Solutions
Solutions
Solutions
Section 2: Subgroups
Alec Mouri
June 22, 2023
Exercises
(1)
1 1 2 0 1 3 −1 0
x= ,x = ,x =
−1 0 −1 −1 0 −1
4 −1 −1 5 0 −1 6 1 0
x = ,x = ,x = 1 =
1 0 1 1 0 1
(2)
a3 b = ba3 → a3 a3 b = a3 ba3 → ab = a5 ab = a3 b3
And
a3 b = ba3 → a3 ba3 = ba3 a3 → a3 ba3 = baa5 = ba
Thus, ab = ba
1
(e) No. Let a = 1. Then
1 0
̸ GL2 (R)
∈
0 0
Since
1 0
det =0
0 0
2
(b) Let c = ar + bs ∈ aZ + bZ. Then
(9) Let x ∈ H. Then we can write x has a string of products of a and b and
their inverses. Ie. x = aa1 bb1 ...aan bbn , where an , bn are integers. Since
ab = ba and hence a−1 b−1 = b−1 a−1 , ab−1 = b−1 a, and a−1 b = ba−1 ,
then we can also write x = aa1 +...+an bb1 +...+bn = ab1 +...+b−n aa1 +...+an , or
equivalently for some integers c, d, x = ac bd = bd ac .
So, let x = axa bxb , y = aya byb ∈ H, where xa , xb , ya , yb are integers.
Then
xy = axa bxb aya byb = aya byb axa bxb = yx
Thus, H is abelian.
(10) (a) If x has order rs, then (xr )s = xrs = 1. Suppose for some k < s,
(xr )k = 1. Then this implies xrk = 1. But rk < rs, so rs is not
the order of x. Contradiction. Thus s is the order of xr .
(b) If x has order n, then for some s and k such that rs = kn,
then (xr )s = xrs = xkn = (xn )k = 1. Choose k such that
k = r/gcd(n, r). Then r divides kn, so s is an integer, namely
s = n/gcd(n, r). We now claim that s is the order of xr . Let a be
the order of xr . Then a divides s. Since (xr )a = xra = 1, then n di-
vides ra. Since n/gcd(n, r) does not divide r unless gcd(n, r) = n
or r = 1, then s = n/gcd(n, r) divides a. Thus, s = a.
3
(12) Clearly, the trivial group has no proper subgroup.
Suppose we have a nontrivial group G with no proper subgroup. So for
all g ∈ G where g ̸= e, where e is the identity, g generates G. Suppose
|G| = ∞. Then g 2 generates a nontrivial subgroup, since it does not
g |G|−1 . Furthermore,
2
contain g. Thus, for |G| < ∞, G k= ke,2g, g , ...,
for all 1 ≤ k ≤ |G| − 1, G = e, g , (g ) , ..., (g k )|G|−1 , where for each
i, g ik ̸= 1. Suppose |G| is composite. Then for some k and a, |G| = ka.
Thus, (g k )a = 1. Thus, |G| must be prime.
So, a nontrivial group G with no proper subgroup is a cyclic subgroup
with prime order.
(13) Let G be a cyclic group with generator g, and let A be a subgroup of G.
Then for some a ∈ A, a = g k for some k, and a has order n. Suppose
for some b ∈ A, b is not generated by a, and a is not generated by b.
Then for some ℓ, b = g ℓ , where gcd(k, ℓ) = 1, and b has order m. But
since for some c, d, g ck+dℓ = g, then A = G, so A is cyclic. Thus, b is
generated by a, or a is generated by b. Thus, A is a cyclic group.
(14) Suppose
Gp is generated by g, and n = pr for some p. Note that
p(r−1)
A = e, g , ..., g is a cyclic subgroup of G of order r generated
by g p . I claim that A is the only cyclic subgroup of G of order r.
Suppose there exists some other subgroup of G, B, where the order of
B is r, and B is generated by g q for some q. Then (g q )r = g qr = 1. So
n divides qr, and so p divides q. But then g p generates g q . So, B is
generated by g p . Thus, A = B.
(15) (a) Let e be the identity of H and f be the identity of G. Then
e2 = e = ef → e = f .
(b) Let a, b ∈ H, c ∈ G, where b is the inverse of a in H, and c is the
inverse of a in G. Then e = ab = ac → bab = bac → b = c.
(16) (a) Let G = {1, g, g 2 , g 3 , g 4 , g 5 }. Since 11 = 1, g 6 = 1, (g 2 )3 = 1, (g 3 )2 =
1, (g 4 )3 = 1, (g 5 )6 = 1, then g and g 5 generate G
(b) Let A = {1, a, a2 , a3 , a4 }. Since 11 = 1, a5 = 1, (a2 )5 = 1, (a3 )5 =
1, (a4 )5 = 1, then a, a2 , a3 , a4 generate A.
Let B = {1, b, b2 , b3 , b4 , b5 , b6 , b7 }. Since 11 = 1, b8 = 1, (b2 )4 =
1, (b3 )8 = 1, (b4 )2 = 1, (b5 )8 = 1, (b6 )4 = 1, (b7 )8 = 1, then b, b3 , b5 , b7
generate B.
4
Let C = {1, c, c2 , c3 , c4 , c5 , c6 , c7 , c8 , c9 }. Since 11 = 1, c10 = 1, (c2 )5 =
1, (c3 )10 = 1, (c4 )5 = 1, (c5 )2 = 1, (c6 )5 = 1, (c7 )10 = 1, (c8 )5 =
1, (c9 )10 = 1, then c, c3 , c7 , c9 generate C.
(c) If g generates G and has order n, then g k generates G if gcd(k, n) =
1.
(17) Let a, b ∈ G. Then a2 = b2 = 1 → a = a−1 , b = b−1 . Furthermore,
(ab)2 = 1 → ab = (ab)−1 . Then
a = a−1 , b = b−1 → ab = a−1 b−1 = (ba)−1 = ba
(18) (a) Let A be an elementary matrix of the second kind whose operation
is interchanging rows i and j. Ie.
1
..
.
0 1
A=
..
.
1 0
. ..
1
Let
1
..
.
1
E1 =
...
−1
..
.
1
1
..
.
1
E2 = ..
.
−1 1
...
1
5
1
..
.
1 1
E3 =
. ..
1
...
1
Ie. E1 scales row j by -1, E2 sets row j equal to row j minus row i,
and E3 sets row i equal to row i plus row j. Then A = E1 E2 E3 E2 .
So, we can write an elementary matrix of the second kind as a
product of elementary matrices of the first and third kinds. So
then we can generate any invertible matrix with elementary ma-
trices of the first and third kinds.
(b) Clearly, SLn (R) ⊆ GLn (R). Let A, B ∈ SLn (R). Since det(AB) =
det(A) det(B) = 1, then AB ∈ SLn (R). Since In ∈ SLn (R), and
det(A−1 ) = det(A)−1 = 1, then A−1 ∈ SLn (R). Thus, SLn (R) is
a subgroup of GLn (R).
(c) Consider the 2 × 2 matrix
a b
A=
c d
6
Suppose for all X ∈ SLn−1 (R) we can write X as a product of
elementary matrices of the first kind. Now consider an n × n
matrix B. Suppose b21 = ... = bn1 = 0. Then b11 ̸= 0 (otherwise
det B = 0). The following operations set b11 = 1 while keeping
b21 = ... = bn1 = 0:
1 1 1
1 (1 − b1 )/b1 1
. .
. . . .
1 1
Suppose now that b11 = 0. Then for some bi1 , bi1 ̸= 0. Then the
following operation sets b11 = 1:
1 1/bi1
...
1
...
1
1
After applying the above operations, now b11 = 1 and b21 =
... = bn1 = 0. Consider the submatrix B11 . Since 1 = det B =
b11 det B11 , then det B11 = 1, since B11 ∈ SLn−1 (R). By the in-
ductive hypothesis, there exists a series of type 1 matrices such
that B11 can be reduced to the identity. So, B can be reduced
to an upper triangular matrix B ′ with 1s as its diagonal entries.
Now we can apply type one operations to clear the entries above
the diagonal, so that B ′ is row reduced to the identity. Since
for elementary matrices of the first kind E1 , ..., Ep exist such that
7
E1 ...Ep B = I, then B = Ep−1 ...E1−1 is a product of elementary
matrices of the first kind. Thus elementary matrices of the first
kind generate SLn (R).
(19)
1 1 1
1 1 1
, ,
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1
, 1
, 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
, ,
1 1 1
1 1 1
There are 9 elements with order 2 in S4 .
8
(21) From the previous exercise, then if a, b ∈ G, where G is an abelian
group and a, b have finite order, then ab also has finite order. Let H be
the subset of G whose elements have finite order. Clearly, e ∈ H, where
e is the identity. And, for a ∈ H, where |a| = n, then a−1 = an−1 . So,
H is a subgroup of G.
(22) Let a = pa11 ...pann , b = pb11 ...pbnn , where p1 ...pn are primes and a1 , ..., an , b1 , ..., bn ≥
0. Such product of primes is unique by the Fundamental Theorem
of Arithmetic. Let g be the greatest common divisor of a and b.
Since g divides a and g divides b, then g = pc11 ...pcnn , where for all
i, ci ≥ 0, ci ≤ ai , ci ≤ bi . Suppose some integer h also divides a and
b. Then h = pd11 ...pdnn . Then g also divides h. So for all i, ci ≥ di ,
ie. ci is the largest integer such that ci ≤ ai and ci ≤ bi . Thus,
min(a ,b ) min(a ,b )
g = p1 1 1 ...pn n n .