Chapter 7 discusses the nervous system's structure and function, highlighting its role in regulating body functions through electrical impulses and maintaining homeostasis. It details the organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS, the types of neurons and supporting cells, and the physiological properties of nerve impulses. Additionally, it covers various brain functions, disorders, and protective mechanisms of the CNS.
Chapter 7 discusses the nervous system's structure and function, highlighting its role in regulating body functions through electrical impulses and maintaining homeostasis. It details the organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS, the types of neurons and supporting cells, and the physiological properties of nerve impulses. Additionally, it covers various brain functions, disorders, and protective mechanisms of the CNS.
Chapter 7 discusses the nervous system's structure and function, highlighting its role in regulating body functions through electrical impulses and maintaining homeostasis. It details the organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS, the types of neurons and supporting cells, and the physiological properties of nerve impulses. Additionally, it covers various brain functions, disorders, and protective mechanisms of the CNS.
Chapter 7 discusses the nervous system's structure and function, highlighting its role in regulating body functions through electrical impulses and maintaining homeostasis. It details the organization of the nervous system into the CNS and PNS, the types of neurons and supporting cells, and the physiological properties of nerve impulses. Additionally, it covers various brain functions, disorders, and protective mechanisms of the CNS.
Motor Division: Carries motor commands from the CNS
Nervous System as Master Control: The nervous system to the body. regulates all body functions, from thoughts to actions. a. Somatic Nervous System: Controls skeletal muscles Electrical Impulses: The nervous system communicates (voluntary). using rapid electrical signals, allowing for immediate b. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls smooth responses. muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands (involuntary). Homeostasis: The nervous system works with the endocrine system to maintain a stable internal environment. Three Overlapping Functions: The nervous system has three primary functions: sensory input, integration, and motor output. Feedback Loop: The nervous system operates like a feedback loop, receiving sensory information, processing it, and producing a response.
NERVOUS TISSUE: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
- nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of Example: Driving and Responding to a Red Light cells—supporting cells and neurons Sensory Input: You see a red light ahead (receptor). SUPPORTING CELLS (NEUROGLIA) Integration: Your brain processes the information, Neuroglia: Supporting cells of the nervous system. recognizing that red means "stop." Functions: Support, insulate, and protect neurons. Motor Output: Your nervous system sends a signal to Types of Neuroglia: Astrocytes, microglia, ependymal your leg muscles. cells, oligodendrocytes (CNS), Schwann cells, and satellite Response: Your foot applies the brake. cells (PNS). Additional Insights: Parallel Processing: The nervous system can handle multiple tasks simultaneously, such as driving, conversing, and reacting to unexpected stimuli. Adaptation: The nervous system can adapt to changing conditions, allowing for learning and memory. Complexity: The human nervous system is incredibly complex, with billions of neurons interconnected in intricate networks. ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Structural Classification: Divides the nervous system into the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS). 1. Central Nervous System (CNS): Consists of the brain and spinal cord, serving as the command center. 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Includes nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the body. Functional Classification: Divides the PNS into the sensory division and motor division. Supporting Cells in the Central Nervous System (CNS): 1. Sensory Division: Carries sensory information from the a. Astrocytes body to the CNS. - Star-shaped cells that provide structural support and nutrient supply to neurons. - Form a barrier between blood capillaries and neurons. Tracts: Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) - Help maintain the chemical environment of the brain. running through the CNS. b. Microglia Nerves: Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) in the - Phagocytic cells that remove debris and dead cells. peripheral nervous system (PNS). c. Ependymal Cells White Matter: Regions of the CNS containing myelinated - Line the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord. nerve fibers. - Help circulate cerebrospinal fluid. Gray Matter: Regions of the CNS containing unmyelinated d. Oligodendrocytes nerve fibers and cell bodies. - Produce myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the CNS. STRUCTURE: Supporting Cells in the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cell Body: Contains the nucleus, Nissl bodies, and a. Schwann Cells neurofibrils. - Produce myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the PNS. Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive incoming b. Satellite Cells signals. - Provide protective cushioning for peripheral neuron cell Axon: Long, slender process that transmits nerve bodies. impulses away from the cell body. Key Differences Between Neuroglia and Neurons: Axon Hillock: Cone-shaped region where the axon Function: Neuroglia support and protect neurons, while originates. neurons transmit nerve impulses. Collateral Branches: Branches of the axon. Divisibility: Neuroglia can divide, while most neurons Axon Terminal: The end of the axon, containing synaptic cannot. vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. NERVE CELL (NEURONS) Synaptic Cleft: The gap between the axon terminal and Neurons: Specialized cells that transmit nerve impulses. the target cell. Structure: Cell body, dendrites, and axon. Neurilemma: Outer layer of the Schwann cell surrounding Myelin Sheath: Insulating layer around axons. the myelin sheath. Synapses: Junctions between neurons. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where the Functional Classification: Sensory, motor, and association axon is exposed. neurons. Structural Classification: Multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons. Neurons: The Functional Cells of Nervous Tissue ANATOMY: Nissl Bodies: Clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) in the cell body, responsible for protein synthesis. Neurofibrils: Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape and provide structural support. Processes: Extensions of the neuron, including dendrites and axons. Fibers: Another term for processes. Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive incoming signals. Axons: Long, slender processes that transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body. Axon Hillock: Cone-shaped region of the cell body where the axon originates. Collateral Branch: A branch of an axon. Axon Terminal: The end of an axon, containing synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers released into the synaptic cleft. Synaptic Cleft: The gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite or cell body of another. Neurilemma: Outer layer of the Schwann cell surrounding the myelin sheath. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed. Ganglia: Clusters of neuron cell bodies outside the central nervous system (CNS). Structural Classification: Multipolar: Many dendrites and one axon (most common). Bipolar: One dendrite and one axon (found in special sense organs). Unipolar: Single process that divides into dendrites and axon (sensory neurons). MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS): An autoimmune disease that damages nerves, causing symptoms like vision problems and muscle weakness. There's no cure, but treatments can help. FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION: Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons): Transmit impulses from sensory receptors (cutaneous sense organs-sensory receptors in the skin, proprioceptors-sensory receptors in muscles, tendons, and joints that detect stretch or tension) to the CNS. Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons): Transmit impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles and glands). Association Neurons (Interneurons): Connect sensory and motor neurons.
PHYSIOLOGY: NERVE IMPULSES
Physiological Properties: Irritability: The ability to respond to stimuli and generate nerve impulses. Conductivity: The ability to transmit nerve impulses. Electrical Conditions of a Resting Neuron: Polarized Membrane: The inside of the neuron is negatively charged compared to the outside. Ion Distribution: Potassium ions (K+) are higher inside, while sodium ions (Na+) are higher outside. Generation of a Nerve Impulse: Stimulus: A stimulus (e.g., neurotransmitter, light, sound) triggers depolarization. Sodium Influx: Sodium ions rush into the neuron, causing depolarization. Action Potential: If the depolarization reaches threshold, an action potential is generated. Repolarization: Potassium ions flow out of the neuron, restoring the resting potential. Sodium-Potassium Pump: Restores the original ion concentrations. Conduction of a Nerve Impulse: Saltatory Conduction: In myelinated fibers, the nerve impulse jumps from node to node, increasing speed. (saltare = to dance or leap) Synaptic Transmission: Neurotransmitter Release: When the action potential reaches the axon terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft. Binding: Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. Excitatory or Inhibitory Effects: Neurotransmitters can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron. Reflexes: Rapid, Involuntary Responses: Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli. Reflex Arc: The neural pathway involved in a reflex, typically involving sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons. Types of Reflexes: Somatic reflexes (skeletal muscles) and autonomic reflexes (smooth muscles, cardiac muscle, glands). Factors That Can Impair the Conduction of Nerve Impulses Sedatives and Anesthetics: These drugs can block nerve impulses by altering the permeability of the cell membrane to ions, particularly sodium ions. This prevents the influx of sodium ions, which is necessary for the generation of an action potential. Cold and Continuous Pressure: These conditions can hinder impulse conduction by interrupting blood circulation. This reduces the delivery of oxygen and nutrients to neurons, which are essential for their proper functioning. o Motor Homunculus: A map of the body's representation in the primary motor area. o Broca's Area: Involved in speech production. Higher-Order Functions: o Frontal Lobe: Involved in intellectual reasoning, social behavior, and language comprehension. o Temporal Lobe: Involved in memory and language comprehension. o Parietal Lobe: Involved in spatial awareness and sensory integration. o Occipital Lobe: Involved in visual processing. Cerebral White Matter: o Corpus Callosum: Connects the two cerebral hemispheres. o Association Fibers: Connect areas within a hemisphere. o Projection Fibers: Connect the cerebrum with lower brain centers. Basal Nuclei: o Function: Help regulate voluntary motor activities. o Internal Capsule: A bundle of projection fibers passing through the basal nuclei. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Functional Anatomy of the Brain Cerebral Hemispheres (cerebrum): The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-order functions. Gyri and Sulci: Ridges and grooves on the surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Lobes: Divisions of the cerebral hemispheres (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital). Cerebral Cortex: The outer layer of gray matter, responsible for most brain functions. White Matter: The internal region of the cerebral hemispheres, consisting of myelinated nerve fibers. Basal Nuclei: Gray matter structures deep within the white matter, involved in motor control. Cerebral Hemispheres: The Seat of Higher-Order Functions Structure: Gyri and Sulci: Increase the surface area of the brain. Lobes: Frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes. Regions: Cerebral Cortex: Gray matter responsible for higher-order functions. Cerebral White Matter: Primarily composed of myelinated nerve fibers. Basal Nuclei: Gray matter structures involved in motor control. Functions of the Cerebral Cortex: Sensory Functions: o Primary Somatic Sensory Area: Receives and interprets sensory information from the body (except for special senses). o Sensory Homunculus: A map of the body's representation in the primary somatic sensory area. o Special Senses: Visual, auditory, and olfactory areas. Motor Functions: o Primary Motor Area: Controls voluntary movement of skeletal muscles. HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE: A genetic disorder that causes progressive brain damage, leading to uncontrolled movements, cognitive decline, and psychiatric problems. PARKINSON'S DISEASE: A neurodegenerative disorder characterized by tremors, rigidity, slow movements, and difficulty walking. Diencephalon Thalamus: A relay station for sensory impulses, involved in crude recognition of sensations. Hypothalamus: Regulates body temperature, water balance, metabolism, and drives/emotions. Epithalamus: Contains the pineal gland and choroid plexus. Brainstem Midbrain: Contains the cerebral aqueduct, cerebral peduncles, and corpora quadrigemina. Pons: Involved in breathing control. Medulla Oblongata: Controls vital functions like heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting. Reticular Formation: Involved in motor control of visceral organs and consciousness. o Reticular Activating System (RAS): Plays a crucial role in arousal, attention, and consciousness. It filters sensory information and helps regulate the sleep- wake cycle. Cerebellum Key Functions: Motor Coordination: Ensures smooth and coordinated movements. Balance: Maintains balance and posture. Fine Motor Control: Regulates precise movements. Muscle Tone: Maintains appropriate muscle tension. Structure: Cerebellar Hemispheres: Two lateral hemispheres. Vermis: A central, midline region connecting the hemispheres. Cerebellar Cortex: Outer layer of gray matter. Cerebellar Nuclei: Deep gray matter structures. Inputs and Outputs: Inputs: Receives information from the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and sensory receptors (proprioceptors, vestibular system). Outputs: Sends information to the cerebral cortex and brainstem to modify motor commands. Role in Motor Control: Error Correction: Compares intended movements with actual movements and corrects errors. Timing: Ensures precise timing of muscle contractions. Sequencing: Coordinates complex movements involving multiple muscle groups. Clinical Significance: Damage to the cerebellum: Can lead to ataxia (incoordination), tremors, difficulty maintaining balance, and impaired speech. Production: Produced by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles. Circulation: Flows through the ventricles and subarachnoid space. Functions: Cushions and protects the brain and spinal cord, maintains a stable environment. Absorption: Absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid granulations.
ATAXIA: A condition caused by damage to the cerebellum,
affecting movement and balance. Symptoms include clumsiness, difficulty walking, and tremors. PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 1. Meninges Dura Mater: The outermost layer, tough and fibrous. Arachnoid Mater: Middle layer, web-like. Pia Mater: Innermost layer, delicate and tightly adhered to the brain and spinal cord. Subarachnoid Space: Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
HYDROCEPHALUS: A condition where cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
accumulates in the brain, leading to increased pressure. 3. Blood-Brain Barrier: Function: Protects the brain from harmful substances in the blood. Structure: Tight junctions between capillary endothelial cells. Permeability: Highly selective, allowing only certain substances to pass through. Importance: Maintains a stable environment for optimal brain function. BRAIN DYSFUNCTIONS TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES (TBIS) Causes: Accidents, falls, sports injuries, violence Types: Concussions, contusions, intracranial hemorrhage, cerebral edema Symptoms: Dizziness, loss of consciousness, impaired cognitive function, motor deficits, sensory disturbances, emotional problems MENINGITIS: Inflammation of the meninges, the protective CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENTS (CVAS) membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Causes: Blood clots, ruptured blood vessels ENCEPHALITIS: Inflammation of the brain tissue, often caused Symptoms: Weakness or numbness on one side of the by untreated meningitis. body, difficulty speaking or understanding speech, 2. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): sudden vision changes, severe headache Long-term effects: Cognitive impairments, motor deficits, sensory disturbances, emotional problems BRAIN TUMORS: Can cause a variety of symptoms, including headaches, seizures, and changes in personality. NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES: Conditions that cause progressive damage to brain cells, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. SPINAL CORD Structure: Cylindrical structure extending from the brain stem to the lumbar region. Functions: Provides a two-way communication pathway between the brain and body and serves as a reflex center. Meninges: Protected by the same meninges as the brain. Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs of nerves arising from the spinal cord. Gray Matter: Contains interneurons (dorsal horns) and motor neurons (ventral horns). White Matter: Contains ascending (sensory) and descending (motor) tracts. Structure and Function of the Spinal Cord: Location: Extends from the foramen magnum to the first or second lumbar vertebra. Meninges: Covered by the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. Spinal Nerves: 31 pairs of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord. Gray Matter: o Dorsal Horns: Contain interneurons. o Ventral Horns: Contain cell bodies of motor neurons. o Central Canal: Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). White Matter: o Dorsal Column: Ascending tracts carrying sensory information to the brain. o Lateral Column: Contains both ascending and descending tracts. o Ventral Column: Contains both ascending and descending tracts. Functions: Conduction Pathway: Provides a two-way communication pathway between the brain and body. Reflex Center: Mediates spinal reflexes. FLACCID PARALYSIS: Results from damage to the ventral root, which carries motor impulses to muscles; muscle atrophy SPASTIC PARALYSIS: Results from damage to the spinal cord, causing involuntary muscle movements and loss of sensation. QUADRIPLEGIA: Paralysis of all four limbs. PARAPLEGIA: Paralysis of the legs. The Terrible Three ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE (AD): Memory loss, disorientation, cognitive decline. PARKINSON'S DISEASE: Tremors, rigidity, slow movements, difficulty walking. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM HUNTINGTON'S DISEASE: Jerky movements, mental Structure of a Nerve deterioration. Endoneurium: Connective tissue sheath surrounding individual nerve fibers. Perineurium: Connective tissue sheath surrounding groups of fibers (fascicles). Epineurium: Tough outer connective tissue sheath surrounding the entire nerve. Classification of Nerves Sensory (Afferent) Nerves: Carry impulses toward the CNS. Motor (Efferent) Nerves: Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors. Mixed Nerves: Contain both sensory and motor fibers. CRANIAL NERVES 12 Pairs: Serve the head and neck, except for the vagus nerve. Functions: Vary widely, including sensory, motor, and mixed functions. Testing: Specific tests are used to evaluate cranial nerve function. SPINAL NERVES 31 Pairs: Formed by the combination of dorsal and ventral roots. Naming: Named according to the region of the spinal cord from which they arise. Dorsal and Ventral Rami: Each spinal nerve divides into a dorsal ramus (serving the posterior body) and a ventral ramus (serving the anterior and lateral body). Intercostal Nerves: Ventral rami of spinal nerves T1-T12, supplying the intercostal muscles and skin. Nerve Plexuses: Networks of ventral rami serving the limbs. Control: o Somatic: Voluntary o Autonomic: Involuntary
ANATOMY OF THE PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Preganglionic Neurons: Located in the brainstem and sacral spinal cord. Cranial Nerves: III, VII, IX, and X. Pelvic Splanchnic Nerves: Sacral outflow. Terminal Ganglia: Located near or on the target organs. ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC DIVISION: Preganglionic Neurons: Located in the thoracic and lumbar spinal cord. Sympathetic Trunk: Chain of ganglia running along the vertebral column. Collateral Ganglia: Celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric ganglia. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions. Divisions: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Effector Organs: Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands. Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (parasympathetic) and norepinephrine (sympathetic). Antagonistic Effects: The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions have opposing effects on most organs. Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems Effector Organs: o Somatic: Skeletal muscles o Autonomic: Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, glands Neurotransmitters: AUTONOMIC FUNCTIONS o Somatic: Acetylcholine Parasympathetic Division (Rest-and-Digest): o Autonomic: Acetylcholine (preganglionic), o Decreases heart rate and force norepinephrine (postganglionic) o Constricts bronchioles Motor Pathways: o Increases digestive motility and secretion o Somatic: Single neuron pathway o Constricts blood vessels in most organs o Autonomic: Two-neuron pathway (preganglionic and o Constricts pupils postganglionic) Sympathetic Division (Fight-or-Flight): o Increases heart rate and force Prenatal Care: Proper prenatal care is essential to protect o Dilates bronchioles the developing nervous system from harmful influences. o Decreases digestive motility and secretion Brain Injuries: Brain injuries can occur at any age and o Dilates blood vessels in skeletal muscles, constricts have significant consequences. blood vessels in skin and viscera Neurodegenerative Diseases: Conditions like Alzheimer's o Dilates pupils disease and Parkinson's disease can affect the nervous o Increases sweating system in later life. Healthy Aging: Maintaining a healthy lifestyle, including regular exercise, a balanced diet, and adequate sleep, can help support brain health and function. Additional Terms: Orthostatic Hypotension: A drop in blood pressure when standing up quickly. Arteriosclerosis: Hardening and narrowing of arteries, reducing blood flow to the brain. Senility: Age-related cognitive decline. CEREBRAL PALSY: A neuromuscular disability caused by brain damage, resulting in poorly controlled voluntary muscles. Congenital Malformations: HYDROCEPHALUS: Buildup of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain, leading to increased pressure. ANENCEPHALY: Absence of the cerebrum, resulting in severe disabilities and often death. DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM SPINA BIFIDA: Incomplete formation of the vertebrae, Prenatal Development: The nervous system is vulnerable affecting the spinal cord and nerves. to damage during early fetal development. TRACKING DOWN CNS PROBLEMS Maturation: The nervous system continues to grow and Brain Waves: Patterns of electrical activity in the brain. develop throughout childhood. Neurological Tests Aging: The nervous system undergoes changes with age, - used to assess the function of the nervous system. including neuronal loss and decreased function. Reflex Tests: Assess the function of the spinal cord and Factors Affecting Development: Maternal health, brain. nutrition, exposure to toxins, and aging can influence Electroencephalography (EEG): Records brain wave nervous system development and function. patterns to assess brain activity. Developmental Stages Neuroimaging Techniques Prenatal Development: Computed Tomography (CT): Creates images of the brain o Vulnerability: The developing nervous system is using X-rays. highly susceptible to damage during the first month Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Creates detailed of pregnancy. images of the brain using magnetic fields and radio o Teratogens: Maternal infections (e.g., rubella), waves. smoking, radiation, and drugs can harm the fetal Positron Emission Tomography (PET): Measures nervous system. metabolic activity in the brain. Childhood: DaTscan: Measures dopamine levels in the brain. o Myelination: Myelination of neural pathways Cerebral Angiography: Visualizes blood vessels in the continues throughout childhood, leading to improved brain using X-rays and contrast dye. motor skills and cognitive functions. Ultrasound: Non-invasive imaging technique to assess o Brain Growth: The brain reaches its maximum weight blood flow in the carotid arteries. in young adulthood. Applications of Neurological Tests Adulthood and Aging: Stroke Diagnosis: Determine the cause of a stroke (clot or o Neuronal Loss: Neurons gradually die and brain bleed) and guide treatment. volume decreases with age. Brain Lesions: Identify tumors, abscesses, plaques, and o Cognitive Decline: Age-related cognitive decline can infarcts. occur, but many individuals maintain their mental Seizures: Localize seizure origin. abilities. Neurodegenerative Diseases: Assess dopamine levels in o Factors Affecting Aging: Circulatory system Parkinson's disease. problems, drug use, and lifestyle factors can accelerate cognitive decline. Clinical Implications