HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Lesson: Nervous System

Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

FUNCTIONS OF THE N.S Parasympathetic division

- Maintaining homeostasis - Regulates resting functions
- Receiving sensory input Cells of the Nervous System
- Integrating information
- Controlling muscles and glands 2 Types of cells
- Establishing and maintaining mental
activity Neurons (Nerve cells)
3 Major Function of the Nervous System - For processing, transfer, and storage of
information
Sensory
Neuroglia (Supportive cells)
- Monitors internal & external environment
through presence of receptors - For support, regulation & protection of
neurons
Integration
NEURONS
- Interpretation of sensory information;
complex functions - Receive stimuli
- Transmit action potentials to other
Motor neurons or to effector organs
- Response to information processed - Organized network → performs the
through stimulation of effectors functions of nervous system
3 Parts of the Neuron
ANATOMY OF THE N.S
1.) Cell Body (Neuron Cell Body/Soma)
2 Anatomical Divisions
Contains:
- Single, relatively large, and centrally
located nucleus w/ a prominent nucleolus
- Golgi apparatuses surround the nucleus
- Mitochondria and other organelles are
present
Nissl bodies
- Neurofilaments separate abundant rough
ER ; primary site of protein synthesis in
neurons
Central Nervous System (CNS)
2.) Dendrites
- Spinal cord
- Brain - Short
- Often highly branched cytoplasmic
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) extensions
- Tapered from their bases at the neuron cell
- All the neural tissue outside CNS body to their tips
2 Subdivisions: - Receive input from other neurons & form
the environment
- Afferent division (sensory input)
- Efferent division (motor output) Dendritic spines
- Somatic nervous system - Small extensions where axons of other
- Autonomic nervous system neuron form synapses with the dendrites
Sympathetic division 3.) Axons
- Most active during physical activity - Nerve fiber
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

- Conducts electrical impulses away from Functional Classification

the neuron’s cell body
1.) Sensory Neurons
- Afferent neurons
- Conduct action potentials toward the CNS

Types of Neurons
Structural Classification
1.) Anaxonic Neurons
- No anatomical clues to determine axons 2.) Motor Neurons
from dendrites
- Functions unknown - Efferent neurons
- Conduct action potentials away from the
2.) Multipolar Neurons CNS toward muscles or glands.
- Consists of: Many dendrites, Single axon
- Dendrites vary in number and in their
degree of branching
- Most common type
3.) Bipolar Neurons
- Consists: one dendrite, one axon
- Two processes
- Dendrite → Receive the stimulus
- Axon → Conducts action potentials to the
CNS
- Located in some sensory organs (Retina of
the eye, Nasal cavity)
3.) Interneurons
4.) Pseudo-unipolar Neurons
- conduct action potentials from one neuron
- Single process extending from the cell to another within the CNS
body
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

NEUROGLIA Central Nervous System Neuroglia

Peripheral Nervous System Neuroglia 1.) Astrocytes
1.) Schwann cells - Create supportive framework for neurons
- Create “blood-brain barrier”
- Neuroglia in the PNS that wrap around - Monitor & regulate interstitial fluid
axons surrounding neurons
- Myelin Sheath→ insulating layer; forms - Secrete chemicals for embryological
around nerves neuron formation
- Stimulate the formation of scar tissue
secondary to CNS injury

2.) Satellite cells

- Surround neuron cell bodies in sensory and
autonomic ganglia 2.) Ependymal Cells
- Protect neurons from heavy-metal poisons
- Line ventricles of brain & central canal of
spinal cord
- Produce, monitor & help circulate CSF
(cerebrospinal fluid)

3.) Microglia
- Brain macrophages
- Phagocytize cellular wastes & pathogens

Stream evermore
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

Unmyelinated Axons
- Invaginations of Schwann cells (PNS) or
oligodendrocytes (CNS)
- They conduct action potentials slowly

Neurons perform all the communication,

information processing, and control functions
of the nervous system.
Neuroglia outnumber neurons and have
functions essential to preserving the physical
4.) Oligodendrocytes and biochemical structure of neural tissue and
- Cytoplasmic extensions that can surround the survival of neurons.
axons
Neural Tissue Organization

Myelin Sheaths
- Most axons of the nervous system are
surrounded by a myelin sheath SYNAPSES
(myelinated axons)
- Presence of myelin speeds up the - Site at which neurons communicate
transmission of action potentials along the - Signals pass across synapse in one
axon direction
- Myelin will get laid down in segments Types of Cell in Synapse
(internodes) along the axon, leaving
unmyelinated gaps known as “nodes of 1.) Presynaptic Neuron
Ranvier”
- Conducts impulse toward the synapse
White matter
2.) Postsynaptic Neuron
- Regions of the nervous system containing
groupings of myelinated axons. - Conducts impulse away from the synapse
- Average postsynaptic neuron has up to
Gray matter 10,000 synapses
- Some in cerebellum have up to 100,000
- is mainly comprised of groups of neuron synapses
cell bodies, dendrites & synapses
(connections between neurons).
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

Two Major Type of Synapses CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

1.) Electrical Synapses SPINAL CORD
- Not common in the nervous system
- Action potentials - Major communication link between the
- Transfer of information from one part of brain and the PNS inferior to the head
body to another - Integrates incoming information
- Electrical properties result forms ionic - Produces responses through reflex
concentration differences across plasma mechanisms
membrane and permeability of membrane Composed of:
2.) Chemical Synapses
- Cervical
- Most common - Thoracic
- Lumbar
Components: - Sacral segments
- Presynaptic terminal 31 pairs of spinal nerves → Exit the vertebral
- Synaptic cleft column through intervertebral and sacral
- Postsynaptic membrane foramina
Neurotransmitters release by action potential in Spinal Meninges
presynaptic terminal;
1.) Dura mater
- Synaptic vesicles
- Diffusion - Tough mother
- Postsynaptic membrane - Most superficial and thickest membrane
- Neurotransmitter removal
DM forms sac - Thecal sac (surrounds spinal cord)
Five Essential Component to the Reflex Arc
Epidural space - Layer of fat between the DM & the
Receptor vertebral foramen (Cushion)
- Site where stimulus acts 2.) Arachnoid mater
Sensory neuron - Spider web like
- Middle membrane
- Transmits afferent impulses to the CNS - Very thin & wispy
Integration center Subdural space - Space between AM & DM;
- Consists of one or more synapses in the contains small amount of serous fluid
CNS 3.) Pia mater
Motor neuron - Affectionate
- Conducts efferent impulses from - Inner most tightly bound to surface of
integration center to an effector spinal cord

Effector Subarachnoid space - Space between AM & PM;

contains blood vessel & CSF
- Muscle or gland
- Responds to efferent impulses SPINAL NERVES
- Contracting or secreting
Peripheral Nerves
- Bundles of axons.
- AKA tracts in CNS
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

Epineurium Thoracic Plexus

- Wraps entire nerve - T3-T12
- 11 intercostal nerve
Perineurium - 1 subcostal nerve
- Wraps fascicles of tracts
Endoneurium Lumbar Plexus

- Wraps individual axons - Arises from L1–L4

- Innervates the thigh & abdominal wall
Sacral Plexus
- Arises from L4–S4
- Serves the buttock, lower limb, pelvic
structures, and perineum
Reflex Arc
1. Sensory receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Integration center
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector - part of body that responds to a motor
nerve impulse
SPINAL CORD DISORDERS
- Encephalitis
- Meningitis
- Rabies
- Tetanus
- Multiple sclerosis
SPINAL NERVE DISORDERS
- Anesthesia
- Neuritis
- Neuralgia
Cervical Plexus - Sciatica
- Leprosy
- C1–C4 - Herpes
- Innervates skin and muscles of the neck, - Poliomyelitis
ear, back of head, and shoulders - Diabetic neuropathy
- Phrenic nerve - Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease
- Major motor and sensory nerve of the - Neurofibromatosis
diaphragm (receives fibers from C3–C5) - Myasthenia gravis
Brachial Plexus
- C5–C8 and T1(and often C4 and T2)
- It gives rise to the nerves that innervate
the upper limb
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

BRAIN Major Parts of the Brain

Three to four-week embryo: - Brain stem
- Cerebellum
- Prosencephalon (forebrain) - Diencephalon
- Mesencephalon (midbrain) - Cerebrum
- Rhombencephalon (hindbrain)
BRAINSTEM
- Connects the spinal cord
Consists of three parts:
- Medulla oblongata
- Pons
- Midbrain
Reticular formation
- Functional unit that spans all 3 division
- Group of nuclei
- Important in regulatory function of the
brain
Five-week embryo:
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
- Telencephalon (cerebrum)
- Diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus - Part of the reticular formation. Consists of
and epithalamus) sensory axons that project to the cerebral
cortex.
- RAS helps maintain consciousness.

- Mesencephalon (midbrain)
- Metencephalon (pons and cerebellum)
- Myelencephalon (medulla oblongata)

Medulla Oblongata
- Most inferior portion or brain stem
- Contains discrete nuclei
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

- Pyramids - Bulges on the anterior aspect of Hypothalamus

the medulla.
- Regulation of heart rate, breathing, - Inferior to the thalamus
swallowing, vomiting , coughing, sneezing, - Controls body temperature, hunger and
balance and coordination thirst
- Sensations → sexual pleasure, feeling
Pons relaxed, rage, fear
- Contains ascending and descending tracts Functions of the Hypothalamus
and several nuclei
- Controls chewing and salivation - Control of the ANS.
- Production of hormones
Midbrain (Mesencephalon) - Regulation of emotional and behavioral
patterns, eating and drinking, body
- Extends from the pons to the temperature, and circadian rhythms.
diencephalon.
- Part of the ventricle found here- cerebral CEREBRUM
aqueduct.
- Regulation of general body movements - Largest part of the brain
- Seat of intelligence
CEREBELLUM
Lobes of the Cerebrum
- Second largest part of the brain
- Coordinates the brain's instructions for Four lobes:
skilled repetitive movements and for Frontal lobe
maintaining balance and posture.
- Thinking, planning, & central executive
DIENCEPHALON functions; motor execution
- Gives rise to thalamus, hypothalamus and Parietal lobe
epithalamus
- Somatosensory perception integration of
visual & somatospatial information
Temporal lobe
- Language function and auditory
perception involved in long term memory
and emotion
Occipital lobe
- visual perception and processing

Thalamus
- Intermediate mass
- Several nuclei
- Major relay station for most sensory
impulses.
Epithalamus
- Small region of the diencephalon
consisting of the pineal gland
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

Central sulcus CRANIAL NERVES

- Separates the frontal and parietal lobes
Precentral gyrus
- Primary motor area
Postcentral gyrus
- Primary somatosensory area

Cerebral White Matter

- Commissural tracts - Corpus callosum
- Association tracts
- Projection tracts
Basal Ganglia
- Three nuclei deep within each cerebral
hemisphere make up basal ganglia.
- They are globus pallidus, putamen, and
caudate nucleus.
- Help initiate and terminate movements,
suppress unwanted movements and
regulate muscle tone.
LIMBIC SYSTEM
- Emotional brain
- Governs emotional aspects of behavior
- Also involved in olfaction and memory
BRAIN BLOOD AND BLOOD-BARRIER
- Brain receives approximately 20% of the
total blood supply.
- Internal carotid and vertebral arteries
carry blood to the brain.
- Internal jugular veins return blood from
the brain.
- Blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects brain
from harmful substances.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Clear fluid - Skeletal muscle
- Absorbs shock and protects the brain and - Conscious and unconscious movement
the spinal cord. - Skeletal muscle contracts
- Helps transport nutrients and wastes from - One synapse
the blood and the nervous tissue. - Acetylcholine
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM - Abdominopelvic nerve plexuses

- Smooth and cardiac muscle and glands Parasympathetic axons reach organs through:
- Unconscious regulation - Cranial nerves
- Target tissues stimulated or inhibited - Thoracic nerve plexuses
- Two synapses - Abdominoplevic nerve plexuses
- Acetylcholine by preganglionic neurons - Pelvic nerves
and ACh or norepinephrine by post
ganglionic neurons Physiology of ANS
Sympathetic Division Neurotransmitters
- Preganglionic cell bodies in lateral horns of - Acetylcholine released by cholinergic
spinal T1-L2 neurons
- Preganglionic axons pass through ventral - Norepinephrine released by adrenergic
roots to white rami communicates to neurons
sympathetic chain ganglia
Receptors
Four Routes possible
- Cholinergic
- Spinal nerves - Nicotinic and muscarinic
- Sympathetic nerves - Adrenergic
- Splanchnic nerves - Alpha and beta receptors
- Innervation to adrenal gland
Regulation of ANS
Parasympathetic Division
- Autonomic reflexes control most of activity
- Preganglionic cell bodies in nuclei of of visceral organs, glands and blood vessels
brainstem or lateral parts of spinal cord - Autonomic reflex activity influenced by
gray matter from S2-S4 hypothalamus and higher brain centers
- Preganglionic axons from brain pass to - Sympathetic and parasympathetic
ganglia through cranial nerves divisions influence activities of enteric
- Preganglionic axons from sacral region nervous system through autonomic
pass through pelvic nerves to ganglia reflexes
- Preganglionic axons pass to terminal - Enteric nervous system can function
ganglia within wall of or near organ independently of CNS through local
innervated reflexes
Enteric Nervous System Functional Generalization of ANS
- Consists of nerve plexuses within wall of Stimulatory vs Inhibitory effects
digestive tract
- Both divisions of ANS
Sources
Dual innervation
- Sensory neurons that connect the
digestive tract to CNS - Most organs innervated by both
- ANS motor neurons that connect CNS to Either division alone or both working together can
digestive tract coordinate activities of different structures
- Enteric neuron which are confined to
enteric plexuses Sympathetic produces more generalized effects
Distribution of ANS Fibers - Prepares body for physical activity or flight
or fight response
Sympathetic axons reach organs through:
Parasympathetic more important for resting
- Spinal nerves conditions
- Head and neck nerve plexuses
- Thoracic nerve plexuses
 HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Lesson: Nervous System
Section: MED227 Date: February 1, 2023
Professor: Juan Carlo M. Pangan Level: 1st Year, 2nd Semester

Fight or Flight Responses

- Increased heart rate and force
- Blood vessel dilation in skeletal and cardiac
muscles
- Dilation of air passageways
- Muscles generate heat, body temperature
increases
- Sweat gland activity increases
- Decrease in nonessential organ activities
Energy sources availability increased
- Glycogen to glucose
- Fat cells break down triglycerides