THEORY OF RINGS AND FIELDS- FALL 2021

DR. RIDA-E ZENAB

Lecture Week 1

1. Introduction to Ring Theory

Ring Theory is a core part of the subject of Algebra , which forms the language within which
modern Science can be put on its firmest possible footing. Ring theory appears to have been among
the favourite subjects of some of the most influential scientists of the twentieth century, such as
Emmy Noether (discoverer both of Noether’s Theorem— one of the most important theorems in
modern Physics; and of Noetherian rings); and Alfred Goldie (author of Goldie’s Theorem, and
founder of the University of Leeds Algebra Group).
There are countless applications of ring theory such as, the crucial notion of linearity, and
linear algebra, which is a practical necessity in Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Finance, Economics,
Engineering and so on, is built on the notion of a vector space, which is a special kind of ring
module. Moreover, many fundamental notions about information and information transmission
are most naturally described in the setting of ring theory. In particular, a field is a special kind
of ring, and the theory of Coding — one of the main planks of modern information technology
and Computer Science — makes heavy practical use of the theory of fields, which lives inside the
theory of rings.
Definition 1.1. A ring (R, +, ·) is a set R together with two binary operations, addition ‘+’ and
multiplication denoted by · (we usually omit ‘·’ in products) satisfying the following axioms:
(1) (R, +) is an abelian group;
(2) (ab)c = a(bc) for all a, b, c ∈ R;
(3) a(b + c) = ab + ac and (a + b)c = ac + bc for all a, b, c ∈ R. (Distributive laws)
Note: We will often say R is a ring when + and · are clear.

Ring with identity:

A ring R is said to be a ring with identity if there exists 1 ∈ R such that 1 6= 0 and
1a = a = a1 for all a ∈ R.
The identity, if it exists, is unique.

Commutative Ring:
A ring R is said to be commutative if
ab = ba for all a, b ∈ R.
Example 1.2. Z, Q, R and C are all commutative rings with identity under the usual addition
and multiplication.
Example 1.3. 2Z = {2m : m ∈ Z} is a commutative ring without 1.
Example 1.4. For n ∈ N, Mn (Z), Mn (Q), Mn (R) and Mn (C) are all rings with identity In under
usual addition and multiplication for matrices.
They are not commutative.
In fact for any ring R, Mn (R) is a ring in this way.
1
THEORY OF RINGS AND FIELDS- FALL 2021 RIDA-E ZENAB

Example 1.5. (Zn , ⊕, ⊗) is a commutative ring with identity [1], where ⊕ and ⊗ on Zn are
defined by
[a] ⊕ [b] = [a + b] and [a] ⊗ [b] = [ab] for all [a], [b] ∈ Zn .
Proof. We know (from group theory) ⊕ is a well defined binary operation and (Zn , ⊕) is an abelian
group.
We need to check that ⊗ is also a well defined binary operation on Zn .
For this let [a], [b], [c], [d] ∈ Zn and
([a], [b]) = ([c], [d]).
Then [a] = [c] and [b] = [d]. It follows that
n | a − c and n | b − d
so that
a − c = np and b − d = nq.
Now
ab − cd = ab − cd + ad − ad
= a(b − d) + d(a − c)
= anq + dnp
= n(aq + dp)
and so n | ab − cd. Thus [ab] = [cd] and hence ⊗ is a well defined binary operation.
It is now easy to check that ⊗ is associative and distributive laws hold. 
Example 1.6. N and N0 are not rings as they are not groups under +.
Example 1.7. Let R be a ring and let X be a non-empty set. Consider the set
S = {f | f : X → R}
the collection of all maps from X to R. The addition and multiplication on S is defined by
pointwise, that is, for all x ∈ X
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) and (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x).
[This is Not composition of functions]
Then (S, +, ·) is a ring , the identity of (S, +) is 0 where 0 : X → R is the function given by
0(x) = x for all x ∈ X
and −f is given by
(−f )(x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ X.
It is an easy exercise for students to check the axioms of a ring.
Example 1.8. Let R be the set of real numbers and let
R ⊕ R = {(a, b) : a, b ∈ R}.
The addition and multiplication on R ⊕ R is define componentwise:
(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d) and (a, b) · (c, d) = (ac, bd).
Then R ⊕ R is a commutative ring with identity (1, 1). This ring is called direct sum of two copies
of R.
Remark 1.9. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. As R is a group under +, so 0 is the unique element such
that
a + 0 = a = 0 + a for all a ∈ R
and for each a ∈ R, −a is the unique element such that
a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a.

2
RIDA-E ZENAB THEORY OF RINGS AND FIELDS- FALL 2021

Elementary properties of Rings

Lemma 1.10. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. Then
(i) a0 = 0 = 0a for all a ∈ R;
(ii) a(−b) = −(ab) = (−a)b for all a, b ∈ R;
(iii) (−a)(−b) = ab for all a, b ∈ R.
Proof. (i) a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0 and by cancellation in (R, +), we have a0 = 0.
Similarly, 0a = 0.
(ii) a(−b) = a(−b) + ab − (ab) = a(−b + b) − (ab) = a0 − (ab) = 0 − (ab) = −(ab).
Similarly, (−a)b = −(ab).
(iii) (−a)(−b) = −((−a)b) = −(−(ab)) = ab using (ii). 
In particular if R has 1, then for all b ∈ R
(−1)b = −(1b) = −b
and
(−1)(−1) = 11 = 1.
Subring of a ring
Definition 1.11. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and let S ⊆ R. Then S is a subring of R if
(i) 0 ∈ S;
(ii) −a, a + b, ab ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S.
Remark 1.12. If S is a subring of R, then S is itself a ring under the same + and · as R.
Example 1.13. Mn (Z) is a subring of Mn (Q) and Mn (Q) is a subring of Mn (R). They are
subrings with identity.
Example 1.14. Let d ∈ Z such that d 6= 1 be square free, that is, p2 - d for all primes p. For
example
−6, −5, −3, −2, −1, 2, 3, 5, 6
are all square free integers.
Let √ √
Z[ d] = {a + b d : a, b ∈ Z}
with usual addition√and multiplication.
If d > 0, then Z[√d] is a subring of R.
If d < 0, then Z[ d] is a subring of C.
For example if d = 2, then √ √
Z[ 2] = {a + b 2 : a, b ∈ Z}
is a subring of R and if d = −1, then
Z[ι] = {a + bι : a, b ∈ Z}
is a subring of C, and is called the ring of Gaussian integers.
Example 1.15. (2Z, +, ·) is a subring of (Z, +, ·). Although (Z, +, ·) is a ring with identity,
(2Z, +, ·) has no identity.
Example 1.16. Consider the ring R ⊕ R and let S = {(a, 0) | a ∈ R}. Then S is a subring of
R ⊕ R. Note that (1, 0) is the identity element of S which is different from the identity of R ⊕ R.
Thus S has its own identity.
The following result gives a useful characterisation of the subring of a ring.
Theorem 1.17. Let (R, +, ·) be a ring and let S be a non-empty subset of R. Then S is a subring
of R if and only if the following two conditions hold.
(1) for every a, b ∈ S, we have a − b ∈ S;
(2) for every a, b ∈ S, we have ab ∈ S.
3
THEORY OF RINGS AND FIELDS- FALL 2021 RIDA-E ZENAB

Proof. The first implication is clear by definition.

For the converse, suppose (1) and (2) holds. To show S is a subring of R, we need to check the
axioms of a subring.
(i) We have 0 = a − a ∈ S;
(ii) For a ∈ S, we have −a = 0 − a ∈ S;
(iii) Let a, b ∈ S. The by above −b ∈ S and so by hypothesis a − (−b) ∈ S ⇒ a + b ∈ S.
It is given that ab ∈ S for all a, b ∈ S.
Hence S is a subring of R. 
Example 1.18. Let S be the set of all real valued functions defined on R under the pointwise
addition and multiplication of functions. That is
S = {f | f : R → R}.
Let U be a subset of S consisting of all the continuous functions. Then U is a subring of S, for if,
f, g are continuous functions, then so are f − g and f g.
Example 1.19. Let S be as in the previous example and let
U = {f ∈ S | f (0) = 0},
so that U consists of those functions that takes value 0 at x = 0.
Then U is a subring of S for if f, g ∈ U , then
(f − g)(0) = f (0) − g(0) = 0 − 0 = 0
and so f − g ∈ U . Also
(f g)(0) = f (0)g(0) = 0
and so f g ∈ U .

Now observe that if

T = {f ∈ S | f (0) = 1},
then T is not a subring of S because if f (0) = g(0) = 1, then
(f − g)(0) = f (0) − g(0) = 1 − 1 = 0.
Example 1.20. Let M2 (R) be the ring of all 2 × 2 matrices with real entries. Let
  
a b
S= | a, b, d ∈ R .
0 d
Then S is a subring of R (Check).
On the other hand if   
a b
T = | a, b, c ∈ R .
c 0
Then T is not a subring of R (Check).
Index Laws:
Let (R, +, ·) be a ring. For all m, n ∈ Z and a, b ∈ R,
(m + n)a = ma + na
(mn)a = m(na)
m(a + b) = ma + mb
(ma)(nb) = (mn)(ab).
Proof. The first two we have seen for groups.
For the third, if m = 0, then
0(a + b) = 0 = 0 + 0 = 0a + 0b.
If m > 0, then
m(a + b) = (a + b) + (a + b) + · · · + (a + b) = a + a + · · · + a + b + b + · · · + b = ma + mb.
| {z } | {z } | {z }
m terms m terms m terms
4
RIDA-E ZENAB THEORY OF RINGS AND FIELDS- FALL 2021

If m < 0, then by Lemma 1.10, distributivity and the above

m(a+b) = (−(−m))(a+b) = −(−m(a+b)) = −((−m)a+(−m)b) = −((−m)a)−((−m)b) = ma+mb.
The proof for (ma)(nb) = (mn)(ab) is left as an exercise and hints will be discussed in the class.