Topics of today’s lecture

Normal subgroups, factor groups

Subrings, ideals, factor rings

Characteristic and prime fields

Divisibility in integral domains

Polynomials
Normal subgroups, factor groups
Normal subgroups
Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G. Then
there not necessarily has to hold aH = Ha for all a ∈ G.
Previous example:
n o
G = D8 = 1, a, a2 , a3 , b, ba, ba2 , ba3 , H = hbi = {1, b} ,
aH 6= Ha, a2 H = Ha2 , a3 H 6= Ha3 .

Definition
A subgroup H of the group G is called a normal
subgroup if aH = Ha holds for all a ∈ G. It is then
written H E G (H C G if H E G and H 6= G).

Remark

(1) aH = Ha means not necessarily ah = ha ∀h ∈ H.

(2) Important only a ∈
/ H.
For a ∈ H holds always aH = H = Ha.
Normal subgroups and factor groups
Example

(a) Every group G has {1} and itself as trivial normal

subgroups.
(b) In every abelian group all subgroups are normal
subgroups.

Theorem and definition

Let H be a normal subgroup of G and G/H the
totality of cosets of H in G. Then is G/H with
respect to the binary operation aH · bH = abH a group.
It is called the factor group of G modulo H in short G
modulo H.
Analogy to the sum definition [a] + [b] = [a + b] in Zn .
Because of [x] = x + nZ for all x ∈ Z this means
(a + nZ) + (b + nZ) = (a + b) + nZ.
Proof

(1) Uniqueness of the operation. To show:

xH = AH, yH = bH ⇒ x · yH = abH or
x ∈ aH, y ∈ bH ⇒ xy ∈ abH
x ∈ aH ⇒ x = ah for h ∈ H, y ∈ bH ⇒ y = bg for
g∈H
⇒ xy = ahbg
From Hb = bH follows hb = bh0 for an h0 ∈ H
So: xy = abh0 g ∈ abH, as h0 g ∈ H
(2) (aH) · (bH · cH) = aH · (bcH) = a (bc) H = (ab) cH =
abH · cH = (aH · bH) · cH
aH · 1H = a · 1H = aH = 1 · aH = 1HaH, so 1H = H is
the neutr. elt.
aHa−1 H = aa−1 H = 1H = H = a−1 aH = a−1 HaH, so
−1
a H inverse of aH.
Subrings, ideals, factor rings
Calculation rules in a ring
Already defined: (R, +, ·) ring ⇔ (R, +) abelian group,
(R, ·) semi-group, law of distributive property.
For a ∈ R −a denotes the additive inverse of a in the
abelian group (R, +).
Calculation rules in a ring R.

(1) a · 0 = 0 = 0 · a,
(2) a · (−b) = − (ab) = (−a) b,
(3) ab = (−a) (−b),
(4) a (b − c) = ab − ac, (a − b) c = ac − bc,
(5) if 1∈R then (−1) a = −a,
(6) if R 6= {0} and 1 ∈ R then 1 6= 0,
Pm Pn Pm Pn
(7) j=1 aj k=1 bk = j=1 k=1 aj bk .

Note the difference between (−1) (−1) = 1 and

− (−1) = 1. Last equation holds in every additive abelian
group has nothing to do with ring multiplication.
Proof

(2) ab + a (−b) = a (b + (−b)) = a · 0 = 0 ⇒ a (−b) = − (ab),

(1)
as (R, +) group.
Analogously (−a) b = −ab
(3) (−a) (−b) = − (a (−b)) = − (− (ab)) = ab, as (R, +)
(2) (2)
group
(5) 0 = 0 · a = (1 − 1) a = 1 · a + (−1) a = a + (−1) a ⇒
(4)
(−1) a = −a, as (R, +) group
(6) R 6= {0} ⇒ ex. a ∈ R, a 6= 0 ⇒ 1 · a = a,
0 · a = 0 ⇒ 1 6= 0, (otherwise a = 0)
Examples

(1) (nZ, +) E (Z, +), Z/nZ = Zn !!

∼
(2) G/ {1} = G, G/G ∼
= {1}
(3) R/2πZ = {α + 2πZ : 0 ≤ α < 2π} ∼ = group of rotations of
the circle
(4) D6 = 1, a, a2 , b, ab, a2 b , D6 / hai ∼

= (Z2 , +).
Subrings, ideals
Definition
Let R be a ring and ∅ = 6 U ⊆ R.
Then U is called subring of R if U with respect to
the operations on R itself is already a ring.

Definition
Let R be a ring and ∅ = 6 I ⊆ R.
Then I is called ideal of R if holds
(a) (I, +) subgroup of (R, +),
(b) a ∈ I, r ∈ R ⇒ ar , ra ∈ I.

S subring of R ⇔ a) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a − b ∈ S,
b) a, b ∈ S ⇒ ab ∈ S.
S ideal of R ⇔ a) a, b ∈ S ⇒ a − b ∈ S,
b) a ∈ S, r ∈ R ⇒ ar , ra ∈ S.
Examples

(1) 2Z subring and ideal of Z

(2) R = map (R, R) with (f + g) (x) := f (x) = g (x),
(f ·) (x) = f (x) · g (x)
(R, +, ·) ring with (−f ) (x) = −f (x)
U := {f ∈ R : f continuous } subring of R
(3) {0} and R trivial ideals of the ring R.
(4) K field: as ring K has only the trivial ideals,
I ideal,
0 6= a ∈ I ⇒ 1 = aa−1 ∈ I ⇒ x = x ·1 ∈ I ∀x ∈ K ⇒ I = K .
(5) Z subring of Q but no ideal of Q.
(6) nZ (n ≥ 0) all ideals of the ring Z.
(7) R commutative ring, a ∈ R.
aR = {ar : r ∈ R} ideal of R
(“principle ideal generated by a”).
Factor rings
Theorem and definition
Let I be an ideal of a ring R and R/I the additive
factor group (R, +) / (I, +). R/I becomes a ring the
so-called factor ring of R by I with the definition of
multiplication (a + I) (b + I) = ab + I.
(In short: R modulo I.)
If R has a 1 then 1 + I is the unity of R/I.
If R is commutative then also R/I.

Note
(a + I) (b + I) = ab + Ib + aI + II ⊆ ab + I ⇔ I ideal.

Example
Z/nZ = Zn the residue class ring modulo n.

The ideals of a ring R form a lattice.

Characteristic and prime fields
Characteristic
Definition
Let R be a ring. If there is a positive integer n with
na = 0 for all a ∈ R then the smallest such positive
integer n is called the characteristic of R and is denoted
by char R. If there is no such positive integer then it is
said that R has characteristic zero and written char R = 0.

Example

(1) char Z = 0.
(2) char Zn = n.

Theorem
Let R be a ring with 1. If there is a positive integer n
with n · 1 = 0 then the smallest such n is the
characteristic of R. If there is no such positive integer then
char R = 0.
Characteristic

Proof.
If n is the smallest nat. number with n · 1 = 0 then surely
char R ≥ n. For every a ∈ R holds then

na =(a + . . . + a)=(1 + . . . + 1) a = (n · 1) a = 0 · a = 0
| {z } | {z }
n n

So char R = n.
Rest follows from def. of char R = 0

Remark
In the case of char R 6= 0 char R is here the order of the
element 1 in the abelian group (R, +).
Characteristic

Theorem
For every integral domain R holds either char R = 0 or
char R is a prime number.

Proof.
Let char R = n > 0 and n = r · s with 1 ≤ r , s ≤ n
⇒ 0 = n · 1 = (r · s) · 1 = (r · 1) (s · 1)
so r · 1 = 0 or s · 1 = 0, as R is zero divisor free
⇒ r = n or s = n by the previous theorem.

In particular the characteristic of a field is either zero or a prime

number.
Freshman’s dream: Field of characteristic 2.
In them holds (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 .
Characteristic

Theorem
Let R be an integral domain of prime characteristic p.
n n n
Then holds (a + b)p = ap + bp for all a, b ∈ R and all
n ∈ N.

Proof.
char = p p n
n
(a + b)p = ap + p−1 p
p−k k
b + bp
P
n = 1: k=1 k a
p p(p−1)···(p−k+1)
⇒ p | kp for 1 ≤ k ≤ p − 1,



k = 1·2···k as p
pn

⇒ kp ap−k bk = 0 for 1 ≤ k ≤ p − 1
⇒ (a + b)p = ap + bp . Induction by n.

In the ring Z4 holds char Z4 = 4 so 4 · a = 0.

But also 2a = 0 for a = [2].
Characteristic and prime fields
char Q = 0, char Zp = p,
both fields Q and Zp have no proper subfields.
Such fields are called “prime fields”.
Thereof are only these two.

Theorem and definition

Let K be a field.
The intersection of all subfields of K is again a subfield of
K.
It is called the prime field of K and will be denoted by
π (K ).
π (K ) is the uniquely determined smallest subfield of K .

Implication
Every finite field K has prime characteristic.
Divisibility in integral domains
Definition

Let R be an integral domain and a a from 0 different

non-unit.
a is called irreducible if for all b, c ∈ R from a = bc
always follows that either b or c is a unit.
Exampleh√ i n √ o
R = Z 10 := a + b 10 : a, b ∈ Z is as a subring of R
√ 2∈R
an integral domain. Consider √
2= α · β with  α = a + b 10, β = c + d 10
√ √ √
2 = a + b 10 c + d 10 = (ac + 10bd) + (ad + bc) 10
⇒ ad
 + bc √= 0  √ 
⇒ a − b 10 c − d 10 = (ac + 10bd) − (ad + bc)
| {z }
√ =0
10 = ac + 10bd
 √  √  √  √ 
⇒4 = a + b 10 a − b 10 c + d 10 c − d 10 =
  
= a2 − 10b2 c 2 − 10d 2

⇒ a2 − 10b2 = ±1 or a2 − 10b2 = ±2
⇒ α unit or β unit or a2 − 10b2 = ±2
a2 ≡ 2 mod 10 in Z not soluble.
⇒ α unit or β unit.
⇒ 2 irreducible.
Polynomials
Practical definition and theorem

Let R be a commutative ring with 1.

A polynomial f in one indeterminate x with coefficients
a0 , . . . , an ∈ R is a formal sum
n
X
f = ak x k = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an x n .
k=0

The totality of these polynomials in x with coefficients in R

is denoted by R [x].
Polynomials are added and multiplied as usual with respect to
the computation rules in R in which x is treated as if it
would be an element of R in this way R [x] becomes a
commutative ring with 1 the so-called polynomial ring in
x over R.
Substituting
Pn k
Two important properties of polynomials f = k=0 ak x
over R.
1) Elements of R or even from a superring of R can be
“substituted” for x.
2) f is uniquely determined by its coefficients ak 6= 0.
Difference between polynomials and polynomial functions.

Theorem (substituting for x)

Let T be a commutative ring with 1 and R a subring
of T with 1 ∈ R. Let t ∈ T . Consider the mapping
n
X n
X
Φ : R [x] → T , ak x k 7→ ak t k .
k=0 k=0

The range R [t] of R [x] under Φ is the smallest

subring of T which contains R and t.
Polynomial functions

Remark

1) For R = T resp. t ∈ R is R [t] = R.

2) Every polynomial in R [x] can also be considered as a
polynomial in T [x] (R [x] ⊆ T [x]).

Definition
Let R be a commutative ring with 1. A function
g : R → R is called polynomial function if there is a
polynomial f ∈ R [x] with g (r ) = f (r ) for all r ∈ R.

Every polynomial f ∈ R [x] defines a function ef : R → R

by ef : r 7→ f (r ). The set of all polynomial functions on R
forms like R [x] a ring (subring of map (R, R)).
Different polynomials can define the same function.
Example

R = Z4 .
There are infinitely many polynomials over R but only in
total 44 functions from R → R.
E. g. the polynomials x 2 and x 4 are different over R
but the functions x 7→ x 2 and x 7→ x 4 are identical
r r2 r4
0 0 0
1 1 1
2 0 0
3 1 1

Similarly for x 3 and x 5 , x2 and x 6 , x3 and

x 7, etc.