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Structures for designers 4: elementary structural lessons

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 Lecture and seminar talks as part of BDS 202
Structures (Second Year, Second Semester),
School of the Arts and Design (SAD), University
of Nairobi (UON).

Structures for designers 4:

elementary structural lessons
Held in SAD Studio, FADD Building (University of
Nairobi) at various times during the period October
2008 to 2015 by Yusuf Ebrahim

1
 Lesson 4 (elementary structural lessons): layout
Slides for lesson 4 include the following:
1. Course outline;
2. Design course electives;
3. General layout of complete units;
4. Defining the constituent elements;
5. Background information;
6. Shell structures; modern shell structures;
7. Compression and mosque structures; structures and utility;
8. Tensile structures; geodesic dome; tall structures;
9. Structure and fabric of building; types of forces; steel sections and sheets;
10. Structural attitude and conditions;
11. Structural material use;
12. Nature of structures;
13. Conclusion and recommendations;
14. Reference list.

2
 Course content and objectives of the course
Course content: BDS 202 Structures (Second Year, Second Semester)
The structure – economy (product, shelter, etc.), components and assemblies;
forces, deformation and failures; forces transfer in simple assemblies; tension and
compression; linear and place members – joints; elasticity reactions; simple
moments; centre of gravity, moment of inertia, radius of gyration; structures in
nature; man made structures, structures in design and production, the development
and exploration of structures; the formation and furniture; modern technological
structure, furniture etc.; information on joints, stress factors on different types of
joints used for different structures; practical application of some of the information
obtained; element function and structure function integration, assembly sequences,
services and engineering technology; problems of interdependence and integration
in structures.
Objectives of the research
The main objective of this study was to establish the influence of structures on
designers. It was therefore necessary to undertake the following tasks:
1. To identify structures variables on designers in the Kenyan context;
2. To determine the influence of the significant structures variables in contribution
on the designers; and
3. To develop design and planning strategies in view of sustainable structures in a
design environment.

3
 Design course electives
Structures for designers:
1. Elective 1: Graphic design (advertising, photography, packaging and corporate
identity) (Graphic: of writing, drawing, painting, etching, etc. (graphic arts); vividly
descriptive - Allen Ed. 1985, p.321) (Graphics: products of graphic arts; use of
diagrams in calculation and design – Allen Ed. 1985, p.321);
2. Elective 2: Illustration (book illustration, scientific illustration, print techniques
and painting) (Illustrate: provide (book, newspaper, etc.) with pictures; make
clear especially by examples or drawings; serve as example of – Allen Ed. 1985,
p.364) (Illustration: illustrating; picture or drawing in book etc.; explanatory
example – Allen Ed. 1985, p.364);
3. Elective 3: Industrial design (ceramics, glass, plastics; jewelry; leatherwork;
and sculpture) (Industrial: of or engaged in or for use in or serving the needs of
industries; of nation etc. having highly developed industries) (Industry: branch of
trade or manufacture; trade or manufacture collectively; organized activity;
diligence – Allen Ed. 1985, p.375);
4. Elective 4: Textile design (printed textiles, spinning and weaving, fashion
design and fabric crafts) (Textile: woven material; of weaving (textile industry);
woven (textile fabrics) – Allen Ed. 1985, p.778); and
5. Elective 5: Interior design (exhibition and display, interior architecture,
landscaping and furniture) (Interior: inner part, inside; inside of room etc. (interior
decoration); picture of this – Allen Ed. 1985, p.384).

4
 General layout of complete units
General layout of complete units (Topics/chapter, Content, Period)
Lesson 1: Structural forces and moments (generally - Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326979612):
1. Section 1.1: Introduction (The structure, economy (product, shelter, etc.), components and
assemblies);
2. Section 1.2: Forces, deformation and failures; and
3. Section 1.3: Simple assemblies, tension and compression (Forces transfer in simple assemblies,
tension and compression.
Lesson 2: Structural joints, elasticity and moments (furniture design - Visit:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327183447):
1. Section 2.1: Joints, linear and place members (Linear and place members – joints);
2. Section 2.2: Elasticity reactions;
3. Section 2.3: Simple moments; and
4. Section 2.4: Gravity and rotation (Centre of gravity, moment of inertia, radius of gyration).
Lesson 3: Structural designs, natural and man-made (specialized elements -
Visit: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/327212033):
1. Section 3.1: Design without designers (Structures in nature); and
2. Section 3.2: Design with designers (Man-made structures, structures in design and production, the
development and exploration of structures.
Lesson 4: Elementary structural lessons;

5
 General layout of complete units: cont.
General layout of complete units (Topics/chapter, Content, Period): Cont.
Lesson 5: Structural digital technology (technological development – modern
technological structure, furniture etc.) (specific concerns);
Lesson 6: Structural joints (joints; structural developments; information on joints;
stress factors on different types used for different structures) (case studies);
Lesson 7: Practical structures and technology (applications):
1. Section 7.1: Practical application of some of the lesson learned; and
2. Section 7.2: Structures and functions (Element function and structure function integration,
assembly sequences, services and engineering technology).
Lesson 8: Futuristic structures, research and projects (conclusions and
recommendations; problems of independence and integration in structure)
(projects);

6
 General layout of complete units: cont.
General layout of complete units (Topics/chapter, Content, Period): Cont.
Lecture 9: Structural design projects (perfumes and bulbs):
1. Section 9.1: Design elective projects;
2. Section 9.2: Origami structures (transfer motion structures, membrane
structures, fabrics structures, mushroom structures and structural exercises
(Mehraz Ehsani);
3. Section 9.3: Graphics design – Group 1 (advertisement: virtual reality) and
Group 2 (calligraphy);
4. Section 9.4: Illustration – Group 1 (Play Station 3 games) and Group 2 (TV
documentaries);
5. Section 9.5: Industrial design – Group 1 (perfumes) and Group 2 (music,
food and drinks);
6. Section 9.6: Textile design – Group 1 (fabrics) and Group 2 (ladies shoes);
7. Section 9.7: Interior design – Group 1 (furniture design: chair) and Group 2
(space exploration);
8. Section 9.8: Packaging technologies and structures; and
9. Section 9.9: Digital CAD technology.

7
 General layout of complete units: cont.
General layout of complete units (Topics/chapter, Content, Period): Cont.
Lecture 10: Structural design manual 1 (structural clarity and forms); and
Lecture 11: Structural design manual 2 (summations):
1. Section 11.1: Design at various levels;
2. Section 11.2: Basic stages of design (inception stage; outline proposal stage;
detail design stage; pre-construction stage; construction and final account);
3. Section 11.3: Consolidated project (graphics design project; illustration project;
industrial design project (shoes design); textile design project (fabrics design);
interior design project (performing stage and awards design));
4. Section 11.4: Lessons from Ebrahim Consultants endeavors;
5. Section 11.5: Lessons from Yusuf Ebrahim Heritage;
6. Section 11.6: Lessons from DMJ Architects legacy;
7. Section 11.7: Lessons from Genesis of Nairobi;
8. Section 11.8: Lessons from traditional structures;
9. Section 11.9: Tensile structures exercise; and
10. Section 11.10: Joints.

8
 Defining the constituent elements
i. Enclosure: act of enclosing; enclosed space or area (enclose: shut in on all
sides, surround with wall or fence etc.) (Allen Ed. 1985, p.241).
ii. Envelop: wrap up; surround, cover on all sides (Allen Ed. 1985, p.245).
iii. Fabric: woven etc. material; walls, floor, and roof of building; structure; thing put
together (Allen Ed. 1985, p.262).
iv. Form: shape, arrangement of parts, visible aspect; mode in which thing exists
or manifests itself; person or animal as visible or tangible; take shape, come into
existence (Allen Ed. 1985, p.290).
v. Friction: rubbing of one-object against another; resistance object encounters in
moving over another (Allen Ed. 1985, p.296).
vi. Geodesic dome: half-spherical space-frame made of linked lightweight
elements arranged in hexagonal figures. It was evolved by Buckminster Fuller
(Curl, 2006, p.310).
vii. Pagoda: European term for a tall structure, often polygonal plan, of several
separately roofed stories marked by upturned eaves, fretwork brackets, and,
often, ornaments resembling bells (campanulae) suspended from the eaves.
Based on Chinese temple-towers, pagodas were used as garden-buildings in
the C18 Chinoiserie manner (e.g. Chamber's Pagoda at Kew Gardens, London)
(Curl, 2006, p.549).

9
 Defining the constituent elements: cont. 1
i. Partition: division into parts; such part; structure separating two such parts, thin
wall; separate part of room etc. with partition (Allen Ed. 1985, p.535).
ii. Pier: support of arch or a span of bridge, pillar; solid masonry between window
etc. (Allen Ed. 1985, p.556).
iii. Shape: external form or appearance, total effect produced by thing’s outlines;
definite or proper arrangement; person or thing as seen, especially indistinctly
seen or imagined (Allen Ed. 1985, p.688).
iv. Shear: force that can break, e.g., a beam near its point of support, if that force
is greater than the strength of a beam. The effect is similar to that of, e.g., a pair
of scissors on hair, i.e. the force acts transversely to the axis of a structural
member. If a beam is composed of several horizontal layers will slide
horizontally over each other. Shearing is therefore a cutting or sliding process
(Curl, 2006, p.711).
v. Skeleton: hard framework of bones of animal or thing; supporting framework or
structure of thing; remaining part of something after life or usefulness is gone;
outline sketch, epitome; attribute having only the minimum number of persons
or parts etc. (Allen Ed. 1985, p.702).
vi. Skin: flexible continuous covering of human or animal body; outer layer or
covering; ship’s planking or plating; cover or become covered as with skin (Allen
Ed. 1985, p.703). The role of the building skin is shifting from a barrier to the
environment to being an integral part of the servicing strategy (Littlefield Ed.
2008, p.12-7).

10
 Defining the constituent elements: cont. 2
i. Sound insulation: sound can be defined as vibrations of air which are
registered by the human ear. All sounds are produced by a vibrating object
which causes tiny particles of air around it to move in unison. These displaced
air particles collide with adjacent air particles setting them in motion and in
unison with the vibrating object. This continuous chain reaction creates a sound
wave which travels through the air until at some distance the air particle
movement is so small that it is inaudible to the human ear. Sounds are defined
as either impact or airborne sound, the definition being determined by the
source producing the sound. Impact sounds are created when the fabric of
structure is vibrated by direct contact whereas airborne sound only sets the
structural fabric vibrating in unison when the emitted sound wave reaches the
enclosing structural fabric. The vibrations set up by the structural fabric
therefore transmit the sound to adjacent rooms which can cause annoyance,
disturbance of sleep and of the ability to hold a normal conservation. The
objective of sound insulation is to reduce transmitted sound to an acceptable
level, the intensity of which is measured in units of decibels (dB) (Chudley &
Greeno, 2011, p.679).
ii. Space: continuous expanse in which things exist and move; amount of this
taken by a particular thing or available for particular purpose (Allen Ed. 1985,
p.703).
iii. Terrace: embankment or prepared and levelled mass of earth in e.g. a garden;
any artificial or built level platform for promenading, with a vertical or sloping
front or sides faced with masonry, turf, etc., and sometimes having a balustrade,
often adjacent to a country-house; one of several platforms, as on a hillside or in
a stadium, furnished with seats (Curl, 2006, p.769).
11
 Background information
o Functional use of materials: in the earliest
civilizations, building form was dictated by the
techniques of binding, knotting, tying, plaiting and
weaving. Today, in the buildings of other periods, we
study not so much the result as the origin of the art.
Each style arrives at its ‘external form’, its true
culmination, after which it is developed and refined.
We still strive after a true expression with our use of
concrete, steel and glass; in which the need for
extensive window areas determines and expresses
the structure (Neufert & Neufert, 2000, p.36). Fig. 4.1: Moulded external
o Genius loci: Latin term meaning ‘the genius of the surface of seashell.
place’, referring to the presiding deity of spirit. Every Source: Survey (2008).
place has its own unique qualities, not only in terms
of its physical makeup, but of how it is perceived, so
it ought to be (but far too often is not) the
responsibilities of the architect or landscape-
designer to be sensitive to those unique qualities, to
enhance them rather than to destroy them (Curl,
2006, p.310).
o Protection orders for trees and structures: trees
are part of our national heritage and are also the
source of timber; structures and buildings which are
considered to be of historic or architectural interest Fig. 4.2: Smooth internal
can be protected under the planning acts provisions surface of seashell.
(Chudley & Greeno, 2011, p.123). 12
Source: Survey (2008).
 Shell structures
o Shell: hard outer case of nut-kernel, egg, seed,
fruit, or animal such as crab or snail or tortoise;
framework or case for something; walls or
framework of unfinished or gutted building, ship
etc. (Allen Ed. 1985, p.689). Notice how the
external surface is moulded and repellant (Fig.
4.3), while the internal surface is smooth and
inviting (Fig. 4.4).
o Egg experiment: Try pressing an egg on either
the longer or shorter side to decide on which is
stronger? Fig. 4.3: Moulded external surface
o Concrete shell structure: evolved from work by of seashell.
Candela (1910 – 97: Curl, 2006, p.146), Source: Survey (2008).
Freyssinet, Maillart (1872 – 1940: Curl, 2006,
p.468), Nervi, Nowicki (1910 – 50: Curl, 2006,
p.531), Saarinen (1910 – 61: Curl, 2006, p.672),
and Torroja (1899 – 1961), and derived from the
exemplar of an eggshell. The stressed skin or
shell operates with the frame to form a strong
structural system (Curl, 2006, p.711).
o Defensive architecture: military architecture,
e.g. castles, city walls, and fortifications.
Architecture that looks inwards, away from the
hostile urban environment, such as a Greek or Fig. 4.4: Smooth internal surface
Roman house in Antiquity, or some of the works of seashell.
13
of Japanese architects (Curl, 2006, p.229). Source: Survey (2008).
 Modern shell structures
Orly Airship Hangers (Fig. 4.5): these
imposing structures were destroyed by Allied
bombing in 1944. The memory they have left
in the minds of architects and engineers has
been indestructible. Eugéne Freyssinet
(1879 – 1962: Curl, 2006, p.295) was not just
a great engineer but one of the first poets of
concrete. A pioneer of pre-stressed concrete
and a designer of great intuition. The airship
hangers at Orly were 175 metres long, 91 Fig. 4.5: Orly (Paris, France) Airship
metres wide and 60 metres high. They were
constructed from parabolic arches, the Hangers by Eugéne Freyssinet.
concrete as thin as 9 cm where possible Source: Extracted from Glancey (2000).
(Glancey, 2000).
Orbetello Airship Hangers (Fig. 4.6): Piero
Luigi Nervi (1891 – 1979: Curl, 2006, p.522)
designed and built a sequence of a dozen or
so magnificent and revolutionary aircraft
hangers in pre-cast concrete. Here was proof,
sad in a way, that sabre-rattling and war itself
can stimulate some of the most inventive and
beautiful design and engineering. A cat’s
cradle of a roof, a latticework of pre-stressed Fig. 4.6: Orbetello (Tuscany, Italy) Aircraft
concrete members, or bones, was supported
on six delicately curving concrete buttresses Hanger by Piero Luigi Nervi.
(Glancey, 2000). Source: Extracted from Glancey (2000).
14
 Structure and fabric of a building
o Compression members: if the stress a
member tends to shorten it, it is in
compression. Elements are called struts,
columns, piers or stanchions. The term
used depends on their location and the
material of which they are made. Most
materials other than cables, wires and
chains can be used to carry compression
(Littlefield Ed. 2008, p.36-5) – e.g. early
churches (Curl, 2006, p.174).
o Tension members: if the stress in a
member tends to lengthen it, it is said to be
in tension. Elements in tension are called
ties. In many ways, this is the simplest kind
of stress. Some materials, steel members
in particular are ideal for resisting it.
Cables, wires and chains can be used to
carry tension (Littlefield Ed. 2008, p.36-5).
Ironically Antonio Gaudi (1852 – 1926)
used tension principles to design of the
Sagrada Familia (Curl, 2006, p.308).
o Building fabric: designers strive to
express form and define space using Fig. 4.7: Structure and fabric of a
elements of structure and services; skin, building.
enclosure and partition (Fig. 4.7) – e.g. Source: Author (2008).
Louis Kahn (1901 – 74: Curl, 2006, p.409). 15
 Compression structures
The Great Pyramid of Giza (also known
as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of
Cheops) is the oldest and largest of the
three pyramids in the Giza pyramid
complex bordering what is now El Giza,
Egypt. Based on a mark in an interior
chamber naming the work gang and a
reference to the fourth dynasty Egyptian
Pharaoh Khufu, Egyptologists believe that
the pyramid was built as a tomb over a 10
to 20 year period concluding around 2560
BC. Initially at 146.5 metres, the Great
Pyramid was the tallest man-made
structure in the world for more than 3,800
years (Fig. 4.8). Originally, the Great
Pyramid was covered by limestone casing
stones that formed a smooth outer surface;
what is seen today is the underlying core
structure. Some of the casing stones that
once covered the structure can still be
seen around the base. There have been
varying scientific and alternative theories
about the Great Pyramid’s construction
techniques. Most accepted construction Fig. 4.8: Timeline and map of the Great
hypotheses are based on the idea that it Pyramid of Giza and the other wonders of the
was built by moving huge stones from ancient world.
quarry and dragging and lifting them into 16
place (Wikipedia, 2018). Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018).
 Mosque structures
Mosque (Fig. 4.9): Muslim house of prayer
oriented towards Mecca. There are two
distinct types: the masjid for daily prayers, and
the Great or Friday mosque (masjid al-jami)
for communal worship and addresses given
by the imam from a mimbar (Fig.4.10). Very
large congregational mosques may be of the
hypostyle type (i.e. with many columns); the
four iwan type, with one vaulted hall as the
entrance leading to a large court in the centre
of each side of which is an iwan; and domed Fig. 4.9: Exterior of Riadha Mosque in
mosques, culminating in the centrally-planned
mosques with domes or half-domes covering Mambrui.
large uncluttered spaces. From C8 mosques Source: Survey (2008).
acquired at least one minaret, and most
modern mosques usually have minarets and
domes (Curl, 2006, p.507).
Mambrui: is a settlement in Kenya’s Coast
Province, located east of Marikebuni along the
Malindi-Garissa Road, south of Gongoni and
north of Malindi. Research work by Kenyan
and Chinese archaeologists, may end up
confirming that the date of the first
international trade with East Africa is decades
before the arrival of Vasco Da Gama, most Fig. 4.10: Interior of Riadha Mosque in
likely during the expeditions of Zheng He Mambrui.
(Wikipedia, 2018d). Source: Survey (2008).
17
 Structures and utility

Fig. 4.11: Spire of Riadha Mosque (Mambrui). Fig. 4.12: Earthen pot for drinking water
Source: Survey (2008). (Riadha Mosque, Mambrui).
Source: Survey (2008). 18
 Tensile structures
A tensile structure is a construction of
elements carrying only tension and no
compression or bending. The term tensile
should not be confused with tensegrity, which is
a structural form with both tension and
compression elements. Tensile structures are
the most common type of thin-shell structures.
Most tensile structures are supported by some
form of compression or bending elements, such
as mast, compression rings or beams. A tensile
membrane structure is most often used as a
roof, as they can economically and attractively
span large distances. The Olympiastadion in
Munich makes extensive use of tensile roofing
structures (Fig. 4.13). This form of construction
has only become more rigorously analyzed and
widespread in large structures in the latter part
of the twentieth century. Tensile structures have
long been used in tents, where the guy ropes
and tent poles provide pre-tension to the fabric
and allow it to withstand loads. Since the 1960s,
tensile structures have been promoted by
designers and engineers such as Ove Arup, Fig. 4.13: Roof tensile structures
Buro Happold, Walter Bird of Birdair Inc., Frei
Otto (Carl, 2006, pp.544 – 545), Mahmoud (Olympia Park, Munich) by Frei Otto.
Bodo Rasch, Eero Saarinen, Horst Berger etc. Source: Extracted from Wikipedia
(Wikipedia, 2018a). (2018a). 19
 Geodesic dome
A geodesic dome is a hemispherical thin-
shell structure (lattice-shell) based on a
geodesic polyhedron. The triangular elements
of the dome are structurally rigid and
distribute the structural stress throughout the
structure, making geodesic domes able to
withstand very heavy loads for their size.
Although Buckminster Fuller (Curl, 2006,
p.298) was not the original inventor, he is
credited with the U.S. popularization of the Fig. 4.14: Montreal Biosphere (Montreal,
idea for which he received a U.S. patent on
29th June 1954. The geodesic dome appealed Quebec) by Buckminster Fuller, R.
to Fuller because it was extremely strong for Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018b).
its weight, its ‘Omni triangulated’ surface
provided an inherently stable structure, and
because a sphere encloses the greatest
volume for the least surface area. A dome is
from Expo 67 at the Montreal World’s Fair
(Fig. 4.14), where it was part of the American
Pavilion; and the Climatron Greenhouse (Fig.
4.15). Domes come in a variety of materials:
wooden; panelized timber frames; temporary
stapled plastic sheeting; steel framework; Fig. 4.15: Climatron Greenhouse (Missouri
lightweight aluminium; concrete and foam-
plastic, etc. (Wikipedia, 2018b). Botanical Gardens) by Thomas C. Howard
(Synergetics Inc.).
Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018b).
20
 Tall structures
The Taipei 101 (101 story) (Fig. 4.16 -
Architect: C.Y. Lee & Partners), is a landmark
supertall skyscraper in Xinyi District, Taipei
(Taiwan). The building was officially classified
as the world’s tallest in 2004, and remained
such until the completion of the Burj Khalifa in
Dubai in 2010. In 2011, the building was
awarded the LEED platinum certification, the
highest award according to the Leadership in
Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
rating system, and became the tallest and
largest green building in the world. The Fig. 4.16: Taipei 101 in the skyline.
building was architecturally created as a
symbol of the evolution of technology and Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018c).
Asian tradition. Its postmodernist approach to
style incorporates traditional design elements
and gives them modern treatments. The tower
is designed to withstand typhoons and
earthquakes. Upon its completion, Taipei 101
was the tallest inhabited building at 509.2 m
as measured to its height architectural top
(spire), exceeding the Petronas Towers, which
were previously the tallest inhabited
skyscraper at 451.9 m (Fig. 4.17) (Wikipedia, Fig. 4.17: Taipei 101, fourth from left,
2018c). compared with other tallest buildings in
Asia.
Source: Extracted from Wikipedia (2018c).
21
 Types of forces
o Beams: can be categorized (Fig. 4.18)
as follows:
o Simply supported (point, multiple, and
uniformly distributed loads);
o Cantilever;
o Encastré or fixed end;
o Continuous; and
o Lintols (Littlefield Ed. 2008, p.36-6).
o Wind loads: window speed is
measured in m/s or sometimes in
knots where 1 knot equals 0.4 m/s.
Wind direction is usually measured at
eight points of the compass or, when
required in more detail, in degrees
clockwise from south. The wind speed
and direction can be represented by a
wind rose, which indicates the relative
frequency and speed of wind from
different directions. Wind speed
increases with height due to the
frictional drag of the ground. The
profile of variation with height is called
the boundary layer, and it vary from
town to open country locations Fig. 4.18: Types of forces.
(Littlefield Ed. 2008, p.39-12). Source: Author (2008).
22
 Steel sections and sheets
o Structural steelwork and other
metals: steel is by far the metal most
widely used for building structures, but
other materials are used in ancillary
elements; and come in array of cross-
sections (Fig. 4.19) including but not
limited to the following: angles;
rectangular hollow sections (RHS); I-
sections (universal beams, joists,
universal columns); U-channels
(parallel flange channels), plates; etc.
(Littlefield Ed. 2008, pp.36-20 – 36-
44).
o Sheet coverings: comes in array of
materials (metal, fibre, aluminium,
plastics (UPVC), glass (toughened,
laminated, tinted, etc.), etc.); profiles;
finishes (painted in-situ, pre-painted,
galvanized, anodized, natural etc.) –
(Fig. 4.19: Sheets) (Chudley &
Greeno, 2011, pp.564 - 571).

Fig. 4.19: Steel sections and sheets.

Source: Author (2008).
23
 Structural attitude
o Attitude to slope: structures on a
sloping site use the cut and fill method
(e.g. terracing), while those on a flat
site use the raised platform method
(e.g. pagoda) (Fig. 4.20: Site attitude).
o Reinforced concrete: is one of the
most prolific and versatile structural
materials available to the designer. It is
composed of two distinct materials:
concrete (aggregate, cement and
water) and reinforcement, each of
which can be varied in strength,
disposition and quantity to fulfil almost
any requirement (Littlefield Ed. 2008,
pp.36-16 – 36-20) (Fig. 4.20: column,
beam/slabs).
o Foundations: the function of any
foundation (Fig. 4.20: Anchors) is to
safely sustain and transmit to the
ground on which it rests the combined
dead, imposed and wind loads in such
a manner as not to cause any
settlement or other movement which
impair the stability or cause damage to Fig. 4.20: Structural concrete use.
any part of the building (Chudley & Source: Author (2008).
Greeno, 2011, pp.206 - 227). 24
 Special structural conditions
o Floating floors: are used to sound insulate
against vibrating equipment. Disconnected
edges are used to stop franking sound
transfers (Chudley & Greeno, 2011 – Floating
floor: p.651, pp.683 – 4; Sound insulation
floors: pp.679 – 80, pp.683 – 4; Suspended
concrete ground floors: p.352, pp.650 – 1)
(Fig. 4.21: Floating floors and disconnected
edges).
o Expansion joints: the main joints are
classified as expansion, contraction or
longitudinal, and construction joints .
Expansion joints are usually incorporated in
structures at 30 m intervals (Chudley &
Greeno, 2011, p.135, p.273, p.581, pp.594 –
5, p.610, pp.612 – 13, p.624, p.652) (Fig.
4.21: Expansion joints).
o Stairs: a variety of stair types and
arrangements are possible each having its
own appearance and design characteristics,
and to meet building standards (Insitu RC:
Chudley & Greeno, 2011, pp.696 – 700) (Fig.
4.21: Stairs). Fig. 4.21: Special structural
conditions.
Source: Author (2008).
25
 Structural material use
o Shear walls and piers: the main function of an
attached pier (a shear wall is a longer version
of a pier) is to give lateral support to the wall of
which it forms part from the base to the top of
the wall. It also has the subsidiary function of
dividing a wall into distinct lengths whereby
each lengths whereby each length can be
considered as a wall (Chudley & Greeno, 2011,
p.329) (Fig. 4.22: Shear wall and piers).
o Lift shafts: multistorey structures contain the
means of vertical circulation in the form of
stairs and lifts occupying up to 20% of the floor
area. These means of circulation can be used
to provide a degree of restraint to sway due to
lateral wind pressures (Chudley & Greeno,
2011, pp.560 – 561) (Fig. 4.22: Lift shafts).
o Structural holes: if you assume that the outer
crust of a column take the structural forces,
than the centre core can be removed without
weakening the column (Fig. 4.22: Structural
holes).
o Brick dimensions (Chudley & Greeno, 2011,
pp.333 – 366). Fig. 4.22: Structural material use.
o Roof thermal insulation (Littlefield Ed. 2008, Source: Author (2008).
pp.39-15 – 39-18). 26
 Nature of structures
o Principle of gyration: involves the
movement in a circle or spiral; whereby the
rotating wheel whose axis is free to turn but
maintain fixed direction unless perturbed
especially for stability (Allen Ed. 1985,
p.330).
o Centre of objects: the structural
consideration of properties of sections, looks
at the section shape; area of section;
distance of extremity of section from neutral
axis; moment of inertia about neutral axis;
modulus; and radius of gyration (Littlefield
Ed. 2008, pp.36-11 – 36-12).
o Umbrella and bicycle observation: both
the principle of gyration, centre of objects
(i.e. a circle), and that of converting the
forces of compression into tension, so much
so, that all the spoke (any of the bars or rods
running from the hub to rim of wheel: Allen
Ed. 1985, p.726) only take tension (Fig.
4.23). The umbrella (light portable devise for
protection against weather, consisting of
collapsible usually circular canopy of cloth
mounted on central stick: Allen Ed. 1985, Fig. 4.23: Shapes and structures.
p.818) works on a similar principle. Source: Author (2008).
27
 Conclusion and recommendations
Elementary structural lessons (structures for designers 4) concludes the following:
i. Since structural form is related to methods of construction, prevailing structural
style and expression; there is a need to develop a conceptual framework on
how appropriate linkage should be created by practitioners, researchers and the
trainers of educational institutions.
ii. Secondly, as every place has its own unique quality, not only in terms of its
physical makeup, but of how it is perceived; architects or designers need to be
sensitive to those unique qualities, to enhance them rather than to destroy
them; information technology must be harnessed in the training methods of
designers of structures.
iii. Thirdly, as trees are part of our national heritage and are also the source of
timber, and as structures and buildings which are considered to be historic or of
architectural interest, these need to be protected using the planning acts
provisions.
iv. In addition, there are lessons to be learned from structural forces and attitudes
(compression, tensile); contextual; cultural or religious (mosque); materials
(fabric, sections and sheets); and specialized (geodesic domes, tall). There is
need to restructure the university libraries to be in tandem with the new concept
of information system where the libraries becomes the hub for interaction with
the users wherever they are by use of the internet, intranet and digital
depositories.

28
 Reference list
Allen, R.E. (Ed.). (1985). The Oxford dictionary of current English. (7th ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Chudley, R. & Greeno, R. (2011). Building construction handbook. (8th ed.). Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Curl, J.S. (2006). Oxford dictionary of architecture and landscape architecture. (2nd
ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Glancey, J. (2000). 20th Century architecture: the structures that shaped the
twentieth century. London: Carlton Books Limited.
Littlefield, D. (Ed.). (2008). Metric handbook: planning and design data. (3rd ed.).
London: Architectural Press and Elsevier.
Neufert, E. & Neufert, P. (2000). Neufert Architects’ Data. (3rd ed.). Oxford:
Blackwell Science Ltd.
Wikipedia. (2018). Great Pyramid of Giza. Retrieved 25th August 2018; Visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza
Wikipedia. (2018a). Tensile structure. Retrieved 25th August 2018; Visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensile_structure
Wikipedia. (2018b). Geodesic dome. Retrieved 25th August 2018; Visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic_dome
Wikipedia. (2018c). Taipei 101. Retrieved 25th August 2018; Visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taipei_101
Wikipedia. (2018d). Mambrui. Retrieved 25th August 2018; Visit:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mambrui 29
 Thank you

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