Unit 1: Introduction of Automation System

Introduction to Industrial Automation:

Automation or automatic control, is the use of various control systems for operating
equipment such as machinery, processes in factories, boilers and heat-treating ovens, switching
in telephone networks, steering and stabilization of ships, aircraft and other applications with
minimal or reduced human intervention. Some processes have been completely automated.

The biggest benefit of automation is that it saves labor, however, it is also used to save energy
and materials and to improve quality, accuracy and precision.

According to a Manufacturing Engineer automation may be as follows

“Automation is a technology concerned with the application of Mechanical, Electrical,
Electronic and Computer based systems to operate and control production.”
 Automation means use of Available technologies to reduce the need of Human work.

 Automation is a step beyond mechanization. Mechanization provides human operators

machinery to assist themselves with the muscular requirements of work……While
Automation greatly decreases the need for human sensory and mental requirements as
well.

The term automation, inspired by the earlier word automatic (coming from automaton),
was not widely used before 1947, when General Motors established the automation
department. It was during this time that industry was rapidly adopting feedback
controllers, which were introduced in the 1930s.

Industrial Automation

Industrial automation deals primarily with the automation of manufacturing, quality control and
material handling processes. General purpose controllers for industrial processes include Programmable
logic controllers and computers. One trend is increased use of Machine vision to provide automatic
inspection and robot guidance functions, another is a continuing increase in the use of robots.

Industrial automation is the use of control devices such as PC/PLCs/PACs etc. to control industrial
processes and machinery by removing as much labor intervention as possible, and replacing dangerous
assembly operations with automated ones. Industrial automation is closely linked to control
engineering.

Advantages and disadvantages

Manufacturers face many challenges in today’s globally competitive business landscape. Some
of these challenges include harsh manufacturing environments (in a world which is
increasingly focused on safety – and rightly so), increasingly complex supply chains, meeting
the latest energy efficient standards, and competing with companies with very small marginal
costs.
Many of these reasons drive manufacturers towards industrial automation. The advantages to
Industrial Automation include:

 Increased labor productivity

 Improved product quality
 Reduced labor or production cost
 Reduced routine manual tasks
 Improved safety
 Assisted remove monitoring

Increased Labor Productivity

Automation increases the production rate by producing greater output for a given labor input.
It is not possible for human workers to work for long hours without losing accuracy. On the
other hand, without compromising on accuracy, automated control systems able to work for
long hours. Hence increased productivity and efficiency per hour of labor input.

Improved Product Quality

One of the chief benefits of the automation is that the reduction of fraction defect rate. With
the manual operation of manufacturing process, there may be a compromise on quality
specifications of the product. But the automation system performs operations with greater
conformity and uniformity to the quality specifications. By using the automation systems,
industrial processes are controlled and monitored at all stages in order to produce a qualitative
end product.
Reduced Labor or Production Cost

The automated systems help the industries to save a great deal in the long term by substituting
automated machinery in place of human labor so that unit production cost is reduced.
Automation equipment running smoothly or uniformly 24 × 7 not only increases the
productivity, but also consequently results in an excellent return on investment by saving
salaries, workforce costs, pensions and costs with employees. The automated system also
reduces the labor shortage by substituting automated operations in place of labor.

Reduced Routine Manual Tasks

In many industrial applications, process variables like temperature, liquid level, pressure, etc.
are to be periodically monitored as a routine task to maintain their set levels. Thus an
automation system creates the automatic working condition by employing closed-loop control
systems.

Improved Safety

By implementing an automated system, work is made safer by transferring the worker from an
active participation location in the process to the supervising role. The automated machines are
able to work in hazardous environments and other extreme environments. Also, these systems
make use of industrial robots in place of human workers, especially in life-threatening
conditions (chemical and high-temperature conditions). Thus, an industrial automation
system prevents the accidents and injuries to the workers.

Assist Remote Monitoring

Most of the industrial operations have to be controlled remotely for convenient and long-
distance monitor and control of process variables. For such cases, automated systems provide
a communication link between the process area and supervising (monitor and control) area,
thereby allowing operators to control and monitor the industrial processes from a remote
location. The best example of this remote control is the automated electric power grid control.
The following methods are often employed to improve productivity, quality, or
robustness.

 Install automation in operations to reduce cycle time.

 Install automation where a high degree of accuracy is required.
 Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous work.
 Replacing humans in tasks done in dangerous environments (i.e., fire, space, volcanoes,
nuclear facilities, underwater, etc.)
 Performing tasks that are beyond human capabilities of size, weight, speed, endurance, etc.
 Economic improvement: Automation may improve in economy of enterprises, society or
most of humanity. For example, when an enterprise invests in automation, technology
recovers its investment; or when a state or country increases its income due to automation
like Germany or Japan in the 20th Century.
 Reduces operation time and work handling time significantly.
 Frees up workers to take on other roles.
 Provides higher level jobs in the development, deployment, maintenance and running of
the automated processes.

The main disadvantages of automation are:

 Causing unemployment and poverty by replacing human labour.

 Security Threats/Vulnerability: An automated system may have a limited level of
intelligence, and is therefore more susceptible to committing errors outside of its immediate
scope of knowledge (e.g., it is typically unable to apply the rules of simple logic to general
propositions).
 Unpredictable/excessive development costs: The research and development cost of
automating a process may exceed the cost saved by the automation itself.
 High initial cost: The automation of a new product or plant typically requires a very large
initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the product, although the cost of
automation may be spread among many products and over time.

In manufacturing, the purpose of automation has shifted to issues broader than productivity,
cost, and time.

Automation tools

Engineers can now have numerical control over automated devices. The result has been a
rapidly expanding range of applications and human activities. Computer-aided
technologies (or CAx) now serve the basis for mathematical and organizational tools used to
create complex systems. Notable examples of CAx include Computer-aided design (CAD
software) and Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM software). The improved design,
analysis, and manufacture of products enabled by CAx has been beneficial for industry.

Information technology, together with industrial machinery and processes, can assist in the
design, implementation, and monitoring of control systems. One example of an industrial
control system is a programmable logic controller (PLC). PLCs are specialized hardened
computers which are frequently used to synchronize the flow of inputs from
(physical) sensors and events with the flow of outputs to actuators and events.

Human-machine interfaces (HMI) or computer human interfaces (CHI), formerly known

as man-machine interfaces, are usually employed to communicate with PLCs and other
computers. Service personnel who monitor and control through HMIs can be called by different
names. In industrial process and manufacturing environments, they are called operators or
something similar. In boiler houses and central utilities departments they are called stationary
engineers.

Different types of automation tools exist:

 ANN - Artificial neural network

 DCS - Distributed Control System
 HMI - Human Machine Interface
 SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
 PLC - Programmable Logic Controller
 Instrumentation
 Motion control
 Robotics
Limitations to automation
 Current technology is unable to automate all the desired tasks.
 Many operations using automation have large amounts of invested capital and produce
high volumes of product, making malfunctions extremely costly and potentially
hazardous. Therefore, some personnel are needed to ensure that the entire system
functions properly and that safety and product quality are maintained.
 As a process becomes increasingly automated, there is less and less labor to be saved
or quality improvement to be gained. This is an example of both diminishing
returns and the logistic function.
  As more and more processes become automated, there are fewer remaining non-
automated processes. This is an example of exhaustion of opportunities. New
technological paradigms may however set new limits that surpass the previous limits.

Recent and emerging applications

 Automated retail
 Food and drink
 Stores
 Automated mining
 Automated video surveillance
 Automated highway systems
 Automated waste management
 Home automation
 Industrial automation
 Agriculture
 Agent-assisted Automation

Reasons for Automating

 To increase labor productivity
 To reduce labor cost
 To mitigate the effects of labor shortages
 To reduce or remove routine manual and clerical tasks
 To improve worker safety
 To improve product quality
 To reduce manufacturing lead time
 To accomplish what cannot be done manually
 To avoid the high cost of not automating

Automation Facilities includes

 Automatic machine tools to process parts,
 Automatic ASSEMBLY machines,
 Industrial Robots
 Automatic material handling and storage systems,
 Automatic inspection system for quality control,
  Feedback control and computer process control
 Computer system for Planning, Data acquisition and decision making to support
manufacturing activities

Automation Principle
 Understand the existing process
 Input/output analysis
 Value chain analysis
 Charting techniques and mathematical modeling
 Simplify the process
 Reduce unnecessary steps and moves
 Automate the process
 Ten strategies for automation and production systems
 Automation migration strategy

Automation Strategies
 Specialization of operations
 Combined operations
 Simultaneous operations
 Integration of operations
 Increased flexibility
 Improved material handling and storage
 On-line inspection
 Process control and optimization
 Plant operations control
 Computer-integrated manufacturing

Components of Industrial Automation

 Storage Systems
 Handling Systems
 Assembly Lines
o Assembly Cells
o Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors
 Production Lines
  Production Cells
 Machines
 Actuators
 Sensors

Classification of Automation

Home Automation
Home automation is the residential extension of building automation. It is automation of the
home, housework or household activity. Home automation may include centralized control of
lighting, HVAC (heating, ventilation and air conditioning), appliances, security locks of gates
and doors and other systems, to provide improved convenience, comfort, energy efficiency and
security. Home automation for the elderly and disabled can provide increased quality of life
for persons who might otherwise require caregivers or institutional care.

A home automation system integrates electrical devices in a house with each other. The
techniques employed in home automation include those in building automation as well as the
control of domestic activities, such as home entertainment systems, house plant and yard
watering, pet feeding, changing the ambiance "scenes" for different events (such as dinners or
parties), and the use of domestic robots. Devices may be connected through a home network to
allow control by a personal computer, and may allow remote access from the internet. Through
the integration of information technologies with the home environment, systems and
appliances are able to communicate in an integrated manner which results in convenience,
energy efficiency, and safety benefits.
Benefits:
 Home automation refers to the use of computer and information technology to control
home appliances and features (such as windows or lighting). Systems can range from
simple remote control of lighting through to complex computer/micro-controller based
networks with varying degrees of intelligence and automation. Home automation is
adopted for reasons of ease, security and energy efficiency.[4][5]
 In modern construction in industrialized nations, most homes have been wired for
electrical power, telephones, TV outlets (cable or antenna), and a doorbell. Many
household tasks were automated by the development of specialized automated
appliances. For instance, automatic washing machines were developed to reduce the
manual labor of cleaning clothes, and water heaters reduced the labor necessary
for bathing.
 The use of gaseous or liquid fuels, and later the use of electricity enabled increased
automation in heating, reducing the labor necessary to manually
refuel heaters and stoves. Development of thermostats allowed more automated control
of heating, and later cooling.
 As the number of controllable devices in the home rises, interconnection and
communication becomes a useful and desirable feature. For example, a furnace can
send an alert message when it needs cleaning or a refrigerator when it needs service. If
no one is supposed to be home and the alarm system is set, the home automation system
could call the owner, or the neighbors, or an emergency number if an intruder is
detected.
 Automation may be as straightforward as turning on the lights when a person enters the
room. In advanced installations, rooms can sense not only the presence of a person
inside but know who that person is and perhaps set appropriate lighting, temperature,
music levels or television channels, taking into account the day of the week, the time
of day, and other factors.
 Other automated tasks may include reduced setting of the heating or air conditioning
when the house is unoccupied, and restoring the normal setting when an occupant is
about to return. More sophisticated systems can maintain an inventory of products,
recording their usage through bar codes, or an RFID tag, and prepare a shopping list or
even automatically order replacements.
  Home automation can also provide a remote interface to home appliances or the
automation system itself, to provide control and monitoring on a Smartphone or web
browser.

Example:

Remote monitoring in home automation could be triggered when a smoke detector detects a
fire or smoke condition, causing all lights in the house to blink to alert any occupants of the
house to the possible emergency. If the house is equipped with a home theater, a home
automation system can shut down all audio and video components to avoid distractions, or
make an audible announcement. The system could also call the home owner on their mobile
phone to alert them, or call the fire department or alarm monitoring company.

Tasks:

HVAC

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems can include temperature
and humidity control, including fresh air heating and natural cooling. An Internet-
controlled thermostat allows the homeowner to control the building's heating and air
conditioning systems remotely. The system may automatically open and close windows to cool
the house.

Lighting

Lighting control systems can be used to control household electric lights. Lights can be
controlled on a time cycle, or arranged to automatically go out when a room is unoccupied.
Electronically controlled lamps can be controlled for brightness or color to provide different
light levels for different tasks. Lighting can be controlled remotely by a wireless control or
over the Internet. Natural lighting (day lighting) can be used to automatically control window
shades and draperies to make best use of natural light.

Audio-visual

This category includes audio and video switching and distribution. Multiple audio or video
sources can be selected and distributed to one or more rooms and can be linked with lighting
and blinds to provide mood settings.
Shading

Automatic control of blinds and curtains can be used for:

 Presence simulation
 Privacy
 Temperature control
 Brightness control
 Glare control
 Security (in case of shutters)

Security

A household security systems integrated with a home automation system can provide
additional services such as remote surveillance of security cameras over the Internet, or central
locking of all perimeter doors and windows.

With home automation, the user can select and watch cameras live from an Internet source to
their home or business. Security systems can include motion sensors that will detect any kind
of unauthorized movement and notify the user through the security system or via cell phone.

The automation system can simulate the appearance of an occupied home by automatically
adjusting lighting or window coverings. Detection systems such as fire alarm, gas leak, carbon
monoxide, or water leaks can be integrated. Personal medical alarm systems allow an injured
home occupant to summon help.

Intercoms

An intercom system allows communication via a microphone and loud speaker between
multiple rooms. Integration of the intercom to the telephone, or of the video door entry system
to the television set, allowing the residents to view the door camera automatically.

Industrial Automation
Industry Need

 High Volume, Low Cost (Production)

 High Precision

 Flexibility
 Less Manual Process

 Less Production/Storage Space

 Reduce Breakdown/ High Efficiency

Market Requirement

 Fast Delivery
 High Variety
 Rapid Product Launch
 High Quality
 Cut throat Competition
 Innovative Products

Levels of Automation

1. Device level – actuators, sensors, and other hardware components to form individual
control loops for the next level

2. Machine level – CNC machine tools and similar production equipment, industrial robots,
material handling equipment

3. Cell or system level – manufacturing cell or system

4. Plant level – factory or production systems level

5. Enterprise level – corporate information

Three Automation Types

Fixed Automation
Sequence of processing (or assembly) operations is fixed by the equipment configuration
Typical features:
 Suited to high production quantities

 High initial investment for custom-engineered equipment

 High production rates

 Relatively inflexible in accommodating product variety

Programmable Automation
Capability to change the sequence of operations through reprogramming to accommodate
different product configurations

Typical features:
 High investment in programmable equipment

 Lower production rates than fixed automation

 Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product configuration

 Most suitable for batch production

 Physical setup and part program must be changed between jobs (batches)
Flexible Automation
System is capable of changing over from one job to the next with little lost time between jobs
Typical features:
 High investment for custom-engineered system

 Continuous production of variable mixes of products

 Medium production rates

 Flexibility to deal with soft product variety

Basic Elements of Automated System

 Business functions - sales and marketing, order entry, cost accounting, customer billing

 Product design - research and development, design engineering, prototype shop

 Manufacturing planning - process planning, production planning, MRP, capacity

planning

 Manufacturing control- shop floor control, inventory control, quality control

Input Output
Control/Process
Basic Elements of Automation
• Sensors……………Flexible Input

• PLC/ DCS.……...…Flexible Controller

• Actuators…………..Flexible Output

 Pneumatic System

 Hydraulic System

 Electrical System

 Mechatronic System: Industrial Robot

• Communication Protocol

Industrial automation (IA) is an integrated, flexible and low-cost system platform that
consists of various equipment and elements which perform a wide variety of functions like
sensing, control, supervision and monitoring related to industrial processes. The figure below
shows the structure of industrial automation which describes the various functional elements
of IA.

Sensing and Actuating Elements

The sensors or sensing elements convert the physical process variables such as flow, pressure,
temperature, etc. into electrical or pneumatic form. Various sensors include thermocouples,
Resistor Temperature Detectors (RTDs), strain gauges, etc. The signals from these sensors are
used for processing, analyzing, and decisions in order to produce the control output. The
various control techniques are implemented to produce the required output by comparing the
current sensed process variable with set values. Finally, the controllers produce the computed
outputs and are applied as electrical or pneumatic signal inputs to the actuating elements.
Actuators convert the electrical or pneumatic signals to the physical process variables. Some
of the actuators include control valves, relays, motors, etc.

A special category of the instruments is smart instruments which are integrated systems of
sensing or actuating elements with the capability of communicating with field buses. These
smart devices consist of a signal conditioning circuit internally and facilitate connecting
directly to the communication link in the industrial bus system.

Control System Elements

These are the microprocessor-based electronic controllers or simply industrial computers that
accept the signals from various sensors as well as command signals from supervisory systems
or from human operators. These controllers can be continuous control systems or
sequential/logic control depends on the structure of control nature. The controller processes the
sensing values and supervisory values and depends on the control structure, it produce the
control output to various actuating devices.
A modern type of control device used in automation systems is the Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC). PLCs come with dedicated software so that these are capable of being
programmed to perform corresponding control operations. PLCs have rugged CPU, digital I/O,
analog I/O and communication modules such that they can operate at industry environment
conditions to control the various process parameters.
Human Machine Interface or operator interface is a graphical interface for the operators which
displays the process information such as process variable status, logging results to the database,
generating alarm signals, etc. SCADA is one of the graphical user interfaces which remotely
controls the industrial operations. Also, Distributed control systems (DCS) provide their own
HMI for the graphical display of various industrial parameters.

Supervisory Control Elements

Supervisory control performs higher level control over the automatic controllers which further
controls the smaller subsystems. The major elements of this level are process station PCs, and
Human Machine Interfaces. These process station PCs are responsible for functions like set
point computations, performance monitoring, diagnostics, startup, shutdown, and other
emergency operations.
Human Machine Interface or operator interface is a graphical interface for the operators which
displays the process information such as process variable status, logging results to the database,
generating alarm signals, etc. SCADA is one of the graphical user interfaces which remotely
controls the industrial operations. Also, Distributed control systems (DCS) provide their own
HMI for the graphical display of various industrial parameters.

Industrial Automation

Manufacturing Automation:

 Automated machine tools

 Transfer lines

 Automated assembly systems

 Industrial robots

 Automated material handling and storage systems

 Automatic inspection systems for quality control

Process Automation:

 Flow Control

 Temperature Control

 Pressure Control etc.

Types of Industrial Automation

Industrial automation is the use of computer and machinery aided systems to operate the
various industrial operations in a well-controlled manner. Depends on the operations involved,
the industrial automation systems are majorly classified into two types, namely process plant
automation and manufacturing automation.
Process Plant Automation
In process industries, the product results from many chemical processes based on some raw
materials. Some of the industries are pharmaceuticals, petrochemical, cement industry, paper
industry, etc. Thus, the overall process plant is automated to produce the high quality, more
productive, high reliable control of the physical process variables.

The above figure shows the process automation system hierarchy. It consists of various layers
representing widespread components in a process plant.
Level 0 or Plant: This level consists of machines which are closest to processes. In this, sensors
and actuators are used to translate the signals from the machines and physical variables for the
purpose of analysis and to produce the control signals.
Direct Process Control: In this level, automatic controllers and monitoring systems acquire the
process information from sensors and correspondingly drives the actuator systems. Some of
the tasks of this level are-
 Data acquisition
 Plant monitoring
 Dara checking
 Open and closed loop control
 Reporting
Plant Supervisory Control: This level commands the automatic controllers by setting the targets
or set points. It looks after the control equipment for optimal process control. Some of the tasks
of this level are:
 Plant monitoring performance
 Optimal process control
 Plant coordination
 Failure detection, etc.
Production Scheduling and Control: This level solves the decision-making problems like
resource allocation, production target, maintenance management, and so on. Tasks of this level
include:
 Production dispatch
 Inventory control
 Production supervision, production reporting, etc.

Plant Management: This is the higher level of the process plant automation. It deals more with
commercial activities than technical activities. Tasks of this level include-
 Market and Customer analysis
 Orders and sale statistics
 Production planning
 Capacity and order balance, etc.
Manufacturing Automation System
The manufacturing industries make the product out of materials using machines/robotics. Some
of these manufacturing industries include textile and clothing, glass and ceramic, food and
beverages, paper making, etc. New trends in manufacturing systems have been using
automation systems at every stage such as material handling, machining, assembling,
inspection, and packaging. With the computer-aided control and industrial robotic systems,
manufacturing automation becomes very flexible and efficient.

The figure below shows the manufacturing automation system hierarchy in which all functional
levels are automated by using different automation tools.

Below is an explanation of each level in the manufacturing automation system hierarchy:

Machinery Level: In this level various sensing and actuating devices controls the
manufacturing process. It is an instrumentation level of machine control. Tasks of this level
include data collection, signal check, and machine control.

Cell or Group Level: This is another automation level at which operation of a group of
machines within manufacturing cells are co-ordinated. Various automated controllers like
PLCs are employed for such control of machines.
Shop Floor Level: It is a supervisory automated level where supervision and coordination of
several manufacturing cells are carried out.
Plant Level: This automation level performs the activities of production monitoring, control,
and scheduling, etc. HMIs employed at this level facilitate to control all the manufacturing
process variables remotely.

Enterprise Level: This level does all the management related activities such as production
planning and scheduling, etc.

Introduction to PLC

PLC Background
A programmable logic controller is unit of hardware used to control and automate
industrial processes. Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are often defined as miniature
industrial computers that contain hardware and software that is used to perform control
functions. The first PLC was developed to help General Motors eliminate traditional relay-
based machine control systems. In large applications where thousands of relays exist, wiring
and troubleshooting could be quite complicated.

In 1968 Bedford Associates, a

company in Bedford, MA, developed a
device called a Modular Digital
Controller for General Motors. The
MODICON, as it was known, was an
electronic device, not a mechanical one,
it was perfect for GM's requirements, as
well as for many other manufacturers and
users of control equipment. With less
wiring, simpler troubleshooting, and easy
programming, PLC technology caught on quickly.

A PLC has three main aspects: the inputs and outputs and the control program. The inputs are
connected to sensors that inform the PLC about the environment. The program uses a set of
logical instructions that drives the outputs based on the inputs. The outputs are connected to
the devices that need to be controlled. In figure, the PLC has eight inputs and four outputs.

There are two basic types of Programmable Logic Controllers: a single box type and a modular
or rack type. The box type is smaller and used for simpler control situations. It is supplied as
an integral compact package, compete with power supply, processor, memory and input output
units. Some of the most basic of theses only have 4 outputs. They typically can have from 4 to
40 inputs and outputs. Box types PLCs have limited expansion capabilities.

The modular type consists of a central rack that house various handpicked modules that
are appropriate for each control situation. A large variety of modules exist that satisfy many
needs such as power supplies, processors, analog input and outputs, digital input and outputs,
and communications. I/O modules can always be added after the unit it installed to suit new
needs. Power supplies can be upgrade to meet new power requirements. Also, the I/O modules
can be much more specialized than that of the box type PLCs. For example, there are modules
that serve as PID control or TTL logic inputs. Modular PLCs are used for larger and more
complex operations. Typically, they have from 20 to 100 inputs and outputs and up.
 Control processes need devices to monitor events or measure needed values. These
devices are generically called inputs to the PLC. For example, input devices can be proximity
switches, photoelectric sensors, temperature sensors, push buttons, or pressure sensors. An
input is anything that can sense the status of the environment and then convert that information
in to a signal. Often the signal can simply be a voltage that is either on or off. Outputs are
anything that would need to be controlled based on the inputs like motors, indicator lights, and
fans, warning sirens or heating elements.

Relay Control Example

Often industrial equipment will use three phase power for various reasons such as cost,
size and durability. Suppose some industrial woodworking equipment is installed at a
residential home. In order to use the equipment, the normal two phase power into the house
needs to be converted into three phase power via a converter. Some of the equipment is located
in the garage and some in the basement. Therefore, the three phase power needs to be available
at both locations. Consequently, the converter needs to have start and stop controls at both
locations.

The converter has three contacts. Two are connected to the 220 VAC source. The other
is connected to a starting capacitor and a push button. When the power is switched on nothing
immediately happens. The 3-phase converter has a motor that needs to be started via a starting
capacitor. After the motor has started only the 220 VAC source is required for continued
operation. When 3-phase power is no longer needed, the process is stopped by disconnecting
power.

However, this is only the basic concept of operation. The process should simply have
one button for start and one button for stop at each location. This means that a timed relay will
take the place of the momentary push button, and a relay latching system is need instead of a
the power switch. In this way, the system can operate using push buttons.

A relay is a device that responds to a voltage change by activating a switch. When the
input is energized with a voltage a current will flow thought the coil and cause it to become
magnetized. Magnetic force will pull the contact close and thus close the circuit. When the
input voltage taken away the magnet will de-activate and the contact will open again. A relay
and a contactor basically serve the same function. The name contactor is simply used for high
current.
 Below is a picture of the main control box for the converter with the components
labeled. This is how the control mechanism is put together without a PLC. The power switch
and momentary push button have been replaced with start and stop buttons. The operational
logic is performed by the start relay and a time delay relay.

Below is a block diagram that shows the manner in which each device is connected to
each other. The wiring should look a little complex and confusing. The blocks in yellow
represent ‘Relay logic’. The light blue blocks are output devices. The wiring would be much
simpler with a PLC. The 2-pole contactor controls the power supply to the converter. The 1-
pole contactor controls the starting capacitor. The Remote lamp is a indicator light at the remote
location. When lit it indicate that the converter is operating
 Below is a schematic of how devices would be connected if a PLC was used for control.
Note how simple the wiring becomes. When using a PLC, physical wiring poses much less
difficulty. Consequently, this helps avoid problems and speeds installation. The inputs are on
the left and the outputs are on the right. Notice how the PLC took the place of two relays, the
start relay and the timed relay. By replacing these two components the PLC has already almost
paid for itself. Furthermore, by using a PLC additional timers, relays and other devices can be
added for logical control at no cost.

One aspect that is not shown here is the program that the PLC must run to control the
process correctly. At each point, an input and output are connected to the PLC there is an
address. This address is used in the software to keep track of the different devices.
PLC Process Example

Suppose there is a process where there is a pressure build up. A solenoid is powered to
keep a valve shut. Every time a pressure sensor is tripped, a solenoid is de-activated for 10
seconds. That in turn allows the valve to open and the pressure to be released. After 10 seconds,
power is restored to the solenoid and the valve is closed. (A solenoid is another type of relay.)
Also suppose that the process needs to count how many times the solenoid is de-activated.
Without a PLC the process would follow the diagram above. The pressure sensor would feed
information in a timer and a counter (two separate unites of hardware). But what if the process
included 10 sensors and 10 solenoids? We’d need 10 timers and 10 counters. That’s a large
amount of hardware that takes up room on the factory floor. Moreover, if a manual release
button and other safety sensors were also needed, the situation can become complex and
involve a large amount of hardware. If any one unit failed the whole system would have to be
shut down, the fault found and then fixed. Before PLCs, however, this is how it was done.

Instead of a large amount of devices and the resulting complicated wiring, one piece of
hardware, a PLC can take the place of all 20 timers and counters. It can simulate all the
necessary logic within its programming. And if the PLC breaks, it is easily replaced.
 PLCs replace all the wiring and individual pieces of hardware like counters, timers and
relays. Before PLCs were used the wiring, configuring and troubleshooting all these
components would often get very complicated. With a PLC, all wiring is done in software
where it is drawn clearly and much easier to understand. This adds an additional benefit were
if a change was needed to be made, no disconnecting of hardware would be required. No one
would have to disconnect wires and move around hardware. That can be very time consuming
and tedious. Only the PLC’s program would need to be updated and then loaded into the PLC’s
memory.

Typical PLC Applications

PLCs are implemented in a variety of control operations from large to small.
Carwashes are a popular use for PLCs because it involves intricate use of sensors and motors,
but also has the need for relatively complex logic. Carwashes have several wash types that use
or doesn’t use certain features. Each car wash can be a very unique and involved process, but
it is greatly simplified when done in the PLC’s software as opposed to a hardware
implementation.

PLCs are used for sorting packages on a conveyor by operating a diverter. One conveyor can
move many types of packages. A sensor can detect a package type and a series of diverters can
sort them at the end of the belt. In this way, one conveyor can be used instead of many. But the
PLC is flexible, it can be reprogrammed if and when the sorting task changes or if enhanced
operation is needed.

PLCs are used to operate greenhouse irrigations systems. It can be used to control how often
and the amount of water distributed to certain areas. It can control a large amount of valves to
certain areas and is flexible as the greenhouse’s needs change.

Lumber mills use PLCs to control the main saw and loading of wood while various sensors
ensure safe operation so that people and equipment are not harmed. A lumber mill saw is very
expensive and many precautions must be taken to ensure that nothing goes wrong when moving
lumber through the mill.

PLCs can withstand the hash condition desert conditions while controlling an oil recovery
process. Temperatures can get higher than 120 degrees Fahrenheit in the desert, yet a PLC can
read sensors and control the motors necessary for oil extraction. These tiny computers are
meant to be rugged.

Basic PLC Structure

A PLC has four major internal components. The CPU
contains the microprocessor, registers, control clock and
various other processing units. The memory contains
user’s program, program data storage and PLC’s
operating system. Some memory is ROM (read only
memory) wish gives permanent storage for the
operations system and fixed data for the CPU. Other
memory is RAM (random access memory) which stores data for the user’s program and values
of timers, counters and other internal devices. Often some of the PLC’s RAM has battery
backups so that if the PLC’s power is unexpectedly turned off it can resume normal operation
when the power is restored by referring to the battery backed bits. The input and outputs
provides the interface between the system and the outside world. The PLC’s program is stored
on EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) that is a permanent part
of the PLC. As memory costs drop new types of memory such as flash are being used.

Inputs to, and outputs from, a PLC is necessary to monitor and control a process. Both
inputs and outputs can be categorized into two basic types: logical or continuous. Consider the
example of a light bulb. If it can only be turned on or off, it is logical control. If the light can
be dimmed to different levels, it is continuous. Continuous values seem more intuitive, but
logical values are preferred because they allow more certainty, and simplify control. As a result
most controls applications (and PLCs) use logical inputs and outputs for most applications.

Here are some typical input voltage values for PLCs:

 12-24 Vdc
 100-120 Vac
 10-60 Vdc
 12-24 Vac/dc
 5 Vdc (TTL)
 200-240 Vac
 48 Vdc
  24 Vac

There are many trade-offs when deciding which type of input cards to use.

 DC voltages are usually lower and therefore safer (i.e., 12-24V).

 DC inputs are very fast, AC inputs require a longer on-time. For example, a 60Hz
wave may require up to 1/60sec for reasonable recognition.
 DC voltages can be connected to larger variety of electrical systems.
 AC signals are more immune to noise than DC, so they are suited to long distances,
and noisy (magnetic) environments.
 AC power is easier and less expensive to supply to equipment.
 AC signals are very common in many existing automation devices.
Outputs are often specified as being of relay type, transistor type or triac type. With
relay type, the signal from the PLC output is used to operate a relay and so is able to switch
currents of the order of a few amperes in an external circuit. Relay outputs are suitable for AC
and DC switching. They can withstand high surge currents and voltage transients. The
transistor type of output uses a transistor to switch current through the external circuit. This
gives a considerable faster switching action. Triac outputs can be used to control external loads
which are connected to the AC power supply. It is strictly for AC. operation.

Typical output voltages are listed below, and roughly ordered by popularity:

 120 Vac
 24 Vdc
 12-48 Vac
 12-48 Vdc
 5Vdc (TTL)
 230 Vac
The PLCs CPU is protected by Optoisolators. That is
it is electrically isolated from its inputs and outputs.
The Optoisolators uses a LED and photo sensor to
convey voltage information. When a digital pulse
passes through the LED, a pulse of infrared radiation
is produced. This pulse is detected by the
phototransistor and gives rise to a voltage in that
circuit. The gap between the LED and the phototransistor give electrical isolation. This way if
there is a large voltage spike, the PLC will not be damaged.

The terms sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which DC devices are
connected to a PLC. An input or output said to be sourcing when it uses a PLC as its power
source. PLCs often provide power for the output devices connected to it. An input or output
said to be sinking when it provides its own power for operation. Often sensors are used as
sinking inputs. When discussing sourcing and sinking we are usually referring to the output of
the sensor that is acting like a switch. In fact, the output of the sensor is normally a transistor
that will act like a switch (with some voltage loss). A PNP transistor is used for the sourcing
output, and an NPN transistor is used for the sinking input. When discussing these sensors the
term sourcing is often interchanged with PNP, and sinking with NPN.

Some PLC haves communications inputs and outputs. This can be serial or parallel
cables or even the ability to communicate on an Ethernet. Is useful in large controls situations
where many PLCs in remote locations are controlled by one master PLC.

Basic PLC Operation

A PLC works by continuously running a program that checks
the inputs and then updates the outputs. The process of the
PLC running thought its program is called scanning. Scanning
speed depends on the program size and execution time. The
total time for a PLC to check the inputs, run the program and
update the outputs is called the cycle time. Typical cycle
times are 10 ms to 100 ms. Every cycle the inputs are check
and saved to memory. Then the program is run using the
status of the saved inputs. After the program is done the
outputs are updated and the cycle starts again.

Introduction to SCADA Systems

Supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) is a system of software and hardware
elements that allows industrial organizations to:

 Control industrial processes locally or at remote locations

  Monitor, gather, and process real-time data
 Directly interact with devices such as sensors, valves, pumps, motors, and more through
human-machine interface (HMI) software
 Record events into a log file

SCADA systems are crucial for industrial organizations since they help to maintain efficiency,
process data for smarter decisions, and communicate system issues to help mitigate downtime.

The basic SCADA architecture begins with programmable logic controllers (PLCs) or remote
terminal units (RTUs). PLCs and RTUs are microcomputers that communicate with an array
of objects such as factory machines, HMIs, sensors, and end devices, and then route the
information from those objects to computers with SCADA software. The SCADA software
processes, distributes, and displays the data, helping operators and other employees analyze the
data and make important decisions.

For example, the SCADA system quickly notifies an operator that a batch of product is showing
a high incidence of errors. The operator pauses the operation and views the SCADA system
data via an HMI to determine the cause of the issue. The operator reviews the data and discovers
that Machine 4 was malfunctioning. The SCADA system’s ability to notify the operator of an
issue helps him to resolve it and prevent further loss of product.
Who Uses SCADA?

SCADA systems are used by industrial organizations and companies in the public and private
sectors to control and maintain efficiency, distribute data for smarter decisions, and
communicate system issues to help mitigate downtime. SCADA systems work well in many
different types of enterprises because they can range from simple configurations to large,
complex installations. SCADA systems are the backbone of many modern industries,
including:

 Energy  Oil and gas  Transportation

 Food and beverage  Power  Water and waste water
 Manufacturing  Recycling  And many more

Virtually anywhere you look in today's world, there is some type of SCADA system running
behind the scenes: maintaining the refrigeration systems at the local supermarket, ensuring
production and safety at a refinery, achieving quality standards at a waste water treatment plant,
or even tracking your energy use at home, to give a few examples.

Effective SCADA systems can result in significant savings of time and money. Numerous case
studies have been published highlighting the benefits and savings of
using a modern SCADA software solution such as Ignition.

The Birth of SCADA

To understand the origins of SCADA, we must understand the
problems industrial organizations are trying to solve. Before the
concept of SCADA was introduced in the mid-20th century, many
manufacturing floors, industrial plants, and remote sites relied on
personnel to manually control and monitor equipment via push buttons
and analog dials.

As industrial floors and remotes site began to scale out in size,

solutions were needed to control equipment over long distances.
Industrial organizations started to utilize relays and timers to provide
some level of supervisory control without having to send people to remote locations to interact
with each device.

While relays and timers solved many problems by providing limited automation functionality,
more issues began to arise as organizations continued to scale out. Relays and timers were
difficult to reconfigure, fault-find and the control panels took up racks upon racks of space. A
more efficient and fully automated system of control and monitoring was needed.

In the early 1950s, computers were first developed and used for industrial control purposes.
Supervisory control began to become popular among the major utilities, oil and gas pipelines,
and other industrial markets at that time. In the 1960s, telemetry was established for
monitoring, which allowed for automated communications to transmit measurements and other
data from remotes sites to monitoring equipment. The term “SCADA” was coined in the early
1970s, and the rise of microprocessors and PLCs during that decade increased enterprises’
ability to monitor and control automated processes more than ever before.

The Evolution of SCADA

The first iteration of SCADA started off with mainframe computers. Networks as we know
them today were not available and each SCADA system stood on its own. These systems were
what would now be referred to as monolithic SCADA systems.

In the 80s and 90s, SCADA continued to evolve thanks to smaller computer systems, Local
Area Networking (LAN) technology, and PC-based HMI software. SCADA systems soon were
able to be connected to other similar systems. Many of the LAN protocols used in these systems
were proprietary, which gave vendors control of how to optimize data transfer. Unfortunately,
these systems were incapable of communicating with systems from other vendors. These
systems were called distributed SCADA systems.

In the 1990s and early 2000s, building upon the distributed system model, SCADA adopted an
incremental change by embracing an open system architecture and communications protocols
that were not vendor-specific. This iteration of SCADA, called a networked SCADA system,
took advantage of communications technologies such as Ethernet. Networked SCADA systems
allowed systems from other vendors to communicate with each other, alleviating the limitations
imposed by older SCADA systems, and allowed organizations to connect more devices to the
network.

While SCADA systems have undergone substantial evolutionary changes, many industrial
organizations continued to struggle with industrial data access from the enterprise level. By the
late 1990s to the early 2000s, a technological boom occurred and personal computing and IT
technologies accelerated in development. Structured query language (SQL) databases became
the standard for IT databases but were not adopted by SCADA developers. This resulted in a
rift between the fields of controls and IT, and SCADA technology became antiquated over
time.

Traditional SCADA systems still use proprietary technology to handle data. Whether it is a
data historian, a data connector, or other means of data transfer, the solution is messy and
incredibly expensive. Modern SCADA systems aim to solve this problem by leveraging the
best of controls and IT technology.

Modern SCADA Systems

Modern SCADA systems allow real-time data from the plant floor to be accessed from
anywhere in the world. This access to real-time information allows governments, businesses,
and individuals to make data-driven decisions about how to improve their processes. Without
SCADA software, it would be extremely difficult if not impossible to gather sufficient data for
consistently well-informed decisions. Also, most modern SCADA designer applications have
rapid application development (RAD) capabilities that allow users to design applications
relatively easily, even if they don't have extensive knowledge of software development.

The introduction of modern IT standards and practices such as SQL and web-based applications
into SCADA software has greatly improved the efficiency, security, productivity, and
reliability of SCADA systems. SCADA software that utilizes the power of SQL databases
provides huge advantages over antiquated SCADA software. One big advantage of using SQL
databases with a SCADA system is that it makes it easier to integrate into existing MES and
ERP systems, allowing data to flow seamlessly through an entire organization.

Historical data from a SCADA system can also be logged in a SQL database, which allows for
easier data analysis through data trending.