ANATOMY

&
PHYSIOLOGY
John Rafael O. Diaz
BSED SC3-3
Anatomy and Physiology
Module 8
Mr. Jefferson Flores
November 23, 2021

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM  Your brain, spinal cord, and all of your body's nerves
 Everything you do is controlled by your nervous make up this system.
system, including breathing, walking, thinking, and  The nerves transport messages to and from the body,
emotion. allowing the brain to interpret and act on them.
  The nervous system is the major coordinating and  The brain and spinal cord make up the central
governing system in the human body. nervous system.
 The majority of nervous system actions take place  The PNS is made up of afferent and efferent
below the level of consciousness and serve to maintain branches, as well as subdivisions for somatic,
homeostasis. visceral, and autonomic function.
 The nervous system requires near-instantaneous 2. Functional Divisions
communication with the body to sustain homeostasis.  There are two major functional divisions.
The general functions of the nervous system can  The sensory division transports nerve
be summarized as:
impulses from sense receptors to the central
1. Detection of internal and external changes.
nervous system.
2. Analysis of the detected changes.
 The motor division transports nerve impulses
3. Organization of the information for immediate and
from the CNS to effectors, which carry out a
future use.
specific action.
4. Initiation of the appropriate actions in response to the
changes.
8.1 Divisions of the Nervous System
Anatomical and functional divisions exist within the
nervous system.
1. Anatomical Divisions
 The two major anatomical divisions are the
central and peripheral nervous systems.
COMPONENTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
  A neuron's cell body (soma or cyton), dendrites, and
axon are all present. Nerve fibers have dendrites and
Motor division has two sub-divisions. axons.
1. The voluntary (conscious) control of skeletal muscles is  The human brain has approximately 86 billion neurons,
mediated by the somatic nerve system (SNS). or about 10% of total brain cells.
2. The autonomic nerve system (ANS) controls cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle, adipose tissue, and glands in
an involuntary (subconscious) manner.
8.2. Nervous Tissue
 The nervous system is made up of organs that are
mostly made up of nerve tissue and are supported and
protected by connective tissues. Types of Neurons
 ” Neurons and neuroglia are the two types of cells that 1. Multipolar neurons
make up nervous tissue.  Have several dendrites and a single axon
Neurons extending from the cell body.
 A neuron (sometimes known as a neurone) is a nerve  Multipolar neurons make up the majority of
cell that transmits electrical signals. neurons with cell bodies in the brain and spinal
 Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of our cord.
neurological system. 2. Bipolar neurons
 Have only two processes: a dendrite and axon
extending from opposite ends of the cell body.
  Bipolar neurons occur in the sensory portions  They are in charge of the CNS's processing and
of the eyes, ears, and nose. interpretation of nerve signals.
 Within the CN, interneurons receive nerve
3. Unipolar neurons impulses from sensory neurons and pass them
 Have a single process extending from the cell from one location to another.
body. 3. Motor neurons
 This process splits into two branches that  Carry nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors
stretch in opposite directions, each of which to produce an action.
functions as a single axon.  Multipolar neurons are motor neurons.
 Unipolar neurons transport nerve impulses from Neuroglia
sensory receptors to the central nervous  Neuroglia are cells that offer support and protection to
system. neurons.
 Unipolar neuron cell bodies cluster together to Schwann cell
form ganglia (singular, ganglion), which are  Also known as a neurilemma cell, is a peripheral
found in the PNS. nervous system cell that produces the myelin sheath
There are three basic types of neurons that surrounds neuronal axons.
1. Sensory neurons
 Sensory neurons are the neurons that transmit
the signal (stimulus) from the effector organs to
the brain.
2. Interneurons
 cerebrospinal fluid, a special fluid found only in
In the CNS, there are four types of neuroglia, which are the CNS.
even more numerous than neurons.
1. Oligodendrocytes
 Within the CNS, oligodendrocytes form the
myelin sheath of myelinated axons, but they do
not generate a neurilemma.
2. Astrocytes
 In the CNS, they are the major supporting cells
for neurons.
 They impact synaptic transmission and increase
the development of neurons.
3. Microglial cells
 are found throughout the central nervous
system, where they keep the tissues clean by
engulfing and digesting cellular detritus and
infections.
4. Ependymal cells
 create the epithelial-like lining of cavities in the
brain and spinal cord, and aid in the creation of
  Ions move down their gradients via channels, leading
to a separation of charge that creates the resting
potential.
8.3 Neuron Physiology  The membrane is much more permeable to K+ than
Neurons have two distinct functional characteristics: Na+ so the resting potential is close to the equilibrium
1. Irritability potential K+ (the potential that would be generated by
 is defined as the ability to produce a nerve K+ if it were the only ion in the system).
impulse in response to a stimulus.
2. Conductivity
 is the ability to transmit a nerve impulse along
an axon to other neurons or effector cells.
Membrane Potential
 The resting membrane potential, or simply the resting
potential, is the voltage across the membrane of a non-
signaling neuron.
 Ion concentration gradients across the membrane and
membrane permeability to each type of ion dictate the
resting potential.
 In a resting neuron, there are concentration gradients
across the membrane for Na+ and K+.
  As a result of these alterations, the membrane potential
rises to +30mV.
 Depolarization is the term for this change in polarity,
and the plasma membrane is now referred to as

Nerve Impulse Formation depolarized.

 Axons have an all-or-nothing reaction when activated.  The nerve impulse, also known as the action potential,
is a rapid depolarization.
 They either generate a nerve impulse that travels along
the axon or they do not.  The depolarization wave then travels along the axon.
Repolarization
 A threshold stimulus is the weakest stimulation that will
activate a neuron and cause it to create a nerve  Immediately after depolarization, K+ channels open

impulse. and Na+ channels close, allowing K+ to diffuse into the

ECF in order to repolarize or reestablish the RMP
 The degree of electrical change in nerve impulses
remains constant, implying that each nerve impulse is  The loss of K+ to the ECF results in an excess of

same. positive charges on the ECF side of the plasma

membrane and negative charges on the cytosol side.
 At the point of stimulation, the inward flow of Na+
causes the cytosol on the inside of the plasma  The membrane voltage shifts from +30mV to —70mV

membrane to become positively charged (an excess of as a result.

positive charges) and the ECF on the outside of the  When this is done, the neuron is ready to respond to a

plasma membrane to become negatively charged (an different input.

excess of negative charges).  Depolarization and repolarization take roughly 1

millisecond to complete.
Depolarization and Repolarization of a Neuron

Nerve Impulse Conduction Synaptic Transmission

 When a nerve impulse is formed at one point in an  A synapse is a junction of an axon with either another
axon, it triggers the depolarization of adjacent portions neuron or an effector cell.
of the plasma membrane, which, in turn, depolarizes  At synapses, a chemical signal (a transmitter) is
still other regions of the plasma membrane. produced from one neuron and diffuses to other
 Repolarization immediately follows a nerve impulse. neurons or target cells, where it forms a signal that
 Conduction of nerve impulse is more rapid in stimulates, inhibits, or modifies cellular activity.
myelinated axons than in unmyelinated axons.
 8.4 Protection for the Central Nervous System Learning
Objective
 Protection and support are provided by the surrounding
bones and fibrous membranes.
 The brain occupies the cranial cavity formed by the
cranial bones, and the spinal cord lies within the
vertebral canal formed by the vertebrae. 
Neurotransmitters  Three membranes are located between the CNS and
 Neurotransmitters allow neurons to communicate with the surrounding bones.
one another as well as with other cells throughout the  These membranes are collectively called the:
body.  Meninges
  Over 100 neurotransmitters have been identified in the  The meninges (singular meninx) consist of three
human neurological system by scientific studies, with membranes arranged in layers. From deepest to
more likely to be discovered in the future. most superficial they are the;
  Neurotransmitters have either excitatory or inhibitory a) The pia mater (“tender mother”)
effects on the postsynaptic cell when they are released.  is the thinnest and deepest membrane.
 Excitatory neurotransmitters cause an impulse to occur  It completely envelops both the brain and
in the postsynaptic cell, which promotes cell function. the spinal cord, penetrating every groove
 The generation of an impulse in the postsynaptic cell is and depression.
inhibited by inhibitory neurotransmitters, resulting in cell  It has a lot of blood arteries that feed the
function inhibition. brain and spinal cord underneath it.
b) The arachnoid mater (“spider mother”)
 is the membrane in the middle.
 It's a thin, web-like membrane with no
blood vessels that doesn't go into the little
depressions like the pia mater does.
 The subarachnoid space is located
between the pia mater and the arachnoid
mater and contains cerebrospinal fluid.
c) The dura mater (“tough mother”)
 is the toughest and most fibrous layer on
the surface.
 It is linked to the internal surfaces of the
cranial bones and penetrates into
crevices between various portions of the
brain in the cranial cavity.
 The pooling of blood between the two
meninges, which is called a subdural
hematoma - creates an artificial space
called the subdural space.

8.5 Brain
 The brain is a massive and intricate organ.
 There are around 100 billion neurons in it, as well as
numerous neural processes and synapses
 FOUR MAJOR COMPONENTS OF THE BRAIN

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

 Within the brain, there are four ventricles, or cavities,
that are connected. Each ventricle has ependymal cells
lining it and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
 The two lateral ventricles (first and second ventricles)
found within the cerebral hemispheres is the largest
ventricles.
 The third ventricle is a small space between the
thalamus's lateral masses and the hypothalamus,
located in the middle of the brain.
 The choroid plexus is a mass of specific capillaries and
ependymal cells that secrete CSF in each ventricle,
however the lateral ventricles create the majority of the
CSF.
 From the lateral ventricles, the CSF flows through the
interventricular foramina into the third ventricle and
then through the cerebral aqueduct into the fourth
ventricle.
  CSF is reabsorbed into the blood-filled Dural venous
sinus that is located along the superior midline within
the dura mater.
 8.6 Spinal Cord
 The spinal cord is connected to the brain and extends
from the medulla oblongata to the second lumbar
vertebra, passing via the foramen magnum into the
vertebral canal.
 Only the roots of the inferior spinal nerves inhabit the
vertebral canal beyond this point.
Structure
 The spinal cord is cylindrical in shape.
 It has two small grooves that extend throughout its
length: the wider anterior median fissure and the
narrower posterior median sulcus.
 These grooves separate the left and right sides of the
spinal cord.
 As previously stated, CSF protects the brain and spinal  The spinal cord has thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves.
cord by acting as a shock absorber.
 Based on where the spinal nerves exit the vertebral
 Cerebrospinal fluid is used to transport ions, nutrients,
column, the spinal cord is split into four segments:
and waste materials throughout the CNS since it cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral.
circulates throughout it.
 The cell bodies of somatic motor neurons, whose
 It also offers buoyancy to the brain, allowing it to "float"
axons penetrate spinal nerves and deliver nerve
within the skull and avoid detrimental contact with the
cranial floor.
 impulses to skeletal muscles, are found in the anterior
horns.
 Interneurons in the posterior horns receive nerve Functions
impulses from sensory axons in the spinal nerves and  The spinal cord has two basic functions:
transmit them to locations inside the CNS. 1) It transmits nerve impulses to and from the
 The cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons are brain.
situated in lateral horns, which are only found in the 2) It serves as a reflex center for spinal reflexes.
thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord.  Axons that make up neural tracts transfer nerve
 Their axons follow ANS pathways as they transmit impulses to and from the brain.
nerve imputes to cardiac and smooth muscle, glands,  Sensory nerve impulses are carried to the brain by
and adipose tissue. ascending (sensory) tracts, while motor nerve impulses
 In the CNS, interneurons make up the majority of gray are carried away from the brain by descending (motor)
matter. tracts.
 The white matter is divided into three sections by the 8.7 Peripheral Nervous System
gray matter horns: anterior, posterior, and lateral  The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is made up of
funiculi (singular, funiculus). cranial and spinal nerves, as well as sensory receptors
and ganglia, that connect the CNS to the rest of the
body.
Cranial Nerves
  The brain has twelve pairs of cranial nerves that 1. anterior ramus (plural, rami)
connect it to organs and tissues mostly in the head and 2. posterior ramus
neck. 3. meningeal branch
 The brainstem is the origin of the majority of cranial 4. ramus communicans
nerves.
 Both roman numerals and names are used to identify
cranial nerves.
 The numerals represent the sequence in which the
nerves emerge from the brain's inferior surface: CN I is
the most anterior, and CN XII is the most posterior.
 Five cranial nerves are primarily motor, three are
sensory and four are mixed.
Spinal nerves
 The largest nerves of the body are the spinal nerves.
 The motor, sensory, and other functions of the spine
are controlled by 31 pairs of spinal nerves.
 The cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal
levels all have these nerves.
Spinal Plexuses
 After a spinal nerve exits the vertebral canal, it divides
into four major parts:
 Cervical plexus
 On each side of the neck, the superior cervical nerves
converge to form a cervical plexus.
 These plexuses supply the muscles and skin of the
 The deep muscles and skin of the posterior trunk are neck, as well as parts of the head and shoulders, with
innervated via the posterior ramus. nerves.
 The vertebrae, meninges, and vertebral ligaments are  The cervical plexus also gives rise to the paired phrenic
all innervated by the meningeal branch. nerves, which stimulate the diaphragm to contract and
 The ramus communicans is a component of the initiate inspiration.
autonomic system that connects to the sympathetic Brachial Plexus
chain ganglia.  On each side of the spinal column in the shoulder area,
 Many spinal nerves' anterior rami join to form spinal the inferior cervical nerves and possibly nerves TI-T2
plexuses, or nerve networks, before continuing to the create a brachial plexus.
innervated structures.  The brachial plexuses contain nerves that service the
 Most thoracic nerves' anterior rami do not form skin and muscles of the pectoral girdle and upper limb.
plexuses; instead, they produce intercostal nerves.  This is where the musculocutaneous, axillary, radial,
There are four pairs of plexuses: median, and ulnar nerves emerge.
 cervical Lumbar Plexus
 brachial  On each side of the vertebral column, just superior to
 lumbar the coxal bones, the final thoracic nerve (Tl2) and the
 sacral superior lumbar nerves join to form a lumbar plexus.
  The skin and muscles of the inferior trunk, external  Reflex arcs are the names given to reflex routes.
genitalia, and the anterior and medial thighs are all  Autonomic and somatic reflexes are classified into two
supplied by nerves from the lumbar plexuses. categories based on the effector(s) engaged in the
 This is where the femoral and obturator nerves reflex.
emerge.
Sacral Plexus Autonomic reflexes
 On each side of the sacrum within the pelvis, the  Smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, fat tissue, and glands
inferior lumbar and sacral nerves join to form a sacral are all affected.
plexus.  They are involved in the regulation of homeostatic
 The skin and muscles of the buttocks and lower limbs functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
are supplied by nerves from the sacral plexuses. digestion.
 The sciatic nerves, which arise from the sacral  At the unconscious level, autonomic responses
plexuses, are the body's biggest nerves. maintain homeostasis and regular body processes,
Reflexes freeing the mind to cope with those acts that need
 Internal and external stimuli trigger reflexes, which are cognitive decision-making.
quick, involuntary, and predictable responses. Somatic reflexes
 Reflexes help to maintain homeostasis and increase  Work on the muscles of the skeleton
survival chances.  They allow for rapid movements such as moving the
 The brain or the spinal cord, a sensory receptor, hand away from a painful stimulation.
sensory and motor neurons, and an effector are all  Autonomic reflexes are frequently unnoticed, whereas
involved in a reflex. somatic reflexes are recognized.
 Reflexes are further classified into two categories
based on whether the reflex involves the brain or the
spinal cord: cranial reflexes and spinal reflexes.
 The sharp pin stimulates pain receptors, which
generate nerve impulses that are transported to an 8.8 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
interneuron in the spinal cord by a sensory neuron.  The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is made up of
 Nerve signals travel from the interneuron to a motor parts of the central and peripheral nervous systems
neuron, which transmits them to a muscle that that operate independently of conscious control.
contracts to move the hand.  Its job is to keep the body in a state of homeostasis
 Although the brain is not involved in this reflex, sensory when internal conditions change.
nerve impulses that alert a person to a painful stimulus  Cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, adipose tissue, and
are received by the brain. glands are the effectors under autonomic control.
 The ANS is primarily powered by involuntary reflexes.
 Vibral motor nerve impulses are conveyed to effectors
via cranial or spinal nerves by visceral sensory nerve
impulses carried to the autonomic reflex centers in the
hypothalamus, brainstem, or spinal cord.
 Higher brain centers, such as the limbic system and
cerebral cortex, influence the ANS during times of
emotional stress.
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
 Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions'
preganglionic axons release acetylcholine to trigger
nerve impulses in postganglionic neurons, but their
postganglionic axons secrete distinct
neurotransmitters.
 Because most sympathetic postganglionic axons
secrete norepinephrine, a chemical that is related to
adrenaline, they are referred to as adrenergic axons.
 Cholinergic axons are parasympathetic postganglionic
axons that secrete acetylcholine.
  The pain is often considerable, radiating inferiorly
8.9 Disorders of the Nervous System through the thigh and 1eg to the sole of the foot.
Inflammatory Disorders
 Meningitis is caused by an infection of the meninges Shingles
caused by bacteria, fungi, or viruses.  Shingles is a nerve infection in which one or more
 Bacterial meningitis is the most dangerous, with nerves are infected.
roughly 20% of cases resulting in death.  It is caused by the reactivation of the chicken pox virus,
 Encephalitis is the name for a sickness that affects the which had been dormant in the nerve roots until that
brain as well. time.
 Some viruses that cause encephalitis are spread  The virus generates painful blisters on the skin near
through mosquito bites. sensory nerve endings, which are followed by
Neuritis protracted periods of discomfort.
 The inflammation of a nerve or nerves is known as
neuritis.
 It can be caused by a variety of things, including
infection, compression, or trauma.
 The discomfort that comes with it can be mild or
severe.
Sciatica
 Sciatica is a type of neuritis that affects the sciatic
nerve.
  Are problems with the blood arteries that supply the
brain.
 Blood clots, aneurysms, and hemorrhage are the
causes.
Noninflammatory Disorder  In the United States, it is the third leading cause of
Alzheimer disease death.
 Is a gradually debilitating disease that affects the Comas
elderly.  Are states of unconsciousness in which the patient is
 It's linked to the death of some cholinergic neurons in unable to be awakened despite intense stimuli.
the brain, as well as a decrease in the ability of Concussion
neurons to release acetylcholine.  A hit to the head causes a significant jarring of the
brain, which results in concussion.
 Severe cases may result in unconsciousness,
confusion, and amnesia.
Dyslexia
 Causes a person's letters or syllables in words, as well
as words within sentences, to be reversed.
Cerebral palsy  It is caused by a malfunction of the cerebrum's
 is defined by partial paralysis and, in certain cases, language center.
mental disability. Epilepsy
Cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs)
  Can be genetic, or it can be brought on by traumas,  Multiple sclerosis (MS) is characterized by the gradual
infections, or tumors. degradation of the myelin sheath around axons in the
Two types of Epilepsy central nervous system (CNS), as well as the
1. Grand ma1 epilepsy is the more serious form and is production of scar tissue plaques known as scleroses.
characterized by convulsive seizures.
2. Petit ma1 epilepsy is the less serious form and is
characterized by momentary loss of contact with reality Neuralgia
without unconsciousness or convulsions.  Neuralgia is pain that originates from a nerve,
Fainting regardless of the source.
 A transient loss of consciousness caused by an abrupt Paralysis
drop in blood circulation to the brain is known as  The persistent loss of motor control of body parts is
fainting. known as paralysis.
Headaches  It is most usually caused by a CNS injury that is
 A variety of physical or psychological reasons can unintentional.
cause headaches. Parkinson's disease
o Migraine headaches  Is characterized by a lack of supply of the
o Sinus headaches neurotransmitter dopamine to neurons in certain nuclei
Mental illnesses of the cerebrum.
 Neuroses and psychoses are two basic categories for  It causes tremors and interferes with normal skeletal
mental diseases. muscle movements. Parkinson's disease is more
Multiple sclerosis (MS common in the elderly.