THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system detects and responds to changes inside and

outside the body.

The nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord and
peripheral nerves. The structure and organisation of the tissues that
form these components enables rapid communication between
different parts of the body.

The Nervous System has three specific functions:

1. Sensory Input - Sensory receptors present in the skin and

organs respond to external & internal stimuli by generating
nerve impulses that to the central nervous system

2. Integration - The brain and spinal cord of the Central Nervous

System combine and sum up all the data received from the
body and send out nerve impulses.

3. Motor Output - The nerve impulses from the Central Nervous

System go to the effectors (muscles and glands). Muscle
 contractions and gland secretions are responses to stimuli
received by sensory receptors.

The Nervous System is divided into two main divisions.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Functional components of the nervous system.
CELLS AND TISSUES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. NEURONES

Neurons are the basic and fundamental units of the nervous

system which are responsible for transmitting signals to establish
communication between the central nervous system and the body.
Neurons are also called nerve cells. Neurons use electrical and
chemical signals to coordinate all the essential functions of life.
The structure of neurones.
The main three parts of a neuron are the cell body or soma, axon,
and dendrite. These parts are responsible for transmitting chemical
and electrical signals.

1. Cell body or Soma: The cell body or Soma is also called a

cyton. It contains a nucleus and cytoplasm that connects to
dendrites. It carries signals to the other neurons and controls all
the functions of the cell.

2. Axon: Axon is a part of a nerve cell or neuron that carries

nerve impulses away from the cell body. A neuron typically
has one long, slender projection called an axon. Most axons of
vertebrates are enclosed in a myelin sheath.

3. Dendrite: Dendrites are root-like projections at the beginning

of the neuron that help receive and process signals to the cell
body.

Other than the basic parts of a neuron there are some important
structures that are also present in the neuron.
1. Axon Hillock: The axon hillock is the region where the axon is
connected to the soma or the cell body. It considered being the
originating point or the initial segment of the axon.

2. Schwann cell: Schwann is various glial cells present in the

peripheral nervous system. They supply the myelin for the
peripheral nervous system.

3. Myelin sheath: Myelin is a white insulating sheath that forms

around the axon in most neurons. It is covered by an outermost
thin sheath called neurilemma.

4. Nodes of Ranvier: The gaps present between the myelin sheath

are called Nodes of Ranvier.

5. Axon Terminals: Axon terminals are the button-like structure

found at the end of the axon and placed near the dendrites.
Axon terminal contains certain chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
 6. Synapses: Synapses are the gaps present between the axon of
one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. It allows a
neuron to transmit signals to another neuron.

TYPES OF NEURONS

Neurons vary in structure, function, and genetic makeup.

According to structure, there are five major neuron forms. Each

combines several elements of the basic neuron shape.
 Types Description Functions

Have two
extensions, one Exclusive sensory
Bipolar dendrite, and one neurons that help in
Neurons axon. Present in the the transmission of
retina of the eye and sensations.
sense organs.

Have one axon and Helps in transmitting

several dendrites. information from
Multipolar
Present in the other neurons to a
Neurons
central nervous different part of the
system. body.

Helps in transmitting
Have only one
Unipolar information directly
axon. Present in the
Neurons to the central nervous
retina of the eye.
system.
 Have an axon that
Have characteristics separates into two
of both unipolar and projections; one of
Pseudo
bipolar neurons. them receives
unipolar
Sensory neurons are sensory information,
Neurons
pseudo unipolar and another transmits
neurons. this information to
the spinal cord.

Purkinje neurons. Purkinje neurons have multiple dendrites

that fan out from the cell body. These neurons are inhibitory
neurons, meaning they release neurotransmitters that keep other
neurons from firing.

In terms of function, scientists classify neurons into three broad

types: sensory, motor, and interneurons.
Sensory neurons
Sensory neurons are triggered by physical and chemical inputs from
the environment. Sound, touch, heat, and light are physical inputs.
Smell and taste are chemical inputs.

For example, stepping on hot sand activates sensory neurons in the

soles of your feet. Those neurons send a message to your brain,
which makes you aware of the heat.

Motor neurons

Motor neurons play a role in movement, including voluntary and

involuntary movements. These neurons allow the brain and spinal
cord to communicate with muscles, organs, and glands all over the
body.

Interneurons

Interneurons are neural intermediaries found in your brain and

spinal cord. They’re the most common type of neuron. They pass
signals from sensory neurons and other interneurons to motor
neurons and other interneurons. Often, they form complex circuits
that help you to react to external stimuli.
For instance, when you touch something sharp like a cactus, sensory
neurons in your fingertips send a signal to interneurons in your
spinal cord. Some interneurons pass the signal on to motor neurons
in your hand, which allows you to move your hand away. Other
interneurons send a signal to the pain center in your brain, and you
experience pain.

2. NEUROGLIA

Neuroglia, or glial cells, are cells that support neurons, supply them
with nutrients, and get rid of dead cells and pathogens such as
bacteria. They also form insulation between neurons so that
electrical signals do not get crossed, and can also aid the formation
of synaptic connections between neurons. There are several types of
neuroglia:

 Astroglial cells, also called astrocytes, are star-shaped cells

found in the brain and spinal cord. They provide nutrients to
neurons, maintain ion balance, and remove unneeded excess
neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft.
 Ependymal cells are also found in the CNS. There are two
types of ependymal cells. Non-ciliated ependymal cells form
cerebrospinal fluid, while ciliated ependymal cells help the
cerebrospinal fluid circulate. Cerebrospinal fluid cushions the
brain and spinal cord.

 Oligodendrocytes are found in the CNS and provide physical

support to neurons. They form a myelin sheath around some
neurons in the CNS. The myelin sheath is a fatty substance
wrapped around the axons of some neurons; it provides
electrical insulation.

 Schwann cells also form myelin sheaths around some neurons,

but they are only found in the PNS. Neurons that are
myelinated can conduct electrical impulses faster than non-
myelinated neurons.

 Microglial cells, or microglia, are small macrophage cells in

the CNS that protect against disease by engulfing pathogens
through phagocytosis (“cell eating”). They can also destroy
infected neurons and promote the regrowth of neurons. All of
 the other types of neuroglia above are larger and collectively
called macroglia.

3. NERVES

A nerve consists of numerous neurones collected into bundles

(bundles of nerve fibres in the central nervous system are known as
tracts). Each bundle has several coverings of protective connective
tissue. i.e

 Endoneurium is a delicate tissue, surrounding each individual

fibre, which is continuous with the septa that pass inwards from
the perineurium.
 Perineurium is a smooth connective tissue, surrounding each
bundle of fibres.
 Epineurium is the fibrous tissue which surrounds and encloses a
number of bundles of nerve fibres.

Most large nerves are covered by epineurium.

Types of nerves

i. Sensory or afferent nerves

Sensory nerves carry information from the body to the

spinal cord . The impulses may then pass to the brain or to
connector neurones of reflex arcs in the spinal cord.tere are
two types;

 Somatic or cutaneous nerves

Sensory nerve endings in the skin ,when stimulated, an

impulse is generated and transmitted by the sensory nerves
 to the brain where the sensation is perceived. These
sensations include; pain, touch, heat and cold.

 Autonomic nerves

These originate in internal organs, glands and tissues, e.g.

baroreceptors involved in the control of blood pressure
chemoreceptors involved in the control of respiration and are
associated with reflex regulation of involuntary activity and
visceral pain.

ii. Motor or efferent nerves

Motor nerves originate in the brain, spinal cord and

autonomic ganglia. They transmit impulses to the

effector organs: muscles and glands. There are two types:

 somatic nerves – involved in voluntary and reflex skeletal

muscle contraction
 autonomic nerves (sympathetic and parasympathetic) –
involved in cardiac and smooth muscle contraction and
glandular secretion.
 iii. Mixed nerves

In the spinal cord, sensory and motor nerves are arranged in

separate groups, or tracts. Outside the spinal cord, when sensory
and motor nerves are enclosed within the same sheath of
connective tissue they are called mixed nerves.

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system is the control center for the body. It
regulates organ function, higher thought, and movement of the
body. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal
cord. The brain and spinal cord are surrounded by membranes
called meninges that lie between the bone and the soft tissues. The
primary function of the meninges is to protect the central nervous
system.

THE MENINGES

The brain and spinal cord are completely surrounded by three layers
of tissue, the meninges, lying between the skull and the brain, and
between the vertebral foramina and the spinal cord. Named from
outside inwards they are the:

dura mater

arachnoid mater

pia mater
The meninges covering the brain and spinal cord.
The dura and arachnoid maters are separated by a potential space,
the subdural space. The arachnoid and pia maters are separated by
the subarachnoid space, containing cerebrospinal fluid.

Dura mater

The cerebral dura mater consists of two layers of dense fibrous

tissue. The outer layer takes the place of the periosteum on the inner
surface of the skull bones and the inner layer provides a protective
covering for the brain. Venous blood from the brain drains into
venous sinuses between the two layers of dura mater.

The superior sagittal sinus is formed by the falx cerebri, and the
tentorium cerebelli forms the straight and transverse sinuses.

Spinal dura mater forms a loose sheath round the spinal cord,
extending from the foramen magnum to the 2nd sacral vertebra.

Arachnoid mater

This is a layer of fibrous tissue that lies between the dura and pia
maters. It is separated from the dura mater by the subdural space,
and from the pia mater by the subarachnoid space, containing
cerebrospinal fluid.

Pia mater

This is a delicate layer of connective tissue containing many minute

blood vessels. It adheres to the brain, completely covering the
convolutions and dipping into each fissure. It continues downwards
surrounding the spinal cord.

VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN AND THE

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
The brain contains four irregular-shaped cavities, or ventricles,
containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

They are:

 right and left lateral ventricles

 third ventricle
 fourth ventricle.

The positions of the ventricles of the brain (in yellow)

superimposed on its surface.
The lateral ventricles

These cavities lie within the cerebral hemispheres, one on each side
of the median plane just below the corpus callosum. They are
separated from each other by a thin membrane, the septum lucidum,
and are lined with ciliated epithelium. They communicate with the
third ventricle by interventricular foramina.

The third ventricle

The third ventricle is a cavity situated below the lateral ventricles

between the two parts of the thalamus. It communicates with the
fourth ventricle by a canal, the cerebral aqueduct.

The fourth ventricle

The fourth ventricle is a diamond-shaped cavity situated below and

behind the third ventricle, between the cerebellum and pons. It is
continuous below with the central canal of the spinal cord and
communicates with the subarachnoid space by foramina in its roof.
Cerebrospinal fluid enters the subarachnoid space through these
openings and through the open distal end of the central canal of the
spinal cord.

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Cerebrospinal fluid is secreted into each ventricle of the brain by

choroid plexuses. These are vascular areas where there is a
proliferation of blood vessels surrounded by ependymal cells in the
lining of ventricle walls. CSF passes back into the blood through
tiny diverticula of arachnoid mater, called arachnoid villi,which
project into the venous sinuses. The movement of CSF from the
subarachnoid space to venous sinuses depends upon the difference
in pressure on each side of the walls of the arachnoid villi, which act
as one-way valves. When CSF

pressure is higher than venous pressure, CSF passes into the blood
and when the venous pressure is higher the arachnoid villi collapse,
preventing the passage of blood constituents into the CSF. There

may also be some reabsorption of CSF by cells in the walls of the

ventricles.
Arrows showing the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.
From the roof of the fourth ventricle CSF flows through foramina
into the subarachnoid space and completely surrounds the brain and
spinal cord .There is no intrinsic system of CSF

circulation but its movement is aided by pulsating blood vessels,

respiration and changes of posture.

CSF is secreted continuously at a rate of about 0.5 ml per minute,

i.e. 720 ml per day. The volume remains fairly constant at about 150
ml, as absorption keeps pace with secretion.

CSF is a clear, slightly alkaline fluid with a specific gravity of

1.005, consisting of:

 water
 mineral salts
 glucose
 plasma proteins: small amounts of albumin and globulin
 a few leukocytes.

Functions of cerebrospinal fluid

• Cushions and protect CNS from trauma (shock absorber)

• Act as mechanical buffer

• Provide mechanical support and buoyancy for the brain

• Serve as a reservoir & assist in the regulation of the contents of the

cell

• Nourishes the CNS

• Serve as a medium for nutritional exchange

The Brain

The brain is the control centre of the nervous system.

It receives sensory data, makes decisions, controls movement, and

manages the body as a whole.

When fully developed, the adult brain weighs between 1 and 1.5 kg
and contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells.

The brain constitutes about one-fiftieth of the body weight and lies
within the cranial cavity. The brain is made up of three main parts,
which are the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. Each of these
has a unique function and is made up of several parts as well.
Description and Functions of Important Brain Structures

1. The Cerebral Cortex

The neocortex is the outer layer of the cerebral cortex. The cerebral
cortex is divided lengthways into two cerebral hemispheres (left and
right) connected by the corpus callosum.

Each of the hemispheres is divided into four lobes (parts) as listed

below.

• Frontal lobe

• Parietal lobe

• Temporal lobe

• Occipital lobe

The cerebral cortex looks after thinking, making plans, meeting

goals, and controlling feelings.

This area can turn short-term memories into long-term memories.

The Four Cerebral

Lobe Description

• • Located directly beneath the forehead

• The largest of the lobes

Responsible for “higher” brain

functions like attention, planning,
critical thinking, problem-solving,
Frontal self-control, language, and complex
Lobe movement

• Integrates information and governs

what the rest of the brain does

• Located behind the frontal lobe, at the

•
top of the head
Parietal
Processes information from the senses
Lobe
(e.g., touch, pressure, pain), allowing
people to perceive and interpret the
world around them
 • Located at the back of the brain
Occipital
• Processes visual images by
Lobe
interpreting signals sent by the eyes

• Located along the side of each

Temporal •
hemisphere

Lobe Processes sound and, in turn, language

• Involved in memory formation and

retention through connection to the
hippocampus
Functions of the cerebral cortex

There are three main types of activity associated with the

cerebral cortex: mental activities involved in memory, intelligence,
sense of responsibility, thinking, reasoning, moral

sense and learning sensory perception, including the perception of

pain, temperature, touch, sight, hearing, taste and smell

initiation and control of skeletal muscle contraction and therefore

voluntary movement.

Functional areas of the cerebral cortex

There are different types of functional area:

 Motor which direct skeletal (voluntary) muscle movements

 Sensory which receive and decode sensory impulses enabling
sensory perception
 Association which are concerned with integration and
processing of complex mental functions such as intelligence,
memory, reasoning, judgement and emotions.

The cerebrum showing the main functional areas.

 a. Motor areas of the cerebral cortex
i. The primary motor area

This lies in the frontal lobe immediately anterior to the central

sulcus. The cell bodies are pyramid shaped (Betz’s cells) and they
control skeletal muscle activity.

There are two neurones involved in the pathway to skeletal muscle.

The first, the upper motor neurone, descends from the motor cortex
through the internal capsule to the medulla oblongata.

Here it crosses to the opposite side and descends in the spinal cord.
At the appropriate level in the spinal cord it synapses with a second
neurone (the lower motor neurone), which leaves the spinal cord
and travels to the target muscle. It terminates at the motor end plate
of a muscle fibre . This means that the motor area of the right
hemisphere of the cerebrum controls voluntary muscle movement
on the left side of the body and vice versa. Damage to either of
these neurones may result in paralysis.

The motor nerve pathways: upper and lower motor neurones.

ii. Broca’s (motor speech) area
This is situated in the frontal lobe just above the lateral sulcus and
controls the muscle movements

needed for speech. It is dominant in the left hemisphere in right-

handed people and vice versa.

b.Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex

i. The somatosensory area

This is the area immediately behind the central sulcus. Here

sensations of pain, temperature, pressure and touch, awareness of
muscular movement and the position of joints (proprioception) are
perceived.

The somatosensory area of the right hemisphere receives impulses

from the left side of the body and vice versa. The size of the cortical
areas representing different parts of the body is proportional to the
extent of sensory innervation, e.g. the large area for the face is
consistent

with the extensive sensory nerve supply by the three branches of the
trigeminal nerves (5th cranial nerves).
 ii. The auditory (hearing) area

This lies immediately below the lateral sulcus within the temporal
lobe. The nerve cells receive and interpret impulses transmitted
from the inner ear by the cochlear (auditory) part of the
vestibulocochlear nerves (8th cranial nerves).

iii. The olfactory (smell) area

This lies deep within the temporal lobe where impulses from the
nose, transmitted via the olfactory nerves (1st cranial nerves), are
received and interpreted.

iv. The taste area

This lies just above the lateral sulcus in the deep layers of the
somatosensory area. Here, impulses

from sensory receptors in taste buds are received and perceived as

taste.

v. The visual area

This lies behind the parieto-occipital sulcus and includes the greater
part of the occipital lobe. The optic nerves (2nd cranial nerves) pass
from the eye to this area, which receives and interprets the impulses
as visual impressions.

Corpus Callosum

The corpus callosum is a thick, flat bundle of nerve fibres through

which information flows from one side of the brain to the other .The
corpus callosum is necessary for the brain to function properly. It
allows the two hemispheres to work together to analyze information
and situations .

2. The Limbic System

The limbic system is a set of brain structures that are centrally

located in the brain. The limbic system is underneath the cerebral
cortex and above the brainstem. Two of the major structures are the
hippocampus and the amygdala.

The hippocampus comes as a pair (one in each hemisphere of the

brain) .
It is involved in recognizing new experiences, learning, and
memory.

The hippocampus is particularly involved in the creation of short-

term memories and associating memories with various senses.

The amygdala, on the other hand, is located right next to the

hippocampus and plays a central role in emotional responses,
including feelings like pleasure, fear, anxiety, and anger.

3. Pineal Gland: The pineal gland is a small structure tucked

between the two lobes of the thalamus. its main job is to
produce the hormone melatonin, which regulates our sleep-
wake cycles.

Parts of the Limbic System

Structure Description

• Located close to the centre of the

brain; egg-shaped

• “Relay station of the brain”:

receives input from all of the
senses, except smell (olfaction);
Thalamus performs preliminary analyses; and
directs messages to various parts of
the brain

• Processes information from the

cerebellum and other brain areas
involved in movement

Hypothalamu • Located below the thalamus;

s connected to almost every other
part of the brain

• Regulates hormone release,

which in turn controls sex drive,
 pleasure, pain, hunger, thirst, blood
pressure, body temperature, and
other functions

• Essential to motivation,
including the seeking out of
activities that people find
rewarding (e.g., sex, music, drugs)

• Manages the body’s daily cycles

(circadian rhythms)

4. The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is connected to the brain stem and, like the

cerebrum, is divided into two hemispheres. The cerebellum is
sometimes called the “little brain” The cerebellum’s primary
functions are balance, posture, and coordination of voluntary
movement
 The

Brainstem

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain and at the top of the
spinal cord. The brainstem is responsible for regulating many vital
bodily functions including breathing (respiratory), maintaining a
heart rate (circulatory), feeling hungry or full (digestion), and
getting rid of waste The brainstem consists of three parts:

a. the medulla oblongata

b. the pons

c. the midbrain
 .

Parts of the Brainstem

Structure Description

Medulla • Located at the bottom of the brainstem

Oblongata and connected to the spinal cord
 • Responsible for the automatic functions
that keep the body alive (e.g., heartbeat,
breathing, digestion, blood pressure)

• Located above the medulla oblongata

• Works with the medulla oblongata to

regulate some automatic functions (e.g.,
Pons
arousal and breathing)

• Directs movement-related information

between the cerebellum and the cortex

• Located at the top of the brainstem

Midbrain • Contains an extension of the reticular

activating system, which plays a key role in
sleep and arousal

• Responsible for controlling and

coordinating many of the body’s sensory
and motor functions (e.g., eye movements)
Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata, or simply the medulla, extends from the

pons above and is continuous with the spinal cord below.

It is about 2.5 cm long and it lies just within the cranium above the
foramen magnum. Its anterior and posterior surfaces are marked by
central fissures.

The outer aspect is composed of white matter, which passes

between the brain and the spinal cord, and grey matter,

which lies centrally. Some cells constitute relay stations for sensory
nerves passing from the spinal cord to the cerebrum.

The vital centres, consisting of groups of cell bodies (nuclei)

associated with autonomic reflex activity, lie in its deeper structure.
These are the:

 cardiovascular centre
 respiratory centre
 reflex centres of vomiting, coughing, sneezing and swallowing.

The medulla oblongata has several special features.

Decussation (crossing) of the pyramids

In the medulla, motor nerves descending from the motor area in the
cerebrum to the spinal cord in the pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts
cross from one side to the other. This means that the left hemisphere
of the cerebrum controls the right half of the body, and vice versa.
These tracts are the main pathway

to skeletal (voluntary) muscles.

Sensory decussation

Some of the sensory nerves ascending to the cerebrum from the

spinal cord cross from one side to the other in the medulla. Others
decussate lower down in the spinal cord.

The cardiovascular centre (CVC)

This area controls the rate and force of cardiac contraction .It also
controls blood pressure . Within the CVC, other groups of nerve
cells forming the vasomotor centre control the

diameter of the blood vessels, especially the small arteries and

arterioles. The vasomotor centre is stimulated by the arterial
baroreceptors, body temperature and emotions such as sexual
excitement and anger. Pain usually causes vasoconstriction although
severe pain may cause vasodilation, a fall in

blood pressure and fainting.

The respiratory centre

This area controls the rate and depth of respiration. From here,
nerve impulses pass to the phrenic

and intercostal nerves which stimulate contraction of the diaphragm

and intercostal muscles, thus initiating inspiration. It functions in
close association with the pnuemotaxic and apneustic centres in the
pons.

Reflex centres

Irritants present in the stomach or respiratory tract stimulate the

medulla oblongata, activating the

reflex centres. The vomiting, coughing or sneezing reflexes then

attempt to expel the irritant.

Blood supply to the brain

The circulus arteriosus and its contributing arteries play a vital role
in maintaining a constant supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain
when the head is moved and also if a contributing artery is
narrowed.

The brain receives about 15% of the cardiac output, approximately

750 ml of blood per minute.

DIENCEPHALON .

This part of the brain connects the cerebrum and the midbrain. It
consists of several structures situated around the third ventricle, the
main ones being the thalamus and hypothalamus, which are
considered here. The pineal gland and the optic chiasma are situated
there.

Thalamus

This consists of two masses of grey and white matter situated within
the cerebral hemispheres just below the corpus callosum, one on
each side of the third ventricle . Sensory receptors in the skin and
viscera send information about touch, pain and temperature, and
input from the special sense organs travels to the thalamus where
there is recognition, although only in a basic form, as refined
perception also involves other parts of the brain.

It is thought to be involved in the processing of some emotions and

complex reflexes. The thalamus relays and redistributes impulses
from most

parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a small but important structure which weighs

around 7 g and consists of a number of nuclei. It is situated below
and in front of the thalamus, immediately above the pituitary

gland. The hypothalamus is linked to the posterior lobe of the

pituitary gland by nerve fibres and to the anterior lobe by a complex
system of blood vessels. Through these connections, the
hypothalamus controls the output of hormones from both lobes of
the pituitary gland .

Other functions of the hypothalamus include control of:

the autonomic nervous system (p. 167)

appetite and satiety

thirst and water balance

body temperature (p. 358)

emotional reactions, e.g. pleasure, fear, rage

sexual behaviour and child rearing

sleeping and waking cycles.

CRANIAL NERVES

The nerves attached to the brain are the cranial nerves, which are
primarily responsible for the sensory and motor functions of the
head and neck.

Twelve pairs of nerves (the cranial nerves) lead directly from the
brain to various parts of the head, neck, and trunk. Some of the
cranial nerves are involved in the special senses (such as seeing,
hearing, and taste), and others control muscles in the face or
regulate glands. The nerves are named and numbered (according to
their location, from the front of the brain to the back).

Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the underside of the

brain, pass through openings in the skull, and lead to parts of the
head, neck, and trunk. The nerves are named and numbered, based
on their location, from the front of the brain to the back. Thus, the
olfactory nerve is the 1st cranial nerve, and the hypoglossal nerve is
the 12th cranial nerve
The names of the cranial nerves (CN) are: CN I - Olfactory, CN II -
Optic, CN III - Oculomotor, CN IV - Trochlear, CN V - Trigeminal,
CN VI - Abducens, CN VII - Facial, CN VIII - Vestibulocochlear,
CN IX - Glossopharyngeal, CN X - Vagus, CN XI - Accessory, and
CN XII - Hypoglossal.
Function

The names of the cranial nerves sometimes correspond with their

individual function. Some of the cranial nerves are purely sensory,
others are purely motor, and the rest have both sensory and motor
components.

Cranial nerves and their primary functions

Autonomic
Sensory Somatic Motor (Parasympathe
Cranial Nerve
Function Function tic Motor)
Function

CN I - Smell
- -
Olfactory (olfaction)

CN II - Optic Vision - -

Innervates the Innervates the

inferior oblique sphincter
muscle and pupillae muscle
CN III -
- medial, inferior, (constricts the
Oculomotor
and superior pupil), and the
rectus muscles of ciliary muscle
the eye (move the (accomodate the
 eye); levator
palpebrae eye for near
superioris muscle vision)
(elevate eyelid)

Innervate the
superior oblique
CN IV - eye muscle
- -
Trochlear (moves the eye
inferiorly and
laterally)

CN V - Conducts Innervate the -

Trigeminal touch, muscles of
temperature mastication,
and pain mylohyoid,
sensation from digastric (anterior
the face, nose, belly), tensor veli
mouth, nasal palatini, and
and oral
 mucosa,
anterior two-
thirds of
tongue, and tensor tympani
anterior scalp;
part of auricle
of the ear

Innervate the
CN VI - lateral rectus
- -
Abducens muscle of eye
(abducts the eye)

CN VII - Facial Taste from Innervate Increase

anterior two- muscles of facial secretion from
thirds of tongue expression, the lacrimal
digastric (tear glands) and
(posterior belly), nasal mucosal
stylohyoid and glands;
stapedius muscle submandibular
 and sublingual
salivary glands

Hearing
(cochlear
branch); linear
and angular
CN VIII - acceleration, or
Vestibulocochle head position - -
ar in
space/equilibri
um
(vestibular
branch)

Touch and taste Innervate the

Increase
CN IX - from the pharyngeal secretion from
Glossopharyng posterior 1/3 of
muscle the parotid
eal the tongue; Stylopharyngeus salivary gland
visceral
 sensory from
the carotid
sinus and
bodies

Visceral
sensation
(excluding
pain) from Innervates
heart, lungs, Innervates smooth muscles
abdominal pharyngeal and and glands of
organs, laryngeal the heart, lungs
CN X - Vagus
bronchi, muscles and larynx, trachea,
trachea, larynx, muscles at base and most
pharynx, of tongue abdominal
gastrointestinal organs
tract to level of
descending
colon.
 General
sensation from
the external
acoustic
meatus,
eardrum, and
pharynx

Innervates the
CN XI - trapezius and
- -
Accessory sternocleidomast
oid muscle

Innervates
CN XII - intrinsic and
- -
Hypoglossal extrinsic tongue
muscles
SPINAL CORD

The spinal cord is part of the central nervous system and consists of
a tightly packed column of nerve tissue that extends downwards
from the brainstem through the central column of the spine. It is a
relatively small bundle of tissue (weighing 35g and just about 1cm
in diameter) but is crucial in facilitating our daily activities.

The spinal cord carries nerve signals from the brain to other parts of
the body (importantly the muscles we use to move) and receives
sensory input from the body, partially processes it, and then
transmits that information to the brain.

Along with its role in relaying motor and sensory signals between
the brain and periphery, the spinal cord also provides separate
neural circuits for many of our reflexes. Some reflexes eg the knee-
jerk are built into the nervous system and bypass the brain, while
others can be learned over time.
Spinal Cord: External
Externally, the spinal cord is protected by 33 vertebrae, which sit
between a semi-rigid intervertebral disc, which provide a level of
flexibility to the vertebral column. Its flexibility is greatest in the
cervical region and lowest in the thoracic region. The spinal cord
(similar to the brain) is protected by three layers of meninges
(membranes). The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to
the lowest border of the first lumbar vertebra. It is enlarged at two
sites, the cervical and lumbar region.

The vertebrae (in adults) are arranged in five regions, which provide
support and protection for the spinal cord. It consists of;

 seven Cervical Vertebrae

 twelve Thoracic Vertebrae
 five Lumbar Vertebrae
 five Sacral (fused in adults to form the sacrum)
 four Coccygeal Vertebrae (fused to form the coccyx).
Spinal Cord: Internal

Inside, the spinal cord consists of grey matter and white matter.

The grey matter takes on the shape of a butterfly, with four

'wings' called horns: The horns in the front contain motor neurons;
the horns in the back contain sensory neurons which carry sensory
information.
 The spinal cord grey matter is surrounded by a column of white
matter, containing axons that allow different parts of the spinal cord
to communicate smoothly, with signals passing upwards and
downwards conveying eg sensation and motor signals.

Sensory Nerve Fibres enter the Spinal Cord via the Posterior
(Dorsal) Root. The cell bodies for these neurons are situated in the
Dorsal Root Ganglia.

Motor and Preganglionic Autonomic Fibres exit via the Anterio

(Ventral) Root.
SPINAL NERVES

The spinal nerves consist of a group of 31 nerves. These nerves are

attached to the spinal cord by two roots- dorsal sensory root and
ventral motor root.

The sensory root fibres carry sensory impulses to the spinal cord.
The motor roots, on the contrary, carry impulses from the spinal
cord.

The spinal nerves carry messages to and from the skin of specific
regions of the body called dermatomes.
The spinal cord nerves can be grouped as:

 Cervical

 Thoracic

 Sacral

 Lumbar

 Coccygeal

Cervical Nerves

Cervical means of the neck. There are 8 cervical nerves that emerge
from the cervical spine (C1-C8).

Thoracic Nerves

Thoracic means of the chest. There are 12 thoracic nerves that

emerge from the thoracic spine (T1-T12).

Lumbar Nerves

Lumbar means from the lower back region. There are 5 lumbar
nerves that emerge from the lumbar spine (L1-L5).
Sacral Nerves

Sacral means of the sacrum. The sacrum is a bony plate at the base
of the vertebral column.

There are 5 sacral nerves that emerge from the sacral bone (S1-S5).

Coccygeal Nerves

Coccygeal means of the tailbone. There is 1 nerve that emerges

from the coccygeal bone.

BLOOD SUPPLY

The majority of the spinal cord blood supply is provided by the

segmental spinal arteries, with further supply coming from the
vertebral arteries via a single anterior spinal artery and paired
posterior spinal arteries.

Spinal Arteries: The spinal arteries, arising from the vertebral

artery, run longitudinally down the spinal cord.

Spinal Veins: Blood from within the spinal cord travels through the
intramedullary veins, to the anterior and posterior spinal veins,
which form a reticulated network in the pia mater
FUNCTION OF SPINAL CORD

Important functions of Spinal Cord are mentioned below:

 Forms a connecting link between the brain and the PNS

 Provides structural support and builds a body posture

 Facilitates flexible movements

 Myelin present in the white matter acts as an electrical

insulation

 Communicates messages from the brain to different parts of the

body

 Coordinates reflexes

 Receives sensory information from receptors and approaches

towards the brain for processing.

SPINAL CORD REFLEXES

Definition
A reflex is an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in
response to a stimulus. The reflex is an automatic response to a
stimulus that does not receive or need conscious thought as it occurs
through a reflex arc. Reflex arcs act on an impulse before that
impulse reaches the brain.

Stretch Reflex

The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) is a muscle contraction in

response to stretching within the muscle.
The reflex functions to maintain the muscle at a constant length.

Golgi Tendon Reflex

The Golgi tendon reflex is a normal component of the reflex arc of

the peripheral nervous system. The tendon reflex operates as a
feedback mechanism to control muscle tension by causing muscle
relaxation before muscle force becomes so great that tendons might
be torn.

Withdrawal Reflex
The withdrawal reflex (nociceptive or flexor withdrawal reflex) is a
spinal reflex intended to protect the body from damaging stimuli.
When a person touches a hot object and withdraws his hand from it
without thinking about it, the heat stimulates temperature and
danger receptors in the skin, triggering a sensory impulse that
travels to the central nervous system.

CNS Blood Supply

The CNS vasculature provides the nutrients necessary for the
correct functioning of the central nervous system (CNS).

Brain: Arterial blood supply to the brain comes from four vessels;

 Right and Left Internal Carotid

 Right and Left Vertebral Arteries

Spinal Cord: The spinal cord is supplied by a single anterior spinal

artery and paired posterior spinal arteries.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)

The peripheral nervous system includes the nerves and ganglia that
branch out from the brain and spinal cord. These nerves form the
communication network between the CNS and the body parts. It
includes the cranial nerves, spinal nerves and their roots and
branches, peripheral nerves, and neuromuscular junctions. The
peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.

Ganglia:A ganglion is a group of neuron cell bodies in the

periphery.

1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The autonomic nervous system is a component of the peripheral

nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes
including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and
sexual arousal. It contains two anatomically distinct divisions:
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
Generally, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and
parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) motor pathways consist of a
two-neuron series:

 Preganglionic neuron with a cell body in the CNS

 Postganglionic neuron with a cell body in the periphery that
innervates target tissues.
a. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS)

The sympathetic nervous system connects the internal organs to the

brain by spinal nerves.

The primary function of the SNS is the “fight or flight” response,

designed to prepare the body for stressful situations.To respond to a
threat i.e to fight or to run away, the sympathetic system causes
divergent effects for a common purpose.

 More oxygen needs to be inhaled and delivered to skeletal

muscle. The respiratory, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal
systems are all activated together.
  Sweating keeps the excess heat that comes from muscle
contraction from causing the body to overheat.
 The digestive system shuts down so that blood is not absorbing
nutrients when it should be delivering oxygen to skeletal
muscles.

The combined sympathetic response optimises blood flow to the

cardiovascular, respiratory and musculoskeletal systems to
maximise the delivery of oxygen to tissues.

Key actions of sympathetic activation

 Increased cardiac output (via increased heart rate, stroke

volume and myocardial contractility)

 Arterial vasoconstriction (increased mean arterial pressure)

 Bronchodilation

 Pupillary dilation

 Inhibition of salivation and peristalsis

 Mobilisation of glucose stores (glycogenolysis and

gluconeogenesis)
  Relaxation of the bladder and contraction of the internal urinary
sphincter (urinary retention)

 Penile ejaculation

b.Parasympathetic nervous system (PNS)

The primary function of the parasympathetic ANS is to regulate the

body’s “rest and digest” system. It also forms a vital role in
antagonising the sympathetic system to restore normal physiology
after sympathetic arousal. The PNS conserves energy to be used
later and to regulate bodily functions like digestion and urination.[1

Key actions of parasympathetic activation

 Reduces heart rate

 Bronchoconstriction and increased mucous production

 Pupillary constriction

 Stimulating salivation and peristalsis

 Fuel storage (increased insulin secretion)

  Contraction of the bladder and relaxation of the internal urinary
sphincter (urination)

 Penile erection

When stimulated, these nerves increase digestive secretions and

reduce the heartbeat.

Differencies between sympatetic and parasympatetic nervous

system

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

Involved in maintaining
Involved in the fight or flight
homeostasis and also, permits
response.
the rest and digest response.

The parasympathetic system

The sympathetic system prepares
aims to bring the body to a state
the body for any potential danger.
of calm.
Sympathetic system has shorter Has comparatively longer
neuron pathways, hence a faster neuron pathways, hence a
response time. slower response time.

Increases heartbeat, muscles tense Reduces heartbeat, muscles

up. relaxes.

The pupil dilates to let in more

The pupil contracts.
light.

Saliva secretion increases, and

Saliva secretion is inhibited.
digestion increases.

In “fight and flight” situations,

Adrenaline is released by the No such functions exist in
adrenal glands; more glycogen is “fight or flight” situations.
converted to glucose.
Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

The somatic nervous system (SNS) is a subdivision of the

peripheral nervous system which provides innervation to the
somatic structures of the body, that is the parts excluding the
viscera, smooth muscle, and glands. The somatic nervous system
(SNS), or voluntary nervous system is associated with the voluntary
control of body movements via skeletal muscles.

It onsists of sensory nerves carrying afferent nerve fibers, which

relay sensation from the body to the central nervous system (CNS),
and motor nerves carrying efferent nerve fibers, which relay motor
commands from the CNS to stimulate muscle contraction

The SNS includes:

 sensory (afferent) nerves from sensory receptors for the

sensation of touch, pain, temperature, and position (vestibular
and proprioception)

 motor (efferent) nerves to skeletal (voluntary) muscles