention/emotion regulation and physical sport performance. Older student-athletes improved more than their younger teammates on sport
mindfulness, and independent samples t-tests indicated that older student-athletes reported more frequent mindfulness practice during workouts, team practice, and
competitions. Linear regressions found that age predicted reductions in sport anxiety and improvements in dispositional mindful acceptance. Finally, student-athletes
perceived MSPE to be moderately to highly successful in promoting change in a variety of performance-related areas such as anxiety reduction, focus, and the ability
to let things go. The implications of these results are presented, as well as suggestions for future research on mindfulness mental training with college athletes.

Mindfulness has been described as “the awareness that emerges to be related to well-being in athlete populations (Foster & Chow, 2020).
through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and Mindfulness is also inversely correlated with cognitive and somatic anxi-
nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” ety, and the fact that cognitive anxiety mediated an observed association
(Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 145). Bishop and colleagues (2004) conceptual- between mindfulness and perceived athletic performance suggests that
ized the construct as consisting of two components, the self-regulation mindfulness may benefit sport performance (Röthlin et al., 2016). Al-
of attention on one’s “immediate experience” of present-moment events, though the quality of current evidence is low and more methodologically
along with an orientation toward this experience “that is characterized rigorous investigations are needed, recent reviews and meta-analyses of
by curiosity, openness, and acceptance” (pp. 232-233). A growing foun- the mindfulness and sport literature have shown mindfulness training to
dation of evidence suggests that mindfulness-based interventions (MBIs) be associated with a range of positive outcomes including an enhanced
can contribute to positive outcomes related to mental health and wellbe- ability to be mindful—indicating that this skill can be learned through
ing with diverse populations (Khoury et al., 2013; Khoury et al., 2015). practice (Bühlmayer et al., 2017; Noetel et al., 2019).
Derived from traditionally Eastern philosophy and teachings (e.g., Bud- More specifically, the meta-analytical review by Bühlmayer and
dhism, Taoism, etc.), mindfulness has permeated both popular culture colleagues (2017) noted that physiological and psychological param-
and therapeutic and consulting practice around the world (Bishop et al., eters related to enhanced performance have been observed following
2004), with increasing interest in its application with athletes (Zizzi & MBIs with athletes, including reduction of salivary cortisol and muscle
Andersen, 2010). tightness, minimization of self-reported anxiety, and improvements in
Sport scientists have found that this particular way of paying atten- mindfulness and flow. An additional review by Noetel and colleagues
tion may be beneficial (Birrer et al., 2012). In cross-sectional designs, (2019) suggests that MBIs may contribute to increases in mindfulness
mindfulness as a dispositional or inherent human trait has been shown and acceptance, awareness, flow, confidence, mental toughness, and

✩ We would like to express our gratitude to undergraduate research assistants Erin Wallace, John Flynn, and Holly Regan for their assistance in collecting and

entering data for analysis. Portions of these findings (Hut et al., 2020) were presented at the 35th Annual Conference of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology
in 2020. Pre-post intervention outcomes for a subgroup of participants in the current dataset were published in Minkler et al. (2020).
∗
Corresponding author at: College of Education and Human Services, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA.
E-mail address: mh00026@mix.wvu.edu (M. Hut).
1
Megan Hut is now at the Department of Curriculum and Instruction/Literacy Studies, West Virginia University; Thomas Minkler is now at the College of Physical
Activity and Sport Sciences, West Virginia University.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajsep.2021.06.002
Received 14 May 2021; Received in revised form 9 June 2021; Accepted 10 June 2021
2667-2391/Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/)
M. Hut, C.R. Glass, K.A. Degnan et al. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1 (2021) 75–82

performance, as well as reductions in anxiety in adult sport participants. Although the literature demonstrates that mindfulness can be benefi-
More recent findings suggest that MBIs enhance adult athletes’ atten- cial for athletes on college teams (Glass et al., 2019; Gross et al., 2018),
tional control and improve their ability to handle emotions and cope to our knowledge there is no research to date on the potential differen-
with failure (Röthlin et al., 2020), and may contribute to overall mental tial impacts of mindfulness interventions for younger and older student-
health in college student-athletes (Evers et al., 2020). athletes. The implications of considering developmental differences as
Fortunately, several MBIs have been developed specifically for a moderator of change are important, as younger student-athletes could
sport participants. The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC) ap- be more likely to experience difficulties as they first transition to college
proach (Gardner & Moore, 2007), influenced by Acceptance and Com- (Gayles & Baker, 2015). Just as the literature outside of sport suggests
mitment Therapy (Hayes et al., 1999), has led to improvements in mind- that age may play a role in MBI outcomes and there is some evidence
fulness and perceived stress (Goodman et al., 2014) and reductions in that mindfulness increases with age (Lehto et al., 2015), it is also possi-
emotion dysregulation, anxiety, and substance use with college-aged ble that over the course of four years student-athletes become better at
athletes (Gross et al., 2018; Josefsson et al., 2019). Another evidence- applying mindfulness and/or being more mindful. As a result of devel-
based MBI for sport participants is Mindful Sport Performance Enhance- opmental changes in psychological maturity from adolescence to young
ment (MSPE; Kaufman et al., 2018), influenced by Mindfulness-Based adulthood (Lüdtke et al., 2011), older students may engage in behav-
Stress Reduction (MBSR; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Improvements in mindful- iors (e.g., mindfulness practice) that promote performance and overall
ness, flow, satisfaction with performance, and anxiety have been found mental health to a higher degree than younger student-athletes.
following MSPE with mixed-sport collegiate athletes (Glass et al., 2019) Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to determine
and entire college teams (Minkler et al., 2020; Pineau et al., 2019). Chen whether the acceptability and effectiveness of an MBI (MSPE) varied
and colleagues (2019) also reported improved dimensions of flow state between younger and older college student-athletes. Differences in pro-
and mental health, including disordered eating, following an MSPE in- gram engagement and application of mindfulness practice, as well as
tervention for young adult baseball players. Moreover, college athletes changes in mindfulness (both trait/dispositional and in the context of
who participate in MSPE interventions generally report positive experi- sports), emotion dysregulation, sport anxiety, and satisfaction with both
ences (Minkler et al., 2020; Mistretta et al., 2017). attention/emotion regulation and physical sport performance were ex-
Although the literature demonstrates that such MBIs are helpful for plored. It was hypothesized that MSPE would be more effective for older
athletes, less is known about for whom and under what circumstances student-athletes compared to their younger teammates. Finally, older
mindfulness interventions may be more or less beneficial (Röthlin et al., student-athletes were also predicted to be more willing to practice and
2020). Gardner (2009) has described the need for more sport psychology apply mindfulness to their lives during the course of mindfulness train-
research to investigate mechanisms through which interventions may ing.
influence athletes. While more recent studies have examined mediators
and moderators of change such as emotion regulation and rumination
Method
(Josefsson et al., 2017, 2019), anxiety, (Röthlin et al., 2016), and psy-
chological functioning (Wolanin & Schwanhausser, 2010), one potential
Participants
moderator of interest that has not been investigated with athlete popu-
lations is age.
Participants were 60 female student-athletes from three athletic
Outside of sport, a meta-analysis by Zoogman and colleagues
teams at a private university in the United States, who received mind-
(2014) found that MBIs can benefit mindfulness and attention in healthy
fulness training along with their teammates. They included 30 athletes
children and adolescents, and may be particularly helpful to address
from the women’s lacrosse team, 21 from the field hockey team, and
symptoms associated with psychopathology. These authors also note
nine from the women’s track and field team. Overall, participants ranged
that mindfulness interventions with youth have generally shown smaller
in age from 18 to 22 (M = 19.48), and included 21 first-year and 18
effect sizes than studies with adult samples. Gómez-Odriozola and Cal-
second-year college students (whose data were combined for data anal-
vete, (2021) found age to be a significant moderator of the effectiveness
yses as the “younger” group, M age = 18.74) along with 13 third-year
of an MBI with a sample of adolescents, including first-year college stu-
and 8 fourth-year students (whose data were combined as the “older”
dents. Younger participants experienced increases in symptoms of de-
group, M age = 20.62). See Table 1 for additional demographic infor-
pression whereas older students reported reductions in depression and
mation, including pre-intervention sport psychology exposure and med-
interpersonal difficulties, suggesting that MBIs may need to be adjusted
itation/yoga experience.
based on the developmental needs of participants.
College students are often making the transition from late adoles-
cence to young adulthood, which has been referred to as “emerging Measures
adulthood,” a developmental period often characterized by changes in
behavior and exploration of new life opportunities (Arnett, 2000). One- Background questionnaire
third of emerging adults enter this developmental period while attend- The Background Questionnaire included questions regarding age,
ing college, potentially beginning a semi-independent life away from year in school, and participation in their sport, as well as past and
the adults they were living with during adolescence (Arnett, 2000). In current exposure to sport psychology and experience with meditation
particular, emerging adults in a college environment have the opportu- and/or yoga.
nity to explore their academic interests, develop worldviews, and forge
new and meaningful relationships (Arnett, 2016). While many find this Program evaluation questionnaire (PEQ)
exploration fun and exciting, it can present stress due to perceived pres- Completed by athletes after the MSPE intervention, the PEQ (Minkler
sures regarding long-term goals, career decisions, and social relation- et al., 2020) begins with five statements rated from 1 (not at all helpful)
ships (Samuolis & Griffin, 2014). Significant decreases in psychological to 7 (extremely helpful) that assess athletes’ perceptions of program suc-
well-being have been found from before starting college to during the cess. Areas addressed include (1) being “in the zone” during sport, (2)
first semester (Bewick et al., 2010), with increased depression and anx- anxiety reduction, (3) ability to focus and pay attention in the moment,
iety by the time of the spring semester (Kroshus et al., 2021). Student- (4) ability to not react to or judge experiences and let things go, and (5)
athletes may experience additional stress as they have added pressures ability to be aware of feelings and cope better when feeling upset. The
of athletic competitions and time demands on top of the academic ex- next set of items assess participants’ engagement: how frequently dur-
pectations that all college students face (Davoren & Hwang, 2014). ing the program athletes practiced formal mindfulness exercises each

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Table 1
Student-Athlete Demographic and Background Characteristics

Younger Older Full sample

n % n % N %

Participants By Sport
W. Lacrosse 20 66.67 10 33.33 30 50.0
Field Hockey 14 66.67 7 33.33 21 35.0
Track and Field 5 55.56 4 44.44 9 15.0
Previous Sport Psychology Exposure
yes 11 39.29 8 38.10 19 31.7
no 28 71.79 13 61.90 41 68.3
Previous Yoga/Meditation Experience
yes 33 84.62 19 90.48 52 86.7
no 6 15.38 2 9.52 8 13.3
Current Yoga / Meditation Practice
yes 3 7.69 11 52.38 14 23.3
no 36 92.31 10 47.62 46 76.7

M SD M SD M SD

Age 18.74 0.69 20.62 0.59 19.41 1.12

Years Playing Current Sport 9.21 2.92 10.30 2.92 9.59 3.03

week, engaged in informal mindfulness, and used their learned mind- in emotional regulation on a scale from 1 (almost never) to 5 (almost
fulness skills in their sport. Other questions related to program accept- always). The total DERS-SF score was included in analyses, averaged
ability ask athletes to rate their confidence in continuing to incorporate over items measuring non-acceptance of emotional responses, difficulty
learned mindfulness skills both in their sport and in everyday life and in engaging in goal-directed behavior, impulse control difficulties, lack of
recommending MSPE training for other college athletes. Responses to emotional awareness, limited access to emotion regulation strategies,
additional questions requesting qualitative feedback on aspects of the and lack of emotional clarity. Like the original measure, the DERS-SF
MSPE program were not included in the present study. has excellent internal consistency (𝛼 = .91 for college sample; = .92 in
the current study) and concurrent validity (Kaufman et al., 2016). One
Mindfulness inventory for sport (MIS) athlete did not fill out this measure at post-test.
Sport mindfulness was assessed using the overall average score
from the MIS (Thienot et al., 2014), which includes awareness, non-
Sport rating form (SRF)
judgmental attitude, and ability to refocus. For example, one question
Athletes’ satisfaction with their sport performance was assessed us-
is “I am able to notice the intensity of nervousness in my body.” All
ing mean scores from two subscales of the SRF, which had been used in
15 items on this inventory are answered on a 1 (not at all) to 6 (very
previous MSPE research (Glass et al., 2019); one athlete did not com-
much) Likert scale, with higher scores indicating more mindfulness. Re-
plete this measure at post-test. Questions included ratings of six aspects
search suggests that the MIS has good factorial and construct validity as
of physical performance (e.g., strength, endurance) as well as six items
well as good (𝛼 > .77; 𝛼 = .75 in the present study) internal consistency
with a focus on attention and emotion regulation (e.g., concentration,
(Thienot et al., 2014).
emotion regulation), using a Likert scale ranging from 1 (very poor) to 9
(excellent). These SRF subscales have shown good internal consistency
Philadelphia mindfulness scale (PHLMS)
(𝛼 = .81 and .82; .77 and .80 in the present study) and significant change
The PHLMS (Cardaciotto et al., 2008) measures trait (dispositional)
(with a large effect size) after athletes received MSPE training (Minkler
mindfulness and consists of two subscales that assess present-moment
et al., 2020). Two ratings of task and social cohesion and additional
awareness and acceptance. All items are answered on a Likert scale from
questions about sport enjoyment, life balance, and effects of stressors
1 (never) to 5 (very often), with higher scores indicating stronger mind-
on sport performance were not included in the present study.
fulness disposition. For example, a question on the awareness subscale
is “I am aware of what thoughts are passing through my mind,” while
one from the acceptance subscale is “I tell myself that I shouldn’t have Procedure
certain thoughts” (reverse scored). Research has found that the PHLMS
is an accurate measure of these two aspects of mindfulness (Andrei et After obtaining support from head coaches and ethics approvals from
al., 2016), and has good internal consistency (𝛼 = .85 for awareness and The Catholic University of America’s Institutional Review Board (proto-
.87 for acceptance; .87 and .92 in the present study) and high content cols 17-079, 18-051, 19-056), the researchers held informational meet-
validity (Cardaciotto et al., 2008). ings with each team (sequentially over three different semesters) to de-
scribe the study. Athletes were informed that they would receive mind-
Sport anxiety scale-2 (SAS-2) fulness training with their team regardless of whether or not they chose
The total score from the SAS-2 (Smith et al., 2006) was used to as- to participate in the research. All players on both the women’s lacrosse
sess sport anxiety, which includes somatic anxiety, worry, and concen- and field hockey teams gave voluntary consent to participate, along with
tration disruption. The questionnaire consists of 15 items (such as “My 62.5% of the athletes on the women’s track and field team.
body feels tense”) on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 4 (very much). Prior Research participants completed a questionnaire booklet in one of
research indicates that the SAS-2 has good psychometric properties in- four counterbalanced orders, both prior to and after the end of mindful-
cluding internal consistency (𝛼 > .75; 𝛼 = .93 in the present study) and ness training. The measures completed prior to the first session included
strong factorial and construct validity (Smith et al., 2006). a background questionnaire asking for demographic and sport-specific
information, a measure of self-reported satisfaction with sport perfor-
Difficulties in emotion regulation scale-short form (DERS-SF) mance (Sport Rating Form), and scales to assess anxiety (Sport Anxiety
The DERS-SF (Kaufman et al., 2016) is an 18-item scale derived from Scale-2), mindfulness (Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale; Mindfulness In-
the original DERS (Gratz & Roemer, 2004), which assesses difficulties ventory for Sport), and emotion dysregulation (Difficulties in Emotion

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M. Hut, C.R. Glass, K.A. Degnan et al. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1 (2021) 75–82

Regulation Scale-SF). At the end of the six MSPE sessions, athletes ad- practicing MSPE exercises both in their sport (M = 4.93) and in their ev-
ditionally completed a program evaluation questionnaire assessing the eryday lives (M = 5.35), and highly likely to recommend MSPE to other
success and helpfulness of the training, program engagement (i.e., fre- college athletes (M = 5.83).
quency of practice between sessions), and the acceptability of the pro- Although older student-athletes (M = 2.57, SD = 1.60) reported prac-
gram. ticing formal mindfulness more often each week than did younger par-
Each team received six weekly 60-minute sessions of MSPE prior ticipants (M = 1.90, SD = 1.29), this difference was not statistically
to the beginning of their respective competitive seasons. All sessions significant, t(58) = -1.77, p = .112. Similarly, while older participants
were held in the Athletic Center at a time suggested by the head (M = 3.04, SD = 2.25) reported engaging in informal mindfulness more
coaches. Group leaders (the first a fourth authors) were graduate assis- often than younger student-athletes (M = 2.30, SD = 1.67), this differ-
tant coaches (from other teams in the athletic department) who received ence was not significant, t(58) = -1.47, p = .154. When age was consid-
training in MSPE under the supervision of the second author (one of the ered as a continuous variable, it was not significantly related to athletes’
co-developers of MSPE), and established their own mindfulness practice practice of formal (r = .24, p = .067) or informal mindfulness (r = .22,
for at least 4 months prior to facilitating the training. p = .092) during the course of the training.
The number of days per week participants reported utilizing mind-
Intervention fulness skills during workouts, practices, or competitions was also exam-
ined. Although a significant difference was not observed, t(58) = -1.99,
MSPE (Kaufman et al., 2018) is a 6-session mindfulness-based group p = .051, older student-athletes reported applying mindfulness more of-
intervention for athletes, rooted in the tradition of MBSR (Kabat- ten (M = 4.05, SD = 2.20) than their younger teammates (M = 3.03,
Zinn, 1990). The program developers suggest that these 90-minute ses- SD = 1.71). In a correlational analysis with age as a continuous variable,
sions can be shortened to fit existing time constraints; all sessions in the older the student-athlete, the more likely they were to incorporate
the present study were 60 minutes long. Athletes are introduced first mindfulness during sport, r(59) = .27, p = .038.
to sedentary meditations (e.g., mindfulness of the breath, body scan)
and later more active mindfulness exercises (e.g., mindful yoga, mind- Program outcomes
ful walking), culminating in a sport-specific mindfulness exercise. Didac-
tic content includes the rationale for mindfulness in sport and getting Mindfulness
off “automatic pilot,” core performance facilitators and strengthening Means and standard deviations for the two age groups both before
present-moment attention, the power of expectations and body aware- and after MSPE training are shown in Table 2, along with ANOVA re-
ness, letting go of attachments and the difference between acceptance sults and effect sizes for all outcome measures. A significant interac-
versus resignation, achieving through non-striving, and building an on- tion between age group and time was found on average MIS scores (see
going mindfulness practice. Overall, the protocol includes education on Figure 1). Younger student-athletes initially scored higher at pre-test
mindfulness, experiential exercises, recommended daily home practice, than older participants but the reverse was true after MSPE training,
and discussion, where athletes are encouraged to share their experiences supporting the prediction that older athletes would experience greater
with home practice and in-session meditation exercises. improvement in sport mindfulness. The ANOVA revealed no significant
main effects for age group or time.
Data analysis Additionally, the analysis of the PHLMS acceptance scale showed
a significant main effect for age group, as older student-athletes
Means were first calculated to describe the perceived benefits of the (M = 31.71, SD = 1.49) had higher levels of mindful acceptance com-
mindfulness training noted by MSPE participants. Independent samples pared to younger student-athletes (M = 27.69, SD = 1.09). No other
t-tests then explored whether older student-athletes perceived the train- significant main effects or interactions were found.
ing as more successful and practiced mindfulness more often between
sessions compared to their younger teammates, and Pearson correla- Sport anxiety
tion analyses were conducted between age and mindfulness practice. Student-athletes showed significant improvement after MSPE on the
Multiple 2 × 2 mixed-design ANOVAs with time (pre- and post-test) as SAS-2, with less anxiety at post-test (M = 28.47, SD = 1.10) than prior
the within-subjects factor and age group (younger and older student- to the intervention (M = 31.18, SD = 1.11). However, there was no main
athletes) as the between-subjects factor were conducted for each out- effect for age group or a significant interaction.
come of interest. Finally, linear regression analyses were performed for
post-intervention outcome measures, using pre-test scores on each re-
Emotion regulation
spective scale and age (as a continuous variable) as predictors.
The ANOVA on average DERS-SF scores revealed no significant
main effects for age group or time, and no significant interaction was
Results found. However, a similar analysis for the attention/emotion regulation
subscale of the SRF found a significant main effect for time, such that
Acceptability and engagement: attendance, attrition, perceived benefit, and participants rated their satisfaction with attention/emotion regulation
practice aspects of their sport performance higher after the mindfulness training
(M = 6.92, SD = .13) than at pre-test (M = 6.59, SD = .13). The ANOVA
Both the women’s lacrosse and field hockey teams experienced 0% did not reveal a main effect for age group or a significant interaction.
attrition and every athlete attended all six scheduled MSPE sessions and
completed all pre-test and post-test measures. Program participation for
Satisfaction with physical sport performance
athletes from the track and field team was less consistent and only 44%
Similarly, a significant main effect for time was found on the physical
attended all sessions (two additional athletes attended five sessions, and
performance subscale of the SRF, such that athletes were more satisfied
one attended four, three, and two sessions each, respectively). Although
with aspects of their physical sport performance at post-test (M = 7.12,
there were no differences between age groups, athletes viewed the mind-
SD = .21) than pre-test (M = 6.63, SD = .12). Again, no significant main
fulness training as successful, with ratings above 5 on a 7-point scale on
effect for age group or significant interaction between age group and
each dimension (e.g., anxiety reduction, ability to focus, letting things
time were observed.
go). Participants were also moderately likely to say they would continue

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Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Two-Way ANOVA Statistics for Outcome Measures

Younger Older ANOVA

Measures M SD M SD Effect F(1, 58) 𝜂2

MIS
Time 1 4.19 .49 4.02 .48 A .00 .00
Time 2 4.04 .42 4.21 .50 T .14 .00
A×T 6.52∗ .10
PHLMS
Acceptance
Time 1 27.77 8.01 30.95 7.50 A 4.77∗ .08
Time 2 27.62 7.04 32.48 6.51 T .81 .01
A×T 1.21 .02
Awareness
Time 1 35.33 5.49 33.81 5.31 A .51 .01
Time 2 35.39 7.05 34.86 4.65 T .61 .01
A×T .50 .01
SAS-2
Time 1 30.80 7.85 31.57 8.80 A .21 .00
Time 2 29.85 9.13 27.29 5.76 T 6.67∗ .10
A×T 2.71 .05
DERS-SF
Time 1 2.21 .74 2.18 .61 A .07 .00
Time 2 2.12 .59 2.06 .59 T 2.82 .10
A×T .10 .05
SRF
Physical Performance
Time 1 6.70 .85 6.57 .86 A .27 .01
Time 2 7.19 1.83 7.04 .62 T 5.34∗ .09
A×T .00 .00
Attention/Emotion Reg
Time 1 6.63 .15 6.54 .21 A .00 .00
Time 2 6.87 .15 6.95 .21 T 8.24∗ ∗ .13
A×T .57 .01

Note. DERS-SF = Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale-Short Form; SAS-2 = Sport Anxiety Scale-2; PHLMS = Philadelphia
Mindfulness Scale; MIS = Mindfulness Inventory for Sport; SRF = Sport Rating Form; Younger = first two years of college;
Older = last two years of college; A = Age group; T = Time.
∗
p < .05. ∗ ∗ p < .01.

Younger Fig. 1. Interaction Between Age Group and Time for

4.25 Sport Mindfulness.
Note. MIS = Mindfulness Inventory for Sport.
Older
4.20
Mean MIS Score

4.15

4.10

4.05

4.00

3.95

3.90
Pre-MSPE Post-MSPE
Time

Additional outcome analyses with age as a continuous variable

Table 3
Linear regressions (see Table 3) found that age (as a continuous Regression Coefficients of Student-Athlete Age on Mindfulness and Sport
variable) significantly predicted post-intervention PHLMS acceptance Anxiety
scores, after controlling for pre-test scores. This suggests that for ev-
Variable B SE t p 95% CI
ery 1-year increase in age, PHLMS acceptance scores increased by 1.55
from pre- to post- intervention. Additionally, age significantly predicted PHLMS Acceptance
post-intervention SAS-2 scores, such that for every 1-year increase in Age .24∗ ∗ .56 2.77 .008 [.43, 2.67]
SAS-2
age, total sport anxiety scores declined by 1.84. Age as continuous
Age -.27∗ ∗ -.68 -2.70 .009 [-32.21, -.47]
variable did not significantly predict change in any other outcome
measure. Note. PHLMS = Philadelphia Mindfulness Scale; SAS-2 = Sport Anxiety Scale-2.
∗∗
p < .01.

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Discussion is important that future research explore student-athletes’ emotion reg-

ulation using a wider range of ages.
Although age has been found to moderate responses to MBIs outside
of sport (Gómez-Odriozola & Calvete, 2021), research on potential me-
Sport anxiety and performance
diators and moderators of change in MBIs with athletes is needed. The
goal of the present study was thus to investigate whether there would
Consistent with previous research (Noetel et al., 2019), sport anxiety
be age-related (i.e., developmental) differences in student-athletes’ will-
decreased significantly following the mindfulness intervention. One of
ingness to practice and apply mindfulness during the training, as well as
the goals of MSPE is to teach athletes to notice negative thoughts and
differential improvement in mindfulness, sport anxiety, emotion regu-
emotions but then to let them go, which may have helped the partici-
lation, and self-rated physical sport performance between younger and
pants in the present study to recognize and let go of worries and ten-
older student-athletes following an MSPE intervention. The main hy-
sion during their sport. Although there were no significant age group
pothesis was partially supported, in that older student-athletes improved
differences, age significantly predicted post-intervention sport anxiety
more than their younger counterparts on sport mindfulness. Addition-
when the specific age of each athlete was considered. Inverse associa-
ally, age was positively associated with reductions in sport anxiety and
tions have also been found between age/playing experience and dimen-
improvements in dispositional mindful acceptance. Although there were
sions of state and trait anxiety among Danish female elite-level soccer
no significant differences between age groups in frequency of practice
players (Madsen et al., 2020). It is possible that older student-athletes’
of formal or informal mindfulness skills during the program, the older
greater degree of sport experience, coupled with more mindfulness prac-
the student-athlete the more frequently they reported practice of mind-
tice during sport, contributed to greater reductions in sport anxiety as a
fulness during workouts, team practice, and competitions. Overall, af-
function of age in the present study.
ter the intervention student-athletes reported significantly more posi-
Similar to previous research on MSPE (e.g., Glass et al., 2019), par-
tive perceptions of their physical athletic performance as well as at-
ticipants were more satisfied with their physical sport performance after
tention and emotion regulation skills related to performing, along with
the mindfulness training. However, there was no significant difference
decreased levels of sport anxiety.
between younger and older student-athletes. While MSPE may have had
an effect on actual performance (or performance improved over time),
Mindfulness practice it is also conceivable that student-athletes became more accepting and
less judgmental of their physical performance as a result of the interven-
Age was not related to the frequency of formal and informal mind- tion, which strongly emphasizes mindful acceptance and nonjudgment.
fulness practice during the program. As Wolanin and Gross (2016) have Foster and Chow, (2020) observed a relationship between mindful-
suggested, “many college athletes...experience significant discomfort ness—specifically nonjudgment—and both global and sport well-being,
when doing formal exercises that last approximately 10 minutes or when assessed with items exploring satisfaction with subjective, psycho-
more” (p. 165), and these issues might be present for our participants logical, and social dimensions of sport experience. Future MSPE research
regardless of age. However, age was related to student-athletes’ reports could include a similar measure of sport and/or global well-being to ex-
of engaging in more frequent mindfulness practice during sport, perhaps plore developmental differences in satisfaction with different aspects of
because more senior athletes were more motivated to engage in mind- sport performance.
fulness skill practice to benefit both individual and team performance.
Also, there were fewer older third- and fourth-year student-athletes on
Mindfulness
each team than there were younger student-athletes. Compared to team-
mates who had left the team after a few years, these older student-
The findings for measures of mindfulness are especially interesting.
athletes may have had more positive experiences in their sport and thus
While older student-athletes increased in sport mindfulness from pre-
continued to make athletics a high priority and remain interested in try-
test to post-test, younger student-athletes decreased. Gómez-Odriozola
ing new things to help their sport performance. Research has indicated
and Calvete, (2021) found that after receiving an MBI, younger adoles-
that active college student-athletes had fewer issues with aspects of their
cents had increased depressed affect and somatic symptoms, and sug-
sporting environments and perceived their experiences more positively
gested that mindfulness interventions have different effects based on
compared to their counterparts who had quit the sport (Weiss & Robin-
participant age or developmental stage. It may thus be important to
son, 2013).
consider the developmental or psychosocial needs of athletes when im-
plementing MBIs, even when they are more similar in age like college
Emotion regulation student-athletes. Additionally, in the present study age was positively as-
sociated with program engagement (more frequent practice of mindful-
Although no significant improvement was observed on the general ness skills during workouts, practice, and competitions), suggesting that
measure of emotion regulation difficulties (DERS-SF), student-athletes dosage may have played a role in older athletes’ greater reported sport
became more satisfied with aspects of their attention and emotion reg- mindfulness. An alternative explanation could be related to playing
ulation during sport performance as measured by this subscale of the time. It could be that older more experienced athletes got more oppor-
SRF. Glass and colleagues (2019) found similar increases in cogni- tunities to play during competitions, and thus had more opportunities to
tive/emotion regulation on the SRF for MSPE completers who were apply mindfulness skills. Another notable finding was that age was re-
college athletes from multiple sports. Because MSPE places special em- lated to trait/dispositional mindfulness, in that older athletes had higher
phasis on incorporating mindfulness into sports, student-athletes may levels of mindful acceptance (but not awareness), and age as a continu-
have been able to apply their learned skills more easily to emotion reg- ous variable predicted change in acceptance post-intervention. Perhaps
ulation in sports than in their daily lives. No differences were found with age and/or mindfulness experience, student-athletes become more
between younger and older student athletes, however, even though re- open to an “attitude of acceptance, openness, and even compassion to-
search suggests that emotion regulation improves with age due to the ward one’s experience” (Cardaciotto et al., 2008, p. 205). Moreover,
maturation of the prefrontal cortex (Martin & Ochsner, 2016). Because general increases in acceptance may result from the psychobiological
the mean ages of the younger and older student-athletes were 18.74 and capacities (e.g., emotion regulation, cognitive control) that continue to
20.62, respectively, it is possible that these groups were too similar to develop across young adulthood (Arnett, 2000; Steinberg, 2007). To in-
detect age-related differences, despite ongoing developmental changes. vestigate this further, studies could include measures of emotional intel-
As brain development continues until the late 20s (Steinberg, 2007), it ligence, positive affect, and life satisfaction to further understand age-

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M. Hut, C.R. Glass, K.A. Degnan et al. Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 1 (2021) 75–82

related differences in mindfulness as well as change in mindfulness fol- view & editing, Supervision, Project administration. Kathryn A. Deg-
lowing MBIs. nan: Formal analysis, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Thomas
O. Minkler: Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Writing – re-
Limitations view & editing.

The study had a number of limitations that should be considered. Declaration of Competing Interest
Teams received mindfulness training at different points in time and were
not large enough to be able to randomly assign athletes to comparison None.
groups, and without control groups one cannot conclude that significant
improvements were solely due to MSPE. For example, although mind- References
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