The Nervous System

The nervous system is composed predominantly of neural tissue, but also includes blood vessels and
connective tissue. Neural tissue consists of two cell types: nerve cells or neurons, and neuroglia.
Neurons are specialized to react to physical and chemical changes in their surroundings. Neuroglia are
found throughout the nervous system, and in the brain they greatly outnumber neurons. It was once
thought that neuroglia only fill spaces and surround or support neurons.

The organs of the nervous system can be divided into two groups. One group, consisting of the brain and
spinal cord, forms the central nervous system (CNS). The other group, composed of the nerves (cranial
and spinal nerves) that connect the central nervous system to other body parts, is the peripheral
nervous system (PNS).

General function of nervous system:-

The three general functions of the nervous system—receiving information, deciding what to do, and
acting on those decisions— are termed sensory, integrative, and motor.
 Sensory receptors convert (or transduce) their information into impulses, which are then
conducted along peripheral nerves to the CNS. There the signals are integrated. That is, they are
brought together, creating sensations, adding to memory, or helping produce thoughts.
Following integration, conscious or subconscious decisions are made and then acted upon by
means of motor functions.
 Neurons that conduct impulses from the CNS to responsive structures called effectors carry out
the motor functions of the nervous system.
 The motor portion of the PNS can be subdivided into the somatic and the autonomic nervous
systems. The somatic nervous system communicates voluntary (conscious) instructions
originating in the CNS to skeletal muscles, causing contraction. The autonomic nervous system
communicates instructions from the CNS that control viscera, such as the heart and various
glands, and thus causes involuntary subconscious actions.

1
Neurons and its structure:-
Neurons (also called neurones or nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain and nervous
system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external world, for sending motor
commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the electrical signals at every step in
between.

Cell Body:- A neuron’s cell body contains granular

cytoplasm, mitochondria, lysosomes, a Golgi
apparatus, and many microtubules. Scattered
throughout the cytoplasm are many membranous
packets of chromatophilic substance (Nissl bodies),
which consist mainly of rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Dendrites:- Dendrites are typically highly branched,
providing receptive surfaces with which processes
from other neurons communicate. (In some types of
neurons, the cell body provides such a receptive
surface.) Some dendrites have tiny, thornlike spines
(dendritic spines) on their surfaces, which are contact
points for other neurons.
Axon:- An axon, in addition to conducting impulses,
conveys biochemicals and organelles, which can be
quite a task in these long cells.In this activity, called
axonal transport, movement occurs in both directions
between the cell body and the ends of the axon.

Schwann cells:- Neuroglia called Schwann cells encase the large axons of peripheral neurons in lipid-rich
sheaths. These tight coverings form as Schwann cell membranes wind and wrap around axons. The
Schwann cell plays a vital role in maintaining the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Myelin sheath:- Myelin gives the cell membranes of Schwann cells a higher proportion of lipid than
other cell membranes. This coating is called a myelin sheath.
Nodes of Ranvier:- Narrow gaps in the myelin sheath between Schwann cells are called nodes of
Ranvier.

Classification of Cells of the Nervous system:-

The cells of nervous tissue (neurons and neuroglia) are intimately related. They descend from the same
neural stem cells and remain associated throughout their existence.
 Neurons can be classified into three major groups based on structural differences—

Multipolar neuron A multipolar neuron has many processes arising from its
cell body. Only one is an axon; the rest are dendrites,
which are located outside the brain and spinal cord.
Bipolar neuron The cell body of a bipolar neuron has only two
processes, one arising from either end. Although these
processes are similar in structure, one is an axon and
the other is a dendrite. Bipolar neurons are found in
specialized parts of the eyes, nose, and ears.
Unipolar neuron Each unipolar neuron has a single process

2
 extending from its cell body
Pseudounipolar They start out with two processes that merge into
one during development.

 Neurons can also be classifi

classified by functional differences into the following groups:-
groups:
1.Sensory neurons (afferent neurons) conduct impulses from peripheral body parts into the brain or
spinal cord. At their distal ends, the dendrites of these neurons or specialized structures associated with
them act as sensory receptors, detecting changes in the outside world (for example, eyes, ears, or touch
receptors in the skin) or in the body (for example, temperature or blood pressure receptors).
2. Interneurons (also called association or internuncial neurons) lie within the brain or spinal cord.
They are multipolar and form links with other neurons. Interneurons relay information from one part of
the brain or spinal cord to another.
3. Motor neurons (efferent neurons) are multipolar and conduct impulses out of the brain or spinal
cord to effectors. For example, when motor neurons stimulate muscle cells, the muscle cells contract;
when motor neurons stimulate glands, the glands release secretions

3
The synapse:-
Neurons communicate with one another (or with other cells) at synapses. The process by which the
impulse in the presynaptic neuron signals the postsynaptic cell is called synaptic transmission. Synaptic
transmission is a one-way process carried out by neurotransmitters.

[The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The brain is the largest and
most complex part of the nervous system. It oversees many aspects of physiology, such as sensation and
perception, movement, and thinking.
The brain connects to the spinal cord through the brainstem. Axons conducting impulses up to the brain
are bundled in ascending tracts. Those conducting impulses down through the spinal cord are in
descending tracts. Both the brain and the spinal cord connect to the peripheral nervous system (PNS) via
peripheral nerves.
Beneath these bony coverings, membranes called meninges, located between the bone and the soft
tissues of the nervous system, protect the brain and spinal cord.]
Brain:-
The brain contains neural centers associated with sensory functions and is responsible for sensations
and perceptions. It issues motor commands to skeletal muscles and carries on higher mental functions,
such as memory and reasoning. The brain also contains neural centers and pathways that coordinate
muscular movements, and others that regulate visceral activities. In addition to overseeing the function
of the entire body, the brain is responsible for characteristics such as personality

4
Spinal Cord:-
The spinal cord is a slender column of nervous tissue that is continuous with the brain and extends
downward through the vertebral canal. The spinal cord originates where nervous tissue leaves the
cranial cavity at the level of the foramen magnum
magnum. The spinal cord consists of thirty-one
thirty segments,
each of which gives rise to a pair of spinal nerves. These nerves branch to various body parts and
connect them with the CNS.

5
 A cross section of the spinal cord

The spinal cord begins at the level of the foramen

magnum.

Functions of Spinal cord:- The spinal cord has two main functions. It is a center for spinal reflexes(a
reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary, unplanned sequence or action and nearly instantaneous
response to a stimulus.), and it is a conduit for impulses to and from the brain.

[The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch from the CNS, connecting it to other
body parts. The PNS includes the cranial nerves that arise from the brain and the spinal nerves that arise
from the spinal cord.
The PNS can also be subdivided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems. Generally, the somatic
nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerve fibers that connect the CNS to the skin and
skeletal muscles, so it plays a role in conscious activities. The autonomic nervous system includes fibers
that connect the CNS to viscera such as the heart, stomach, intestines, and various glands. The
autonomic nervous system controls subconscious actions.]

Cranial Nerves:-
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves are located on the underside of the brain. Most of the cranial nerves are
mixed nerves, but some of those associated with special senses, such as smell and vision, have only
sensory fibers.

6
 Cranial nerves types and their functions:-
Cranial Nerve Type Functions
I Olfactory Sensory Sensory fibers conduct impulses associated
with the sense of smell.
II Optic. Sensory Sensory fibers conduct impulses associated
with the sense of vision.
III Oculomotor Primarily motor Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles that
raise the eyelids, move the eyes, adjust the
amount of light entering the eyes, and focus
the lenses.
IV Trochlear Primarily motor Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles that
move the eyes.
V Trigeminal Mixed Sensory fibers conduct impulses from the
surface of the eyes, tear glands, scalp,
forehead, and upper eyelids. Motor fibers
conduct impulses to muscles of mastication
and to muscles in the floor of the mouth.
VI Abducens Primarily motor Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles that
move the eyes.
VII Facial Mixed Sensory fibers conduct impulses associated
with taste receptors of the anterior tongue.
Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles of
facial expression, tear glands, and salivary
glands.
VIII Vestibulocochlear(Auditory) Sensory Sensory fibers conduct impulses associated
with the sense of hearing.
IX Glossopharyngeal Mixed Sensory fibers conduct impulses from the
pharynx, tonsils, posterior tongue, and carotid
arteries. Motor fibers conduct impulses to
salivary glands and to muscles of the pharynx
used in swallowing.
X Vagus Mixed Sensory fibers conduct impulses from the
pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and viscera of the
thorax and abdomen.
XI Accessory(Spinal) Primarily motor Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles of
the neck and back; some proprioceptor input.
XII Hypoglossal Primarily motor Motor fibers conduct impulses to muscles that
move the tongue; some proprioceptor input.

Autonomic Nervous System:-

The autonomic nervous system is the part of the PNS that functions independently (autonomously) and
continuously, without conscious effort. This system controls visceral activities by regulating the actions
of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and various glands. It oversees heart rate, blood pressure,
breathing rate, body temperature, and other visceral activities that aid in maintaining homeostasis.

The autonomic nervous system includes two divisions, the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

7
 SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC
The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) is a part of The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is a
ANS, which prepares the body to respond to part of the ANS, which slows the heart and relaxes
stressful situations and is constantly active at the muscles.
basal level to maintain homeostasis.
Sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for Parasympathetic nervous system relaxes the body
an intense physiological activity. by inhibiting high energy functions.
The action of the sympathetic nervous system is a The action of the parasympathetic nervous system
quick response. is a slow response.
Noradrenaline is released at the effector by the Acetylcholine is released at the effector by the
sympathetic nervous system. parasympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic nervous system dilates the pupil of Parasympathetic nervous system stimulates the
the eye. pupil of the eye.
Sympathetic nervous system increases heart beat, Parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart
blood level, and metabolic rate. beat, blood level, and metabolic rate.