Introduction to Linux:

1. A Brief History of LINUX:

a. Origins:

 Creator: Linux was created by Linus Torvalds in 1991.

 Inspiration: Developed as a Unix-like operating system kernel.

 Open Source: Released under the GNU General Public License (GPL).

b. Growth and Development:

 Community Involvement: Rapid development through collaboration with a global

 Distributions: Various distributions (distros) evolved, each tailored to specific needs (e.g.,
Ubuntu, Fedora, Debian).

c. Significance:

 Open Source Philosophy: Linux embodies the open-source philosophy, fostering

 Widespread Adoption: Used in diverse applications, from servers and embedded systems to
desktops and mobile devices.

2. Architecture of LINUX:

a. Monolithic Kernel:

 Linux follows a monolithic kernel architecture.

 Kernel: Manages system resources and provides essential services.

b. Key Components:

 Process Management: Handles the creation, scheduling, and termination of processes.

 Memory Management: Manages system memory and allocates resources to processes.

 File System: Provides file and directory management functionalities.

 Device Drivers: Facilitate communication between hardware devices and the kernel.

c. User Space and Kernel Space:

 User Space: Where user applications and processes run.

 Kernel Space: Reserved for the operating system's core functions.

3. Features of LINUX:

a. Multiuser and Multitasking:

 Supports multiple users and concurrent execution of processes.

 User Permissions: Implements a robust permission system for file access and system
operations.

 Firewalls and Encryption: Offers tools for securing networks and data.

c. Stability and Reliability:

 Known for high stability and reliability, often used in critical systems.

d. Open Source Philosophy:

 Code accessibility and modifiability foster innovation and collaboration.

e. Portability:

 Runs on a variety of hardware architectures, making it versatile.

f. Networking Capabilities:

 Inherent support for networking protocols and services.

g. Command-Line Interface (CLI) and Graphical User Interface (GUI):

 Offers both CLI and GUI interfaces for user interaction.

4. Introduction to vi Editor:

a. Vi vs. Vim:

 Vi (Visual Editor): Original version.

 Vim (Vi Improved): Enhanced version with additional features.

b. Modes:

 Command Mode: For navigation and issuing commands.

 Insert Mode: For text input.

 Visual Mode: For selecting text.

c. Basic Commands:

 Navigation: h, j, k, l.

 Saving and Quitting: :w, :q, :wq.

d. Advanced Features:

 Search and Replace: /pattern, :%s/old/new/g.

 Copy and Paste: y, p.

e. Customization:

 Configuration Files: ~/.vimrc for custom settings.

a. Basic Commands:

 ls: List files and directories.

 pwd: Print the current working directory.

 cd: Change directory.

 cp: Copy files or directories.

 mv: Move or rename files or directories.

 rm: Remove files or directories.

b. File and Text Manipulation:

 cat: Concatenate and display file contents.

 grep: Search for patterns in files.

 echo: Display messages.

c. System Information:

 uname: Display system information.

 df: Display disk space usage.

 free: Display free and used memory.

d. Process Management:

 ps: Display information about active processes.

 kill: Terminate processes.

e. Package Management:

 apt: Advanced Package Tool (used in Debian-based distributions).

 yum: Yellowdog Updater, Modified (used in Red Hat-based distributions).

Introduction to Shells: Linux Session

1. Linux Session:

a. Definition:

 Shell: A shell is a command-line interpreter that provides a user interface to interact with
the operating system. It interprets user commands and executes them.

b. Types of Shells:

 Bash (Bourne Again Shell): Common default shell for Linux.

c. Starting a Linux Session:

 Login: Provides access to the system using a username and password.

 Non-login (Interactive) Session: Accessed without the need for a login process.

2. Standard Streams:

a. Overview:

 Standard Input (stdin): Represents input from the keyboard.

 Standard Output (stdout): Represents output to the screen.

 Standard Error (stderr): Represents error messages.

b. Redirection:

 >: Redirects stdout to a file.

 <: Redirects stdin from a file.

 2>: Redirects stderr to a file.

c. Examples:

command > output.txt # Redirect stdout to a file

command < input.txt # Redirect stdin from a file

command 2> error.log # Redirect stderr to a file

3. Pipes:

a. Definition:

 Pipe (|): Connects the output of one command to the input of another, allowing for the
chaining of commands.

b. Example:

command1 | command2 # Output of command1 is the input of command2

4. Tee Command:

a. Definition:

 tee: Reads from stdin and writes to both stdout and files.

b. Example:

command | tee output.txt # Output of command is displayed and written to output.txt

a. Background Execution:

 &: Executes a command in the background, allowing the shell to continue to accept
commands.

b. Example:

command & # Execute command in the background

. Command-Line Editing:

a. Line Editing Commands:

 Ctrl + A: Move to the beginning of the line.

 Ctrl + E: Move to the end of the line.

 Ctrl + U: Delete from the cursor to the beginning of the line.

b. History Navigation:

 Ctrl + R: Search backward through command history.

7. Quotes:

a. Single Quotes ('):

 Preserve the literal value of each character within the quotes.

b. Double Quotes ("):

 Allow for variable substitution and interpretation of certain special characters.

c. Example:

echo 'Single quotes preserve $variable' # Output: Single quotes preserve $variable

echo "Double quotes allow $variable" # Output: Double quotes allow the value of variable

8. Command Substitution:

a. Syntax:

 `command`: Executes the command and substitutes its output.

b. Example:

current_directory=`pwd` # Assigns the current directory to the variable

9. Job Control:

a. Overview:

 jobs: Lists the current jobs.

 bg: Puts a job in the background.

b. Example:

emacs & # Start emacs in the background

jobs # List background jobs

fg 1 # Bring the first job to the foreground

10. Aliases:

a. Definition:

 alias: Creates a shortcut or alias for a command.

b. Example:

alias ll='ls -alF' # Create an alias 'll' for 'ls -alF'

11. Variables:

a. User-Defined Variables:

 Assignment: variable_name=value

b. Predefined Variables:

 $HOME: User's home directory.

 $PATH: List of directories to search for executable files.

c. Example:

username="John"

echo "Hello, $username!"

12. Options:

a. Overview:

 set: Displays shell options.

 set -o option: Enables a shell option.

 set +o option: Disables a shell option.

b. Example:

set -o noclobber # Prevent overwriting files with '>'

Filters:

1. Filters and Pipes:

a. Definition:

 Filter: A program that processes an input stream and produces an output stream.
b. Examples:

cat file.txt | grep "pattern" | sort

2. Concatenating Files:

a. cat Command:

 cat: Concatenates and displays the content of files.

b. Example:

cat file1.txt file2.txt > combined.txt

3. Display Beginning and End of Files:

a. head and tail Commands:

 head: Displays the beginning of a file.

 tail: Displays the end of a file.

b. Example:

head -n 10 file.txt # Display the first 10 lines of file.txt

tail -n 20 file.txt # Display the last 20 lines of file.txt

4. Cut and Paste:

a. cut and paste Commands:

 cut: Removes sections from each line of a file.

 paste: Merges lines from multiple files.

b. Example:

cut -d':' -f1,3 file.txt # Display fields 1 and 3 using ':' as the delimiter

paste file1.txt file2.txt > merged.txt

5. Sorting:

a. sort Command:

 sort: Sorts lines of text files.

b. Example:

sort file.txt > sorted.txt

Introduction to Shells: Linux Session

1. Linux Session:

a. Definition:

 Shell: A shell is a command-line interpreter that provides a user interface to interact with
the operating system. It interprets user commands and executes them.
b. Types of Shells:

 Bash (Bourne Again Shell): Common default shell for Linux.

 Zsh (Z Shell), Fish: Other popular shells with extended features.

c. Starting a Linux Session:

 Login: Provides access to the system using a username and password.

 Non-login (Interactive) Session: Accessed without the need for a login process.

2. Standard Streams:

a. Overview:

 Standard Input (stdin): Represents input from the keyboard.

 Standard Output (stdout): Represents output to the screen.

 Standard Error (stderr): Represents error messages.

b. Redirection:

 >: Redirects stdout to a file.

 <: Redirects stdin from a file.

 2>: Redirects stderr to a file.

c. Examples:

bashCopy code

command > output.txt # Redirect stdout to a file command < input.txt # Redirect stdin from a file
command 2> error.log # Redirect stderr to a file

3. Pipes:

a. Definition:

 Pipe (|): Connects the output of one command to the input of another, allowing for the
chaining of commands.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

command1 | command2 # Output of command1 is the input of command2

4. Tee Command:

a. Definition:

 tee: Reads from stdin and writes to both stdout and files.
b. Example:

bashCopy code

command | tee output.txt # Output of command is displayed and written to output.txt

5. Command Execution:

a. Background Execution:

 &: Executes a command in the background, allowing the shell to continue to accept
commands.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

command & # Execute command in the background

6. Command-Line Editing:

a. Line Editing Commands:

 Ctrl + A: Move to the beginning of the line.

 Ctrl + E: Move to the end of the line.

 Ctrl + U: Delete from the cursor to the beginning of the line.

b. History Navigation:

 Ctrl + R: Search backward through command history.

7. Quotes:

a. Single Quotes ('):

 Preserve the literal value of each character within the quotes.

b. Double Quotes ("):

 Allow for variable substitution and interpretation of certain special characters.

c. Example:

bashCopy code

echo 'Single quotes preserve $variable' # Output: Single quotes preserve $variable echo "Double
quotes allow $variable" # Output: Double quotes allow the value of variable

8. Command Substitution:

a. Syntax:
  `command`: Executes the command and substitutes its output.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

current_directory=`pwd` # Assigns the current directory to the variable

9. Job Control:

a. Overview:

 jobs: Lists the current jobs.

 bg: Puts a job in the background.

 fg: Brings a job to the foreground.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

emacs & # Start emacs in the background jobs # List background jobs fg 1 # Bring the first job to the
foreground

10. Aliases:

a. Definition:

 alias: Creates a shortcut or alias for a command.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

alias ll='ls -alF' # Create an alias 'll' for 'ls -alF'

11. Variables:

a. User-Defined Variables:

 Assignment: variable_name=value

b. Predefined Variables:

 $HOME: User's home directory.

 $PATH: List of directories to search for executable files.

c. Example:

bashCopy code

username="John" echo "Hello, $username!"

a. Overview:

 set: Displays shell options.

 set -o option: Enables a shell option.

 set +o option: Disables a shell option.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

set -o noclobber # Prevent overwriting files with '>'

13. Shell/Environment Customization:

a. Configuration Files:

 ~/.bashrc: Per-user shell customization file.

 /etc/bashrc: System-wide shell configuration file.

b. Customizing Prompt:

 PS1: Primary prompt string variable.

 PS2: Secondary prompt string variable.

c. Example:

bashCopy code

PS1='\u@\h:\w\$ ' # Customizes the shell prompt to display user, host, and current directory

Filters:

1. Filters and Pipes:

a. Definition:

 Filter: A program that processes an input stream and produces an output stream.

b. Examples:

bashCopy code

cat file.txt | grep "pattern" | sort

2. Concatenating Files:

a. cat Command:
  cat: Concatenates and displays the content of files.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

cat file1.txt file2.txt > combined.txt

3. Display Beginning and End of Files:

a. head and tail Commands:

 head: Displays the beginning of a file.

 tail: Displays the end of a file.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

head -n 10 file.txt # Display the first 10 lines of file.txt tail -n 20 file.txt # Display the last 20 lines of
file.txt

4. Cut and Paste:

a. cut and paste Commands:

 cut: Removes sections from each line of a file.

 paste: Merges lines from multiple files.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

cut -d':' -f1,3 file.txt # Display fields 1 and 3 using ':' as the delimiter paste file1.txt file2.txt >
merged.txt

5. Sorting:

a. sort Command:

 sort: Sorts lines of text files.

b. Example:

bashCopy code

sort file.txt > sorted.txt

6. Translating Characters:

a. tr Command:
  tr: Translates or deletes characters.

b. Example:

tr 'a-z' 'A-Z' < input.txt # Convert lowercase to uppercase

7. Files with Duplicate Lines:

a. uniq Command:

 uniq: Removes duplicate lines from a sorted file.

b. Example:

sort file.txt | uniq > unique.txt

8. Count Characters, Words, or Lines:

a. wc Command:

 wc: Counts the number of characters, words, and lines in a file.

b. Example:

wc -l file.txt # Count the number of lines in file.txt

9. Comparing Files:

a. diff Command:

 diff: Compares files line by line.

b. Example:

diff file1.txt file2.txt