Delving into the

Unknown

Flexible Learning Package for

ES 212 Engineering Mechanics

This is a gender-sensitive
instructional material.

DAISY R. DAMPAYLA, CE, MAT

Delving into the Unknown: Engineering Mechanics

by

Daisy R. Dampayla

and

Jose Rizal Memorial State University

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof

may not be reproduced or used in any manner whatsoever
without the express written permission of the author
except for the use of brief quotations in a book review.

Page and cover design: DRD

Editor:
ISBN

Published by:
JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
Gov. Guading Adasa St. Sta Cruz, Dapitan City, 7101
Tel. No. (065) 908-8294
jrmsu_univpres@yahoo.com
 Course Introduction

Engineering Mechanics is a course for the Bachelor of Science in Electrical

Engineering. With this course the learners will be provided with the basic techniques
necessary in determining forces of rigid bodies. This involves analyzing rigid structures which
are both at rest and in motion subjected to different types of loads. Activities were provided to
be able to measure the learners thinking ability and for them to acquire knowledge through
discovering better techniques aside from the presentations given. Thus, the learners are
expected to create a portfolio as their final output.
This course will utilize a flexible learning package which include course introduction,
course syllabus, learning guide, learning contract, summative assessments are included that
will provide insights to the students as to what the course is all about, the course requirements,
and what are the activities and assessments to be accomplished.
This learning package is distinct from other books because it has the following major
parts:
Course Introduction –It presents the vital information about the course.
Course Syllabus-This provides vital information on the course outcomes, learning
outcomes, activities, assessments, grading system and the course requirements.
Learning Guide- This provides significant information as to the students’ schedules
of submitting the output and the course requirements, feedback modality, communication
mechanism, and the contact information of the instructor/professor and other authorities of the
University/Campus.
Learning Contract- It is a document which contains the commitment of the learners
in accomplishing the activities which includes also the Data Privacy Act, plagiarism rules,
safety reminders, and parents’ support.
Summative Assessments- These are forms which include the summative
assessment plan, summative assessment instructions, and assessment rubrics.
Flexible Learning Module- This is the meat of the package that contains the front
contents, module content (learning outcomes, pretest, content, learning activities, and
assessments), and the back contents.
Moreover, a flexible learning module is also included. It is a material which presents
the different methods of analyzing plane and spatial structures. Structures subjected to static
and moving loads where given emphasis since they are of vital importance in achieving better
analyzes of structures.
With this learning package, the author hopes that the learner will be more efficient in
analyzing problems and be more than ready for their higher subjects.
 Contents

Page

Copyright iii

Course Introduction iv

Course Syllabus vi

Learning Guide x

Learning Agreement xiii

Summative Assessment xiv

Flexible Learning Module 1

References

Glossary

Rubrics

Answer Key

User’s Evaluation Form

About the Author

Learning Guide
The key to successfully finish this material lies in your perseverance to sincerely and
honestly perform the learning activities and accomplish the assessments. This flexible
learning package is developed with the aim to aid your learning for this course. Aside from
meeting the content and performance standards of this course in performing all the
learning activities and assessments, you will be able to learn the skills and values which
are needed in achieving the future skills and the graduate attributes to become globally
competitive individuals.

Classroom Rules and Conduct

The following are the house rules which will help you to be on track and successfully finish
this course:
1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every component of this
learning package.
2. Study on how you can manage to perform all the learning activities in consideration with
your resources and accessibility to technology. Do not ask questions that are already
answered in the guide.
3. If you did not understand the readings and the other tasks, read again. If there are still
clarifications and questions, feel free to reach me through the contact information indicated
in this guide.
4. Do not procrastinate. As much as possible, follow the time table.
5. Read and understand the assessment and technology tools as indicated in the
directions in every assessment or activity.
6. Before the end of the midterms, you will be tasked to send back the material trough the
pigeon boxes in your department. For online learners, you will submit your output and
other tasks in the google classroom. While waiting for my feedback of your accomplished
module, you may continue on accomplishing the tasks in the succeeding units that are
scheduled for the finals.
7. Most importantly, you are the learner; thus, you do all the tasks in your own. You may
ask assistance and guidance from your parents, siblings or friends, but all the activities
shall be performed by you alone.
8. Course requirements must be submitted as to schedule.
9. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Be aware that plagiarism in this course would include
not only using another’s words, but another’s specific intellectual posts in social media.
Assignments must be done independently and without reference to another student’s
work. Any outside sources used in completing an assignment, including internet
references must be fully cited on any homework assignment or exercise.
10. All students should feel free to talk to the instructor face-to-face or through media
during office hours.
11. Academic accommodations are available for students with special needs. Students
with special needs should schedule an appointment with the instructor early in the
semester to discuss any accommodations for this course.
Study Schedule
Week Unit Title Activities
August 24-28, 2020 0rientation Reading of Learning
Package
Sept. 1-4, 2020 Principles of Statics
Sept. 7-11, 2020 Resultants of Force Systems
Sept. 14-18, 2020 Analysis of Structures
Sept. 21-Oct.9, 2020 Friction, Forces in Space & Cables
Oct. 12-23, 2020 Centroids & Moments of Inertia Problem Solving
Oct. 26-Nov.6, 2020 Principles of Dynamics
Nov. 9-13, 2020 Translation
Nov. 16-20, 2020 Rotation
Nov.23-Dec.2 ,2020 Plane Motion
Dec.3-11, 2020 Work and Energy
Dec. 14-18, 2020 Impulse and Momentum
Dec. 21, 2020 Submission of Portfolio

Evaluation
To pass the course, you must observe the following:

1. Read the course module and answer the pretest, quizzes, self-assessment
activities.
2. Write your thoughts and suggestions in the comment boxes.
3. Perform all the learning activities.
4. Accomplish the assessments.
5. Submit the course requirements.
Technology Tools

In order to perform all the learning activities and accomplish the assessments, you will
need these software applications: word processing and presentation software. These are
applications that are available in your desktop or laptop that will not require internet
connection. All materials and activities that will involve reporting, interpretation, and
problem solving will be created using Microsoft word or any application alike, be saved in
the CD or flash drive. These materials will be submitted through the pigeon boxes. For
online learners, materials will be uploaded in google classroom.

Feedback Modality and Communication Mechanisms

Feedback system will be facilitated through text messaging. If you need to call, send me
a message first and wait for me to respond. Do not give my CP number to anybody. I will
not entertain messages or calls from numbers that are not registered. You may send your
clarifications and questions through the google classroom.

Grading Plan

The term grade is computed using the formula:

40% - Performance
30% - Major Requirements
30% - Formative Assessment
Midterm Grade = 100% of the Midterm Grade (if applicable)
Final Grade = 50% of the Midterm Grade + 50% of the Final Term Grade (if applicable)

Contact Information

Person/Office Email address CP number

Instructor daisydampayla@jrmsu.edu.ph 09293541257

IMDO main.imd@jrmsu.edu.ph 09399168104

FLS

CAS

DSAS

Library

DRMMO
 JOSE RIZAL MEMORIAL STATE UNIVERSITY
LEARNING AGREEMENT

By signing this learning agreement, I commit to the following terms and conditions of Jose
Rizal Memorial State University in the implementation of Flexible Learning System.
Specifically, I commit to observe the following:
1. That I must observe all guidelines of the state pertaining to the prevention of COVID,
specifically to stay home, to observe physical distancing and the use of face masks when
interacting with others.
2. That I shall prioritize my health and safety while I comply with all the necessary learning
activities and assessments needed in my enrolled courses.
3. That I will exhaust all means of complying the requirements at home or in a less risky
place and location that will not allow me to be exposed to other people.
4. That I have already read and understood all instructions pertaining to my enrolled
courses.
5. That I commit to do all the learning activities diligently, following deadlines and the
learning guide enabling me to deliver the course requirements.
6. That I commit to answer all forms of assessment in the learning package honestly.
7. That I shall initiate in giving feedback to my instructor at least once every two weeks.
8. That I shall not reproduce or publish any part of the learning package content without
the written consent of the University and the author/s.
9. That I shall not commit any form of plagiarism in all course requirements.
Conformed:

Name and signature of student Date signed

Name and signature of parent/guardian Date signed

Contact Number of Parent/Guardian

** Please email the signed copy of this learning agreement to your instructor as soon as
you have received the learning package.
Jose Rizal Memorial State Form No.
F16: Summative Assessment Plan

Background: This form aims to document the summative assessment strategies that
a teacher deems appropriate to the course being taught and its corresponding course
outcomes. Summative assessments are methods used to evaluate student learning,
skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional
period – typically at the end of a course or a semester. Summative assessments are
requirements across all courses in JRMSU. Please refer to the JRMSU Handbook on
Flexible Learning for the guidelines in designing summative assessments.

Course Title: Engineering Mechanics SY/ Sem: 2020-2021/ 1st Semester

Course Code: ES 212

No. Course Outcomes Title of Description Scoring/ Weight

Assessment Grading (%) in
Standard Final
Grade

Solve for the components Activities Exemplary 30%

1 required in each
and resultants of force, (4-5): 85%
moment, and motion unit will be Good
vectors solved and (2-3): 80%
compiled. The
Needs
compilation of
2
Compute the geometric the solved Improvemen
properties (centroids and Portfolio problems will be t
moments) of lines, areas, submitted before (0-1): 70%
and volumes. the final
examination
Analyze static and week
3
dynamic equilibrium of
particles and rigid bodies.

4
Analyze particles and
rigid bodies in motion
using energy and
momentum methods.
 Delving into the
Unknown

Flexible Learning Package for

ES 212 Engineering Mechanics

PART I - STATICS

This is a gender-sensitive
instructional material.

DAISY R. DAMPAYLA, CE, MAT

 PREFACE

Engineering Mechanics module endeavored to help students to understand the

fundamental concept of how forces and its components together with the principle of
moments be applied to practical situations encountered by engineers. Sample problems
were presented and explained thoroughly to bridge the gap between the theory and its
application to structures. It is hoped that this process will enable the students to develop
logical thinking and fully grasp the discussion and solution herein.

This module covers a detailed explanation of force systems and the importance of
drawing the free body diagrams were given emphasis. Of equal importance is the motion
of the center of gravity in the analysis of kinetics and creation of dynamic equilibrium in
the different types of movements of particles and bodies.

In addition, a more simple and direct way of solving kinematic and kinetic problems
on the three types of motion were presented through work-energy equation and impulse-
momentum relation. Examples with complete explanations were properly conveyed to
enable students to follow and understand the various steps of the solutions.

Furthermore, the author wished that the students will acquire the knowledge and
be equipped with greater techniques of solving problems needed in their design subjects.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to acknowledge her indebtedness to those persons who

generously offered valuable suggestions and brilliant advice in the making of this module.
To name a few,

Dr. Daylinda Luz-Reluya Laput, the University President, for her undying support
and consideration in doing this module;

The Vice President for Academic Affairs and IMD Director for their constant
encouragement and guidance;

Engr. Richie L. Lacaya, the Associate Dean of the College of Engineering, for his
constant encouragement;

Engr. Maricon Denber Gahisan, COE IMD Coordinator for unselfishly sharing her
knowledge and expertise;

The College of Engineering colleagues, the patience and assistance on her

computer works;

To her mother, sisters and their kids, only daughter, and her loving husband for
the undying care and unconditional love;

And most of all, to the Almighty Father, the very essence of her existence.

The Author
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

COVER PAGE 2

COPYRIGHT PAGE 3

PREFACE 13

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 14

MODULE: ENGINEERING MECHANICS

Unit 1 Principles of Statics

Unit 2 Resultants of Force Systems
Unit 3 Analysis of Structures
Unit 4 Friction, Forces in Space and Cables
Unit 5 Centroids and Moments of Inertia
Unit 6 Principles of Dynamics
Unit 7 Translation
Unit 8 Rotation
Unit 9 Plane Motion
Unit 10 Work and Energy
Unit 11 Impulse and Momentum

References
Rubric
Glossary
Answer Key
Engineering Mechanics

PART I: STATICS

UNIT 1

Principles of Statics

Engineering Mechanics is defined as the science that deals with the effects of
forces on rigid bodies. It is divided into statics and dynamics. Statics is concerned with
the forces and their effects on an object or body at rest. Various force systems will be
studied and how they are applied to structures. Dynamics, on the other hand, considers
the analysis of forces and torques and their effect on the motion of rigid bodies. It is divided
into kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics deals the motion of bodies if applied by forces.
While kinetics relates the motion to the applied forces. This unit will include the discussion
of resultants of force systems.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Determine the resultants of force systems.

Pretest:

What is the difference between pinned, fixed and roller supports? To answer,
indicate first the reactions of each support and label it correctly.

rrlm424iv
Content:

Force and Its characteristics

Force is something that causes a change in the state of motion of an object and
this is its external effect. If the force produces stress and deformation on the body where
it acts, then it is the internal effect of a force. Magnitude, position of its line of action, and
the direction in which the force acts on its line of action are the characteristics of a force.
Principle of transmissibility of a force means that the external effect of the force on a body
is the same for all points of application along its line of action. This indicates that the
external effect of a force is independent of its point of application contrary to its internal
effect which is dependent on its point of application.

Force Systems

The arrangement of two or more forces that act on any object or objects is called
a force system. Coplanar forces are forces whose lines of action lie in the same plane,
otherwise they are non-coplanar. If the lines of action of all the forces on a body intersect
through a common point, they are referred to as concurrent forces. Parallel force systems
have forces which are parallel. Non-concurrent force systems are composed of forces
which are neither parallel nor meet at a common point.

Free-Body Diagrams

FBD or free-body diagram is a graphical illustration showing all the applied

forces, moments and reactions acting on the body. Consider the example below.

Figure 1.1 Cylinder Supported by Bar CD and Ceiling A

 The FBD of the cylinder B above contains the force P AB along AB, weight of the
cylinder WB which is always vertical, and the normal force N directed up and perpendicular
to CD. On bar CD, the two reactions Cx and Cy on the hinge support are assumed directed
as shown, weight of bar WCD directed down as always, and the reaction on the floor Dy
assumed directed up.
Resultants of Force Systems and its Components

A resultant is the effect of a system of forces applied on a body and determines

the motion of the body. If the resultant is zero, then the body is in equilibrium and will
remain at rest otherwise if it is not zero, the body will move in the direction of the resultant
force.
Forces are not generally at right angles, so the easiest way is to resolve the force
into a pair of right-angle components, that is, along the x and y axes. The figure below
gives the components of the force F which is reckoned from different axes. If there are
several concurrent forces, then the resultant force is equal to: F =√(𝐹𝑥)2 + (𝐹𝑦)2 . If the
𝐹𝑦
inclination of F is needed, then use tan θ = . Consider Fy as positive upwards, Fx as
𝐹𝑥
positive rightwards, and negative for opposite directions.

4
Fx = F cos θ Fx = F sin θ Fx = F
5
3
Fy = F sin θ Fy = F cos θ Fy = F
5

Figure 1.2 Components of a Force

Principle of Moments: Varignon’s Theorem

Moment of a force about a point or an axis is the measure of its ability to create
twisting or rotating about the axis. Its magnitude is equal to the force multiplied by the
perpendicular distance from the force to the moment center or axis. Center of moment
is the axis of moment perpendicular to the plane of the forces and it appears to be a
point. Perpendicular distance d, also called the moment arm is measured from the
moment center O to the line of action of the force F. See the figure below.
 Figure 1.3 Moment of a Force F

Varignon’s Theorem states that the moment of a force is equivalent to the sum
of the moments of its components. For example if a force P is applied θ degrees from
the X axis as shown in the figure below, then the moment of P about point D is
ΣMD = dP = yPx - xPy or MD = Px • iy and MD = Py • ix
where ix and iy are the intercepts of the line of action of P with the X and Y axes. Consider
the figure below.

Figure 1.4 Principle of Moments

Example 1:

Compute the resultant of the concurrent forces shown below.

 2
ΣFx = 100√5 + 400sin600 -200cos45o -300sin60o
= 144.432 N
1
ΣFy = 100√5 + 300cos30o – 400cos60o -200sin45o
= - 36.892 N
R =√(144.432)2 + (−36.892)2 = 149.069 N

−𝛴𝐹𝑦
tan θ = , θ = 14.329o, 4th quadrant
𝛴𝐹𝑥

Example 2:

The resultant of the concurrent forces is 400 N down to the right inclined 60 o from
the horizontal. Solve for the values of forces θ and T directed as shown below.

ΣFx = Rcos60o:
Tcosθo + 240cos30o – 300 = 400cos60o
Tcosθ = 492.154

ΣFy = Rsin60o:
Tsinθo - 240sin30o = 400sin60o
Tsinθ = 466.410

𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 466.410
= , tan θ = 0.948, θ = 43.462o
𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 492.154

Then T = 678.056N
Example 3:

For the non-concurrent force system shown, determine the resultant and its x and
y intercepts.

Figure 1.5 Application of Principle of Moments

Consider left figure above: Consider right figure above:
2 2
ΣFx = 275( ) - 350sin300 - 400( )
√5 √13 Consider components at A:
= -150.9126N
3 1
ΣFy = 400( ) – 350cos30o - 275( ) ΣMo = MR = Fy(ix)
√13 √5
412.765 = 93.2725ix
= -93.2725N
ix = 4.425 cm left of O
R = √(𝛴𝐹𝑥)2 + (𝛴𝐹𝑦) 2 = 177.41N
tan θ =ΣFy / ΣFx, θ = 31.72o, 3rd quadrant Consider components at B:
3
ΣMo = 350 sin30o(2)+400( )(3)- ΣMo = MR = Fx(iy)
√13
2 2 412.765 = 150.9126iy
400( )(2)-275( )(2)
√13 √5 iy = 2.735 cm above O
= 412.765 N.cm

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
For the concurrent force system shown below, determine the values of S and T
needed to maintain equilibrium.

Problem 2:
For the step pulley shown, solve for the resultant of the non-concurrent forces
applied on it.
Problem 3:
Compute the resultant couple of the three-step pulley shown which is subjected to
the given couples. Then determine the forces acting at the rim of the outer pulley required
to balance the given system. (Note: Couple is made up of two equal, oppositely directed
forces and its magnitude is equal to the product of one of the forces multiplied by the
perpendicular distance between their lines of action. C = F • d)
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 2

Equilibrium of Force Systems

Equilibrium is the condition in which all the forces that act on a body are balanced
so that the body does not move. It is the condition of a system when neither its state of
motion nor its internal energy state tends to change with time. A mechanical body is said
to be in equilibrium if it experiences no acceleration unless disturbed by an outside force,
it will continue in that condition indefinitely. Discussion on how to determine and apply
conditions necessary to produce equilibrium for coplanar force systems will be the focus
of this unit.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Apply several methods to obtain equilibrium of force systems.

Pretest:

What is the difference between pinned, fixed and roller supports? To answer,
illustrate through figures and label reactions completely.

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Content:

Type of Beams and its Supports

A beam is a structural member used for bearing loads, and for resisting vertical
loads, shear forces and bending moments. It can be classified into three main criteria.
Based on geometry:
straight, curved, tapered
shape of cross section (I-beam, T-beam & C-beam)
Based on equilibrium conditions:

• statically determinate- equations of equilibrium are enough to solve reactions

• statically indeterminate- equations of equilibrium plus deflection equations

are needed to solve reactions

Based on type of support:

simply supported, cantilever, overhanging, continuous and fixed

Figure 2.1 Types of Beams

Support in a structure is a member that helps other members to resist loads. There
are different types of supports of structures like hinge, roller, fixed and others which are
given in the table below.

Hinge support is any support that prevents translation in x or y axis (hence the
reactions in x and y) but allows rotational motion. Roller support allows translation in one
axis (and the reaction is perpendicular to that axis) and rotational motion. Door hinges and
hinge supports for bridges are examples. Fixed support can resist vertical and horizontal
forces and produce a moment. It is called a rigid support since it restrain both rotation and
translation. Therefore, a structure only needs one fixed support in order to be stable.
 Figure 2.2 Simple Supports of Beam
(a) Pinned Support, (b) Roller Support, and (c) Rollers.

Figure 2.3 Hinged Support (Left) and Roller Support (Right)

Figure 2.4 Roller Support (Left) and Fixed Support (Right)

 Figure 2.5 Types of Supports and Their Reactions

Equilibrium of Concurrent Force Systems

When a force system acting on a body has a zero resultant, then it is in a state of
equilibrium. For concurrent force system, the conditions for equilibrium are ΣFx=0 and
ΣFy=0.The equations ΣMA=0 and ΣMB=0 are useful variations also of the first two
equations. The methods used for the solution of concurrent force systems are discussed
below and will be applied to the example to show which is efficient and rapid to use.
Example:
A FBD of joints 1 and 2 are shown below. Find the value of the unknown forces
applying three methods whichever is applicable. For joint 2, force D is equal to 300N.
Solution:
1. Using Horizontal and Vertical Axes:
This method uses the horizontal and vertical axes as reference axis and apply the
conditions of equilibrium: ΣFx=0 & ΣFy=0. Although more than two concurrent forces can
be applied at a joint but only two unknowns are allowed to correspond to the two equations
available for equilibrium.

Joint 1: ΣFx=0: -Asin50o+Bcos20o=0

ΣFy=0: Acos50o-Bsin20o=100
Solving simultaneously: A=274.737N
B=223.964N

2. Using Rotated Axis:

This is the recommended method since the X-axis can be chosen to coincide with
one unknown; ΣFy=0 will determine the other unknown, and ΣFx=0 will solve the first
unknown. Obviously, this method eliminates solving two equations simultaneously.
Joint 1 can also be applied with rotated axis but joint 2 is considered and the
solution is presented below. If the answer is positive, then the assumption of the direction
of the force is correct.

Joint 2:
ΣFy=0: Ccos30o= 300sin30o+200sin40o
C= 321.65 N
ΣFx=0: E+200c0s40o= 300cos30o+Csin30o
E= 267.42 N

3. Using Force Triangle:

If there are three concurrent forces at a joint, then apply sine law to the triangle
formed out of the forces. Tip-to-tail addition gives the closed polygon of forces since they
are in equilibrium. An important consideration is to have the correct interior angles to
obtain the correct answers.
 SINE LAW:
100 𝐴 𝐵
= =
𝑠𝑖𝑛20𝑜 sin 110𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛50𝑜

A = 274.748 N

B = 223.976 N

Equilibrium of Non-Concurrent Force Systems

The conditions for equilibrium for non-concurrent forces give three independent
equations from which only three unknown quantities will be determined. For the sets of
equations below, any one may be used depending on the type of problem given. If moment
equations will be used, select a moment center where two unknowns are found in order
to solve for the third unknown quantity directly. The line joining A and B must not be
perpendicular to the force summation axis, and A, B, and C must not lie on the same
straight line.
ΣFx = 0 ΣFx = 0 ΣMA = 0
ΣFy = 0 ΣMA = 0 ΣMB = 0
ΣM = 0 ΣMB = 0 ΣMC = 0

Example 1:

Assuming smooth contact surfaces, determine the reactions at A, B and C on the

drums, and between drums. Use the weights indicated and the radii of the cylinders.

Figure 2.6 Two Drums Subjected on Smooth Surfaces

Solution:
Consider the free-body diagrams of the two cylinders below.
 For drum A: For drum B:
cos b = 13/23, b = 55.58o ΣFx=0: RB = ABsinb=145.937N ←

ΣFy=0: 100=ABcosb, AB=176.911N C ΣFy=0: RC =200+ABcosb=300N↑

ΣFx=0: RA=ABsinb =145.937NC →

Example 2:
A counterweight C is used to prevent the crane weighing 25 tons from overturning
if it carries a load T=27 tons as it travels along a straight path. Solve for the value of the
counterweight C and its location to maintain equilibrium both if load T is applied and if it is
removed.

Solution:
If T is applied: If T is removed: ΣMA=0: Cx=6W
ΣMB=0: C(x+5) = 1W + 11T, 5C= -5W +11(27) From: Cx = 6W
Cx+5C = W + 11T, C= 34.4 tons, ans. 34.4x=6(25)
6W+5C = W + 11T x=4.36’, ans.

Figure 2.7 Crane with Counterweight and Applied Load

Example 3:
The rigid beam AB weighs 50N and carries a load P= 30N. It rests on two inclined
planes. Determine the value of an additional load D placed at x=1m from A for the beam
to remain horizontal.

Solution:
To eliminate solving two equations simultaneously, a moment center is chosen that
contains two unknown reactions, that is, the intersection of their lines of actions. The figure
above is already labelled with the distances of the applied loads. Study carefully how the
perpendicular distances are obtained.
Consider triangle ABC: Consider the whole figure:

Sine law:
6
=
𝐴𝐶
=
𝐵𝐶 ΣMC=0: 1.32D = 0.68W+2.48P
𝑠𝑖𝑛83𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛42𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛55𝑜
1.32D = 0.68(50)+2.48(30)
AC=4.045m, BC=4.952m D = 82.12N ans.

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
The two wheels are connected by a bar which are mounted on the smooth inclined
surfaces and are free to roll. Solve for the angle the bar makes with the horizontal if the
system is in equilibrium.
Problem 2:
Solve for the magnitude and direction of the reaction at C and the force in the
strut AB. Use P = 1000 N.

Problem 3:
The truss shown is supported by hinge and roller supports. Determine the
reactions on these supports. Check your answers.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 3
Analysis of Structures

The process of determining how the loads applied on the structure are distributed
throughout the structure is known as the analysis of the structure. Structures are
composed of two groups: those subjected to axial forces called two-force member and
those subjected to bending called three-force member or beam. This unit will cover only
pin-connected trusses and pin-connected frames. Internal bar forces or axial forces of the
truss are directed along the axes of the bars. Rigid frames are composed of members
subjected to bending action.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Apply several methods to determine internal forces of trusses and frames.

Pretest:

How do you differentiate a truss from a frame in terms of the composition of its
members and application of loads?
Content:

Plane Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of bars which are fastened together to form a rigid
configuration that prevents any movement between them. It is anchored to the foundation
by a fixed hinge and on rollers to prevent rotation and to have complete restraint against
any movement. In steel truss construction, the ends of the bars are riveted or welded to
the gusset plates so that they intersect at a common point.
All applied loads act at the joints of the truss. Its effect on the joint will be
represented by C (compression) and T (tension) forces which are all considered axial
forces. Compression or compressive forces are directed towards the joint and it will tend
to shorten the member thereby giving it a negative sign. Contrary to it are tension or tensile
forces which are directed away from the joint and the members will be lengthened, so a
positive sign is assigned to it.
There are two methods employed to determine the internal forces of the members
of a truss.
Method of Joints: Assuming that truss members are two-force members, the
conditions of equilibrium for concurrent forces are used to determine the internal forces.
ΣFx=0 and ΣFy=0 are the only equations of equilibrium applied at each joint so only two
unknown forces must be present regardless of the number of members or forces meeting
at the joint.
Method of Sections: Pass a cutting plane across the truss members separating
it into two parts without cutting more than three members. These cut members are
assumed internal axial forces that can be solved by applying the conditions of equilibrium
of non-concurrent forces. This method determines directly the force in any truss member
instead of proceeding to that member by joint-to-joint analysis.

Frames Containing Three-Force Members

Method of Members: A three-force member is a non-axial member that is not in
tension nor compression and supports three or more forces. It has shear forces
perpendicular to the member and is subjected to bending loads. To analyze a frame,
disconnect the three-force member from the structure and draw the free-body diagram of
the member. This is called the method of members. From the free-body diagram of each
member, consider the reactions on the pins which act mutually upon each other and whose
components are equal but oppositely directed. Apply the conditions of equilibrium of non-
concurrent forces to each free-body diagrams to determine the forces at the pins.

The figure below shows the difference between axial and non-axial (three-force) members.
 Figure 3.1 Axial and Non-Axial Members
Example1:
For the truss below, determine all the bar forces. Indicate the nature of the forces
whether it is in tension (T) or compression (C).

Solution:
The free-body diagrams of the joints with assumed directions of forces are
indicated. If the values of the forces are positive, it indicates that the assumption of their
directions are correct. See joint D: all members start with D like DA and it is tension. In
joint A, member AD=DA and it is also tension. Start with a joint where two unknown forces
can be solved and so on.
 Joint D: Joint C:

ΣFx=0: DC=200N T ΣFx=0: CAcos40o = CBcos40o+150sin35o

ΣFy=0: DA=DB ΣFy=0: CAsin40o+CBsin40o = 200+150cos35o

Solving: CA=307.307N C, CB=194.994N C

Joint B: Joint A:
o 0
ΣFy=0: By=BCsin40 =194.994sin40 ΣFx=0: Ax = ACcos40o-AD
=125.340N ↑ = -149.347+307.307cos40o = 86.064N→
ΣFx=0: BD=BCcos40o=194.994cos40o ΣFy=0: Ay = ACsin40o = 197.533N ↑
=149.374N T

Example 2:
The truss has loads applied as shown. Using the method of sections, determine
the forces in bars BC, BE, and EF. Take a cut through members BC, BE, and EF. Analyze
the upper portion of the cutting plane since it is without support reactions.

Consider portion above cutting plane a-a:

Assume all forces to be tensile. Rotation about C
is assumed + for clockwise motion.
ΣFx=0: CFsin45o = 5 + 10, CF = 21.2 kN T
ΣMF =0: 4CE = 5(4), CE = 5 kN T
ΣMC =0: 4DF + 5(8) + 10(4) + 8(4) = 0
DF = -28 kN = 28 kN C

Example 3:
The A-frame shown is mounted on a hinge and roller supports. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the hinge forces at C and E as they act upon
member ACE.
Solution:
The free-body diagrams of members CD and ACE are shown below completely
labelled with the hinge forces and their assumed directions.

Consider the frame:

ΣMB=0: 7Ay = 20(7.5), Ay = 21.429N↑
ΣMA=0: 7By = 20(0.5), By = 1.429N ↓
To check: ΣFy=0: Ay = By + 20, 21.429 = 21.429, ok.

Consider beam CD:

ΣMD=0: 3Cy= 20(5), Cy= 33.333N
ΣMC=0: 3Dy= 20(2), Dy= 13.333N
ΣFy=0: Cy=Dy+20, 33.333=33.333, ok.

Consider member ACE:

ΣFy=0: Ey= Cy–Ay =33.333-21.420 =11.904N
ΣME=0: 4Cx=3.5Ay-2Cy, Cx = 2.085N
ΣMC=0: 7Ex=1.5Ay-2Ey, Ex =1.191N
Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
For the truss shown below, determine the forces in members CG and CF using the
method of sections and check your answer by the method of joints.

Problem 2:
The assembly is consists of a crane that is attached to the socket at A and leans
on the smooth opening at B. Points C, D, and E are secured by pins.The horizontal
member GF is supporting the 6-kN load and a counterweight W=4kN as shown. Determine
the value of Ax, Ay and Bx. By isolating the vertical member AB, solve for the force in DE.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 4

Friction, Space Forces, and Cables

Friction is the force that resists motion when the surface of one object comes in
contact with the surface of a second body when the second body moves or tends to move
past the first body. A force in space is usually applied at different angles from the three
major axes where its components along these axes will be considered in the computations
together with its direction cosine formulas. Steel cables are used to support loads over
long spans, such as for suspension bridges, cable car systems, and similar structures.
Cables support concentrated vertical loads, horizontal uniform loads or loads that are
uniform along its length.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Analyze friction problems, space forces and problems on cables.

Pretest:

Give situations wherein friction is produced between two objects. Cite examples
where cables are needed in structures.
Content:

A. Friction and Wedges

Friction is very important in our daily lives. In fact, it is friction in the wheels of cars
that allows it to stay on the road and friction in its clutch that driving is possible.

Frictional force refers to the force produced by two surfaces that are in contact and
slide against each other. There are factors affecting the frictional force: the surface texture
and amount of force impelling them together, angle and position of the object, frictional
force is equal to the weight of the object if the object is placed flat against an object, and
if an object is pushed against the surface, then the frictional force will be increased and
becomes more than the weight of the object.

Frictional resistance, F = f N, where f = coefficient of friction and N = normal force.

This relation will give F its maximum value. For impending motion, use f = fS, where
fS=coefficient of static friction If motion is not impending, friction will have a value from
zero to F depending on the resultant force tending to cause motion and f = fK, where fK =
coefficient of kinetic friction.

Normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with
another stable object. If the object is placed on a flat surface, the normal force is given by
the relation N = W = mg, where m is the mass of the object and g is the gravitational
constant. Likewise, for an object on inclined surfaces, N = mg cos θ, θ = angle of inclined
surface from the horizontal.

It is preferable to use the contact reaction R rather than its components F and N.
When limiting friction is acting, R will be inclined at an angle of friction Ф with the normal
pressure N. The angle of friction is obtained from the formula: tan Ф = f . Given below
are different angles of friction for different conditions.
 Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~minamdar/ce102/Files/Friction.pdf

Figure 4.1 Different angles of Friction

Wedge is a simple machine that looks like a ramp or an inclined plane and is made
up of two inclined planes (wood, metal, stone, or plastic) joined together. It is thick on one
end and thins out to a sharp edge on the other end. There are two types of wedges: single
and double. Doorstopper and chisel are examples of single wedges. Examples of a double
wedge is a knife because of its ability to cut or split, and nail, to hold something together.
The longer and sharper a wedge is, the less effort it will take for the work to get done. A
shorter wedge will require more force and effort because it has a wider angle at the tip.
Given below are some examples of wedges.
 Figure 4.1 Different Types of Wedges
Example 1:
Block A weighing 5kg rests on the horizontal surface and attached to the system
of cords shown. Determine the weight of the hanging block B needed to maintain
equilibrium of the system. Use coefficient of friction, f = 0.5.

Solution:
Consider block A. Remember that F and N are the components of the total reaction
R. If F and N are used in the equation, then R will not be considered. Since block A is in
contact with the horizontal, F and N are applied as shown where F is opposite to the motion
and N is normal to the horizontal surface.

Solution:
Consider block A: Consider the hanging block B:

ΣFy=0: N=WA= 5kg(9.81m/s2) =49.05N ΣFy=0: T1sin37o=T3, T3= 40.752N

F=fN= 0.5(49.05)= 24.525N ΣFx=0: T3= T1cos37o=32.546N

ΣFx=0: T2= F = 24.525N Block B: ΣFy=0: WB=T3= 32.546N, ans.

Example 2:
A bar AB has its ends in contact with the two inclined planes. Determine the
distance the load P can be placed to each end before slipping impends. Use the angle of
friction, Ф =25o.

Sine Law:
𝑃 𝑅𝐴
= , RA =0.502P
𝑠𝑖𝑛85𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛30𝑜

ΣMB=0: Px = 5RAcos65o

X = 1.061m from B

Sine Law:
𝑃 𝑅𝐵
= , RB = 0.516P
𝑠𝑖𝑛55𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛25𝑜

ΣMA=0: Px = 5RBcos80o

X = 0.448m from A

Example 3:
Solve for the value of WA required to start wedge A shown. Use WB=2000N,
P=500N, and angle of friction Ф =15o. Draw the forces correctly especially its direction.

Solution:

Consider block B:

ΣFx=0: R1sinФ + P = R2cos15o ΣFy=0: R2sin15o + 2000=R1cos15o

R1cos15o= 3.732R2-1931.852 R2sin15o= 3.732R2-1931.852-2000

R2 = 1155.413N
Consider wedge A:
𝑊𝐴 𝑅2
Sine Law: = , WA = 943.391N, ans.
𝑠𝑖𝑛45𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛60𝑜
Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
Block A is placed on the horizontal surface while block B is on the inclined one.
The blocks are connected by a cord and coefficient of friction are indicated in the figure.
Solve for the magnitude and direction of force P which will cause impending motion. Also
find the tension if the cord attached to the blocks.

Problem 2:
Determine the force P necessary to start the V-shaped wedge to the right if the
coefficient of friction is f = 0.445 at each of the three surfaces of contact.

Problem 3:
Two blocks having weights W1 =150N and W2 = 250N are connected by a rod. If
sliding impends if θ = 45o, solve for the coefficient of friction assuming it to be the same
for both wall and floor.
 B. Force Systems in Space

When considering a force in space, the same basic concepts of coplanar force
systems are applied, only a general case of space forces are considered. The magnitude
and direction of the resultant force is specified by the summations of the components of
the forces comprising the system. The position of the resultant may be determined by the
moment effect of the system.

Figure 4.2 Components of a Force in Space

Basic Principles:
The figure above shows three concurrent forces Fx, Fy and Fz that act along the
reference axes and are the mutually perpendicular components of the force F. The
formulas below will be useful in solving space problems.
𝐹 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧
F = √𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 + 𝐹𝑧 2 Fx = F cos θx = = =
𝑑 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
OB = d = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 Fy = F cos θy

Fz = F cos θz
The six scalar equilibrium equations:
∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Fz = 0
∑Mx = 0, ∑My = 0, ∑Mz = 0

To formulate the moment equations, follow the rules below: ∑M = F(d)

∑Mx = 0: ∑My = 0: ∑Mz = 0:
Fy → z distance Fx → z distance Fx → y distance
Fz → y distance Fz → x distance Fy → x distance

When a particle is in equilibrium, the vector sum of all the forces acting on it must be
zero, ΣF=0. This equation can be written in terms of its components: (ΣFx)i + (ΣFy)j +
(ΣFz)k = 0 and will be satisfied only if ∑Fx = 0, ∑Fy = 0, ∑Fz = 0.

Example 1:
A tower shown is anchored on a solid ground and supported by cable AB as shown.
Determine the components of the force F = 2000N in the cable. Since the components of
the unit vector are the direction cosines for the vector, solve for the corresponding angles.

Solve for the components of force F in AB:

a) Solve for the components of AB: AB = d = √402 + 802 + 302 = 94.3m

𝐴𝐵 −40𝑥+80𝑦+30𝑧
FAB = = = -0.424x+0.848y+0.318z
𝑑 94.3

Force AB: F = 2000FAB

AB = -40x + 80y + 30z = 2000 {-0.424x+0.848y+0.318z}
= -848.356x+1696.713y+636.267z
 Components of force in AB:
Fx = -848.356N, Fy= 1696.713N, Fz = 636.267N, ans.

b) Solve for the direction cosines of the AB:

Fx=Fcosθx Fy=Fcosθy Fz=Fcosθz
-848.356=2000cosθx 1696.713=2000cosθy 636.267=2000cosθz
θx= 115.10o θy= 31.97o θz= 71.45o
Example 2:
Three concurrent forces P, S and T are applied at point O. Find the resultant force
vector R, including its magnitude and direction to keep point O in equilibrium.

Solution:
In Cartesian vector form:

S = 400i, T = -800j, P = 700(BO/dBO) =700(-3i+6j+2k)/√32 + 62 + 22

= (- 300i + 600j + 200k) N

Equating i, j, and k components to zero:

ΣFx=0: 400-300+Rx = 0 Rx = -100N
ΣFy=0: -800+600+Ry= 0 Ry = 200N
ΣFz=0: -200+Rz=0 Rz = 200N
Then: R = (Rx)i + (Ry)j + (Rz)k = (-100i+200j+200k)N, vector

Magnitude of R: R = √1002 + 2002 + 2002 = 300N

Direction angles: Rx = Rcosθx, 100 = 300cosθx, θx = 70.53o
Ry = Rcosθy, 200 = 300cosθy, θy = 48.19o
Rz = Rcosθz, 200 = 300cosθz, θz = 48.19o
Example 3:
A load P is applied vertically at the tripod. Points B, C and D are in the same
horizontal plane. Solve for the force in each leg of the tripod if P=3000N.

Solution:

Length of members: d = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 in this order

d1 = √32 + 102 + 0 = 10.44’ d2 = √0 + 102 + 42 = 10.77’

d3 = √8.662 + 102 + 52 = 14.14’

Solve for the unknowns:
ΣMz=0: 8.66Dy=3By, By =2.887Dy ΣFy=0: By+Cy+Dy=3000
ΣMx=0: 4Cy=5Dy, Cy = 1.25Dy 2.887Dy+1.25Dy+Dy=3000
Dy= 583.998N

Then:
Cy = 1.25(583.998) = 729.998N To check: ΣFy=3000:

By = 2.887(583.998) = 1686.002N 1686.002+729.998+583.998= 30000, ok.

Force in each leg of tripod:

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝑦 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝑦 𝐴𝐷 𝐷𝑦
= = =
𝑑1 𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦

𝐴𝐵 1686.002 𝐴𝐶 729.998 𝐴𝐷 583.998

= = =
10.44 10 10.77 10 14.14 10

AB = 1760.186N AC = 786.208N AD = 825.773N ans.

Learning Activities:

Problem 4:
A weight of 700N is supported by three cables attached to a horizontal ceiling at
points B, C and D as shown. Determine the tension in each cable.

Problem 5:
The boom AB supports the 500-kg load and is held by a ball and socket joint at B
and by cables AC and AD. Determine the compression in the boom and the tensions in
the cables.
 C. Cables

If the cable supports vertical loads, it will take the shape of the inverted moment
diagram of a simple beam with the same loads. It is parabolic if the loading is uniformly
distributed horizontally and the span-to-sag ratio is greater than 10 or (L/d)>10. On the
other hand, it is catenary if the loading is uniformly distributed along the length of the cable
like its own weight and the span-to-sag ratio is lesser than or equal to 10. A typical example
is the electric transmission line.

Assumptions for Cables with Concentrated Loads:

1. The cable is flexible, which means its resistance to bending is small and may be
neglected. This implies that the bending moment at all points of the cable is zero.
2. The weight of the cable is negligible compared with loads it supports.
3. The coordinates of one point of the cable, other than the coordinates of the end
points or supports, are known.

Cables with Horizontal Uniform Load: Parabolic

Cables of suspension bridges are assumed loaded with a uniformly distributed load
along the horizontal since the weight of the cable is small compared with the weight of the
roadway. The formulas below are useful in solving this type of problem.

Figure 4.1 Cables of Suspension Bridges

1. Horizontal tension at O: H= wL2/8d

𝑊𝐿 2
2. Tension at each support: TA = TB = √𝐻 2 + ( )
2

3. Equation of parabola: y = 4dx2/L2

4. Tension at any pt. P: Tp = √𝐻 2 + (𝑤𝑥)2
 𝐿
5. Length of cable: m =
8𝑚
8𝑚2 32𝑚4 256𝑚6
s = L {1+ - + + …}, approximate formula
3 5 7
𝐿
s=(
8𝑚
){4m √12 + (4𝑚)2 + ln (4m +√12 + (4𝑚)2 }, exact formula

Cables with Uniform Load along its Length: Catenary

If the load of the cable is its own weight assumed uniform over the entire length,
it forms a catenary (chain in Latin).

‘ ‘k
Figure 4.2 Cable with Level Supports
1. Equation of catenary: y = (c/2) (ex/c + e-x/c) = c cosh (x/c)
2. Length of CP: s = (c/2) (ex/c – e-x/c) = c sinh (x/c)
𝑠+𝑦
3. Horizontal distance CP: x = c ln { }, y2 = s2 + c2
𝑐
4. Load on CP: Load = ws
5. Horizontal tension at C: H = wc
6. Tension at any point P: T = w √𝑠2 + 𝑐 2 = wy

Example 1:
A cable is suspended between two supports at the same elevation, 500ft apart,
and supports a load of 500 lbs per horizontal foot including its own weight. If the sag of
the cable is 30ft, find the length of the cable.

Solution:
Since the load is horizontally distributed, the cable is parabolic.
Using the approximate formula:
8𝑑 2 32𝑑 4 8(30)2 32(30)4 𝑑
S=L+ - = 500 + - = 504.758 ft. where m =
3𝐿 5𝐿3 3(500) 5(500)3 𝐿

Example 2:
Consider the transmission cable 300m long and weighs 600kg. The tensions at
the ends of the cable are 400kg and 450kg. Determine the distance of its lowest point to
the ground.
Solution:
Since the load is its own weight, the cable is catenary.
Uniformly distributed load: w Tension, T:
600𝑘𝑔
w= = 2kg/m T1 = wy1, 450=2y1, y1=225m
300𝑚
T2 = wy2, 400=2y2, y2=200m

From: y2 = s2 + c2: 2252 = s12 + c2, eliminating c2: s12 = 10625 + s22, eqn. 1
2002 = s22 + c2
From: s1 + s2 = 300: s1 = 300 – s2, squaring both sides: s12 = (300-s2)2, eqn. 2
Equating eqns.1 and 2: 10625 + s22 = (300-s2)2 and solving: s2 = 132.29m
From: y2 = s2 + c2, 2252 = 132.292 + c2, c = 150m ans.
Example 3:
A cable, 200m long, and carries a uniformly distributed load of 100 N/m along the
horizontal is suspended at two points A and B. Determine the horizontal distance
between supports and the values of the tensions at the supports.

Solution:
a. Consider hinge at C is removed:
Segment AC: ∑MA = 0: 12HC = 100 (L-x)2/2, eq. (1) Equate values of HC:
Segment BC: ∑MB = 0: 32HC = 100x2, eq. (2) L-x = x√3/8
b. Using the approximate formula for length of cable, s:
(use only the 1st 3 terms of the eq’n)
6 6
For AC: S1 = (L-x){1+ (8/3)( )2 – (32/5)( )4} Note: S1 + S2 =200m
𝐿−𝑥 𝐿−𝑥
16 16
For BC: S2 = x{1 + (8/3)( )2 – (32/5)( )4}
𝑥 𝑥

By interpolation: x = 119.861m, then, L = 193.26m, ans.

c. Tension at the supports:
For AC: From eq. (1): HC=22,448 kN For BC: From eq. (2): HC = 448 kN
∑Fx = 0: HA = HC = 22,448 kN ∑Fx = 0: HB = HC = 22,448 kN
∑Fy = 0: VA = 100(L-x) = 7,340 N ∑Fy = 0: VB = 100x= 11,986 kN
TA = √(22448)2 + (7340)2 TB = √(22448)2 + (11986)2
= 23,617.54 N ans. = 25,447.53 N ans.
Learning Activities:

Problem 6:
The weight of the transmission cable is 1.5kg/m distributed horizontally. If the
maximum safe tension of the cable is 6000kg and the allowable sag is 30m, determine
the horizontal distance between the electric posts supporting the transmission cable.

Problem 7:
A cable 45.4m long is carrying a uniformly distributed load along its span. If the
cable is strung between two posts at the same level, 40m apart, compute the smallest
value that the cable may sag.

Problem 8:
The resultant tensions at the ends of the uniform flexible cable are 8000N and
8800N, respectively. The cable is 300m long weighing 5000N. Solve for the following:
a. difference in elevation of the two ends
b. distance of the lowest point of the cable to the lower end
c. horizontal distance between the ends
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 5

Centroids and Moments of Inertia

The term centroid refers to the center of gravity of a weightless figure like a line,
area or volume. Center of gravity is the point where the weight of the body is concentrated,
and at the point where the object will not to rotate nor tend to rotate. Moment of inertia is
the natural tendency of an object to rotate or tend to rotate due to the distribution of area,
volume or mass elements of the body.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Determine centers of gravity and moments of inertia of bodies at rest.

Pretest:

What do you think is the importance of determining the center of gravity of an

object and solving for its moment of inertia?
Content:

Centroids and Centers of Gravity

To locate the center of gravity of an object, apply a variation of the principle of

moments wherein the moment of the resultant is equal to the moment of its parts. In order
to produce uniform stress distribution, the loads must be placed where the line of action
of their resultant coincides with the centroid of the cross section of the member. This is
the reason why location of the centroid of area is very important. The position of the
centroid is also important for determining the location of the neutral axis in the bending of
beams.

Centroidal axis is an axis passing through the centroid of an area. Moment of an

area with respect to an axis is the product of the area multiplied by the perpendicular
distance from its centroid to an axis.

Centroid Determined by Integration:

Integration involves summing up infinitesimal quantities. Thus, the equations

below are used in determining the centroid of an area and centroid of a line.

To determine the centroid by integration, the figure must be divided into differential parts,
then be sure that all points of the element are equidistant from the axis of moments and
the position of the centroid of the element must be known so that the moment of that
element about the axis of moments is the product of the element and the distance of its
centroid from the axis.

Centroid of Composite Figure:

An extension of Varignon’s theorem states that when a given area can be divided
into parts whose centroids are known, the moment of the total area is the sum of the
moments of area of the parts. For composite figures, use the equations below.

See Table VII-1. Centroids for Common Geometric Shapes, page 178 of Engineering
Mechanics by Ferdinand L. Singer for your reference.
Theorems of Pappus:

Greek geometrician, Pappus developed two centroid theorems:

The first theorem states that the surface area is the product of the curve length L and the
distance d travelled by the centroid of C: A= Ld or A = θΣxL = θΣlx

The second theorem states that the volume is the product of the area multiplied by the
length of the path described by the centroid of the area: V = Ad or V = θxA = θ𝛴ax where
angle θ ≤ 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠.

Center of Gravity of Bodies. Centroids of Volumes:

The principle of moments is also used to locate the center of gravity of bodies or
the centroids of volumes. If a body has a plane of symmetry, its center of gravity lies in
that plane. Thus the center of gravity lies at the point of intersection of the planes either it
be two or three planes of symmetry. The formulas below are useful.
Spandrel:
𝒃𝒉
A=
𝒏+𝟏

𝒃
x=
𝒏+𝟐

𝒏+𝟏
y= h
𝟒𝒏+𝟐
 Parabolic Segment:
𝟐
A= bh
𝟑
𝟑
x= b
𝟖
𝟐
y= h
𝟓

Figure 5.1 Centroid of Some Common Areas

Example 1:

The wire which is bent as shown is homogeneous and of constant cross section.
Determine the coordinates of its centroid.

Solution:

L = L1 + L2 + L3 = 6 + 4π + 8 = 25.566 cm

L x = L1x1 + L2x2 + L3x3, 25.566 x = 6(-4) + 4π(0) + 8(4+4cos30o),

x = 1.34 cm
2(4)
L y = L1y1 + L2y2 + L3y3, 25.556 y = 6(3) + 4π( ) + 8(4sin30o),
𝜋
y = 2.48 cm

Example 1:

For the shaded area bounded by the X-axis, the line x = a, and the parabola y2 =
kx, determine its centroid by integration.
 𝑎 𝑎 2
A = ∫ 𝑑𝐴 = ∫0 𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 √𝑘𝑥 dx = k1/2a3/2
3
𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎
AX =∫0 𝑥𝑑𝐴, k1/2 a3/2 X = ∫𝑜 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑜 𝑥√𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
3
2 2 3
k1/2 a3/2 X = k1/2 a5/2 , X = a, ans.
3 5 5
𝑎𝑦 2 1 𝑎 1 𝑎
AY = ∫0 𝑑𝐴, k1/2 a3/2 Y = ∫𝑜 𝑦𝑦𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑜 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 3 2 2
2 1 3 3 3
k1/2 a3/2 Y = ka2, Y= k1/2 a1/2 = √𝑘𝑥, at y= - b, Y = - b, ans.
3 4 8 8 8

Example 2:
For the shaded portion, area A1 is a semicircle of radius r = 1m and area A2 is a
triangle. Determine the coordinates of its centroid with respect to the given axes.

1 1
For area 1: A1 = π r2 = 1.571m2 For area 2: A2 = (2x4)= 4 m2
2 2
4𝑟 1
x1 = 1m, y1 = 1- = 0.567m x2 = (2) = 0.667m
3Π 3
1
y2 = 1+ (4) = 2.333m
3
To solve for x and y:

Use the formula: ΣMy=0: (A1+A2)x = A1x1 + A2x2, x = 0.761m, left of y-axis ans.

ΣMx=0: (A1+A2)y = A1y1 + A2y2, y = 1.835m, above x-axis ans.

Example 3:

The rectangle below is formed by four-colored areas. Determine the coordinates

of the centroid of the yellow-colored area or the biggest area.

Solution:
1 1
Triangle: A1 = (8)(8) = 32 Quarter Circle: A2 = πr2 = 16π
2 4
1 4𝑟
x1 = 26 - (8) =23.333 x2 = 26 - =22.608
3 3𝜋
1 4𝑟
y1 = (8) = 2.667 y2 = 16 - = 12.608
3 3𝜋

1
Semicircle: A3 = πr2 = 18π Rectangle: A4 = 26(16) = 416
2
26
x3 = 6 cm x4 = = 13 cm
2
4𝑟 16
y3 = 16 - = 13.456 y4 = = 8 cm
3𝜋 2

Solve for the centroid:

A = A4 – A3 –A2 – A1 = 416 - 18π - 16π – 32 = 277.186 cm2

: 277.186 x = 416(13) - 18π(6) - 16π(22.608) – 32(23.333)

x = 11.493 cm ans.

: 277.186 y = 416(8) - 18π(13.456) - 16π(12.608) – 32(2.667)

y = 6.667 cm ans.
Example 4:

Determine the volume of the solid that results if the area enclosed by y = √𝑥, y =
0, and x = 9 is revolved about the line x = 9, and about the line y = 3.

Solution:

1. Volume generated if area is rotated about the line x = 9:

𝑏 9
a) Cylindrical Shell Method: V = 2π ∫𝑎 𝑅𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋 ∫0 (9 − 𝑥)(𝑦𝑑𝑥)
9
= 2𝜋 ∫0 (9 − 𝑥)(√𝑥𝑑𝑥) = 407.15 cubic units

b) By Pappus’ Theorem:
2 2 3
A = (3)(9) = 18, x = (9) = 3.6, y = (3) = 1.125
3 5 8
V = Ad = A(2πx) = 18(2π)(3.6) = 407.15 cubic units, ans.

2. Volume generated if the area is rotated about the line y=3.

a) Circular Disk Method:

𝑥 2 2 9
V = π ∫𝑥 2(𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 - 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 )dx = 𝜋 ∫0 {32 - (3-y)2} dx
1
9
= 𝜋 ∫0 {9- (3-√𝑥)2} dx = 212.058 cubic units, ans.
 b) By Pappus’ Theorem:
2 2 3
A = (3)(9) = 18, x = (9) = 3.6, y = (3) = 1.125
3 5 8
V = Ad = A(2π)(3-y) = 18(2π)(3-1.125) = 212.058 cubic units, ans.

Example 5:
The assembly shown is consists of cylinder mounted on the hemispherical base in
such a way that the composite body will be in stable equilbrium. Solve for the height of the
cylinder. (Hint: As long as the center of gravity does not lie above the X-X plane, there will
be a restoring couple if the assembly is tipped.)

Solution:
4 𝜋𝑟 3 3𝑟
Hemisphere: V1 = = 5.333π, y1 = 2 - = 1.25’, r = 2
3 2 8
ℎ
Cylinder: V2 = πr2h = 4πh, y2 = 2 +
2

At the bottom, B: ΣMB =0: Vy = V1y1 + V2y2, V = V1+V2, use y = h

ℎ
(5.333π + 4πh)y = 5.333𝜋(1.25) + 4πh ( 2+ ), y = 1.414 ft. ans
2

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
For the figure shown below, locate the centroid of the culvert. If you can divide
the area into areas where the centroids are known, then integration is unnecessary.
Problem 2:
The rectangular area shown is composed of three colors. Determine the centroid
of the green-colored area or the biggest area. Properly label all the perpendicular
distances of the areas towards the given axes.

Problem 3:
From Problem 5, replace the cylindrical portion of the assembly by a right conical
portion having a 4-ft diameter base and height H. Then solve for the value of H for the
composite body to remain in equilibrium. Follow the same assumption of the problem.

Moments of Inertia
Also known as the second moment, mass moment of inertia, angular mass or
rotational inertia, of a body is a quantity that determines the torque needed for a desired
angular acceleration about a rotational axis; similar to how mass determines the force
needed for a desired acceleration. It is a measure of the rotational motion of a body around
a fixed axis. Inertia is the natural tendency of an object to remain at rest when it is at rest
or in motion, to continue moving at constant speed. Moment or torque is the cross product
of force and the perpendicular distance to which the force is applied.
 The moment of inertia is given by the equation I = ∫ 𝜌 2dA, where ρ = perpendicular
distance from dA to the axis of inertia. The radius of gyration k is taken from the equation
I = Ak2 where A=total area of the figure. The polar moment of inertia J with respect to the
two major axes which intersect on the polar axis is given by J = Ix + Iy.

Parallel Axis Theorem:

The moment of inertia of the body at a certain axis is equal to the sum of the
moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis parallel to it, and the product of the
area and the square of the shortest distance between the two parallel axes.

Ix = Ixo + Ad2
where: Ixo = centroidal moment
of inertia
A = area
d = distance

Product of Inertia and Composite Bodies:

For composite bodies, the moment of inertia is the sum of the moments of inertia
of its elements wherein each element must be referred to the same axis of inertia. The
product of inertia for an area, P =∫ 𝑥𝑦𝑑𝐴. If the x-axis, the y-axis, or both are an axis of
symmetry, P = 0. The transfer formula used for transferring the product of inertia between
a centroidal and parallel set of axes is given below:

Figure 5.2 Product of Inertia

Figure 5.3 Centroids and Moment of Inertia of Plane Figures

Figure 5.4 Moment of Inertia of Solid Figures

 Figure 5.5 Moments of Inertia

Mohr’s Circle for Moments and Product of Inertia

A German engineer Otto Mohr uses a circle known as Mohr’s circle which
represents the value of I and P with respect to all axes passing through a specified point
in an area.

Example 1:
A certain area has the following values with respect to the X and Y axes: I X = 110
cm4, Iy = 66 cm4, and Pxy = 20 cm4. Solve for maximum and minimum moments of inertia.
Illustrate the position of the principal axes relative to the X and Y axes.
Solution:
Plot the points having the coordinates of I and P axes:
(Ix = 110, Pxy = 20) (Iy = 66, Pxy = -20)
After plotting these points, the Mohr’s circle has two points and joining them will give its
diameter as shown below. Considering triangle BCD, the its radius CB can be solved.
Radius of the circle: BC = √222 + 202 = 29.732 cm
Solving for I: Max. I = OC +CA = 88 + 29.732 = 117.732 cm4, ans.
Min. I = OC – CE = 88 – 29.732 = 58.268 cm4, ans.
From X-axis to the axis of maximum inertia CA, rotate clockwise through an angle 2θ:
20
ΔBCD: tan 2θ = , 2θ = 42.274o, θ = 21.14o ans.
22

Example 2:
For the Z section shown, Ix = 10.38 in4 and Iy = 6.97 in4. Solve for the product of
inertia with respect to the xy axes. Determine the maximum and minimum moment of
inertia.

Solution:
Solve for the moment of inertia, I:
 Divide the Z section into three rectangles:
A1 = 1.5, x1 = -1.25, y1 = 1.75 Ixy =Σ(xyA) = - 6.56 in4
A2 = 1.5, x2 = 0, y2 = 0
A3 = 1.5, x3 = 1.25, y3 = -1.75 Note:-sign if

Solve for maximum and minimum I:

2𝐼𝑥𝑦 2(−6.56)
tan 2θm = - =- = + 3.85, 2θm = 75.4o, θm = 37.7o
𝐼𝑥+ 𝐼𝑦 10.38−6.97

1 𝐼𝑥+ 𝐼𝑦 10.38+6.97 10.38−6.97 2

I = (Ix + Iy) ± √( )2 + (𝐼𝑥𝑦 )2 = ± √( ) + (−6.56)2
2 2 2 2
Ia = Imax = 15.45 in4, ans.
Ib = Imin = 1.897 in4, ans.

Example 3:
For the right triangle shown below, solve for its product of inertia with respect to
the x and y axes, and to the centroidal axes parallel to the x and y axes.
Solution:
a. Solve for the product of inertia by integration and parallel axis theorem:
𝑥 𝑥
Left figure: y = h(1- ), dA = ydx = h (1- ) dx
𝑏 𝑏
𝑦 1 𝑥
xel = x, yel = = h(1- ),
2 2 𝑏

𝑏 ℎ2 𝑥
Integrating: Pxy = ∫ 𝑑𝑃𝑥𝑦 = ∫ 𝑥𝑒𝑙 𝑦𝑒𝑙 dA = ∫𝑜 𝑥 (1- 𝑏)2 dx
2

𝑏 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
= h2∫𝑜 ( − + ) dx = h2 [ − + ] at x=b and x=0
2 𝑏 2𝑏 2 4 3𝑏 8𝑏 2
1
= b2 h2 ans.
24
b. Solve for product of inertia with respect to centroidal axes:
1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
Right figure above: Ixy = 𝐼𝑥" 𝑦 " + xyA = bh - b( h)( bh), x = 3 b, y =3h
24 3 3 2
1
=- b2h2
72

Learning Activities:

Problem 4:
Consider the figure shown below. Determine the moment of inertia about the x and
y axes of the shaded portion.

Problem 5:
For the triangular area shown, determine the product of inertia with respect to the
X and Y axes, and to the centroidal axes parallel to the given X and Y axes.
Problem 6:
Determine the maximum and minimum moments of inertia, and the angle that the
axis of maximum inertia makes with the X axis. The area has the following properties: I x
= 40 in4, Iy = 100 in4, Pxy = 40 in4. Use Mohr’s Circle in the illustration.
Engineering Mechanics

PART II: DYNAMICS

UNIT 6

Principles of Dynamics

Dynamics is the branch of engineering mechanics which focuses on the analysis

of bodies in motion. It requires the following important factors in its analysis namely force,
length and time. Since particle and body are the center of analysis, its difference must be
will defined. Particle describes an object of point size while body is composed of particles
that form an object of considerable size.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Identify the three types of motion of a rigid body.

Pretest:

Define a rigid body. Why do you think rigid bodies are the main concern and focus
in dynamics?
Content:

Principles of Dynamics:

The motion of a particle is described better by its displacement, velocity and

acceleration which are all vector quantities since magnitude and direction are involved.
Displacement is the vector distance from the origin to the location of the particle along its
path of travel. If the particle follows on a straight path, its distance and displacement are
equal but it is different if the path is curved, Velocity is defined as a vector measurement
of the rate and direction of motion. Acceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an
object with respect to time.

Newton’s Laws of Motion for a Particle:

1. If a particle is acted by a balanced force system, there is no acceleration.

2. If an unbalanced force system occurs, then the particle has an acceleration

in line with and directly proportional to the resultant of the force system.

3. Action and reaction forces between two particles are always equal and

opposite.

D’Alembert’s Principle:

The resultant of the external forces applied to a body (rigid or non-rigid) composed
of a system of particles is equivalent to the vector summation of the effective forces acting
on all particles. The resultant of the external force system and the summation of the
effective forces are vectorial additions as shown in the equation below.

𝑤1 𝑤2
R= a1 + a2 + … , where W = mg, W= weight, m=mass,
𝑔 𝑔

g= gravitational constant.

Applying the Principles of Dynamics:

The application of the laws of dynamics here is only limited to bodies considered
as particles or to bodies which are rigid since its particles are fixed in position relative to
each other. The three motions of rigid bodies to be discussed here are translation, rotation
and plane motion. The following are the effect that produced by these motions.
 Figure 6.1 Three Types of Motion of a Rigid Body

Consider the leftmost figure, the resultant of all the forces applied on a body is a
single force R that passes through the center of gravity of the body. The body will move in
the direction of this resultant and the body will not rotate. If the direction of R is constant,
the body will move along a straight line and this motion is called rectilinear translation.
However, if R varies but still passes through the center of gravity, the motion of the body
will follow a curve path known as curvilinear translation.

The center figure is rotation since the resultant of all the forces applied on a body
is a couple M and the body will rotate about the vertical axis through its center of gravity
which is stationary. The all particles will form horizontal circular arcs about the vertical
centroidal axis.

If the resultant is a single force R that does not pass through the center of gravity
but can be altered into a force acting through the center of gravity and a couple M.
Naturally, it is a combination of translation and rotation. This motion is called plane motion.

Learning Activity:

Apply the principles of dynamics through giving situations/examples wherein the

three types of motion are present. Illustrations will be accepted.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 7

Translation

Translation is the motion by which a body shifts from one point in space to another.
It is the motion in which all points of a moving body move uniformly in the same line or
direction. If an object is executing translational motion then there is no change in its
orientation relative to a fixed point. It is a motion of a rigid body in which a straight line
passing through any two of its particles always remain parallel to its initial position.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Apply the principles of translation in solving problems.

Pretest:

Give examples of bodies in rectilinear and curvilinear translation. Explain their

motion and how do their forces differ in direction.
 Rectilinear Translation

Rectilinear translation is a type of motion in which the body moves in a straight line
or is moving in the direction parallel to its displacement. It is a condition wherein there is
only one co-ordinate axis along with time to describe the motion of a particle. All particles
travel the same or parallel paths so the values of displacement, velocity and acceleration
are equal.

Rectilinear Motion with Constant Acceleration:

This condition exists when a body is acted upon by forces with constant magnitude
and direction like freely falling body. The following are the equations of motion with
constant acceleration:
1
V = Vo + at, s = Vot + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 , V2= Vo2 + 2as

In applying these equations, the initial direction of motion is considered positive. If applied
to freely falling bodies, replace acceleration a by g as the gravitational acceleration.

For freely falling bodies, the resultant force is its own weight and is directed
vertically down. Velocity and acceleration are positive when directed along positive
displacement and are negative if pointing in the opposite direction.

Kinetics of Rectilinear Translation. Analysis as a Particle

The kinetic equations are obtained from the general equation governing the motion
of the center of gravity wherein the body is treated as a particle whose mass is the same
as the mass of the body and the same motion as the center of gravity of the body. If the
line of motion is the X axis, then take the initial direction of motion to be positive. Below
are the general equations of kinetics.
𝑊
ΣFx = ma, ΣFy =0, ΣFz = 0, where mass, m = , W = weight
𝑔

Dynamic Equilibrium in Rectilinear Translation. Analysis as a Rigid Body

Dynamic equilibrium is created by adding an equilibrant which is equal, opposite

and collinear with the resultant of the accelerating forces acting through the center of
gravity in the direction of the acceleration. This equilibrant is called the inertia force equal
to ma acting through the center of gravity but opposite to the acceleration. In rectilinear
translation, this inertia force is called the reversed effective force. When dynamic
equilibrium is created, all equations and methods of static equilibrium can be used.
Example 1:

A sphere is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 60m/s followed by a second

sphere after 4 sec. Determine the initial velocity of the second sphere so that the two
spheres will meet 120m from the ground.

Solution:

Sphere 1: V = Vo – gt1 V2 = Vo2 – 2gs1 s1 = s2 + s3

0 = 60 - 9.81t1 0 = 602 – 2(9.81)s1 183.486 = s2 + 120
t1 = 6.116 sec. s1 = 183.486m s2 = 63.486.m
1
s2 = Vot2 + 2 gt22 t1 + t2 = t3 + 4

1
63.486 = 0+ (9.81)t22, t2=3.598sec. 6.116+3.598= t3+4, t3=5.714
2

1 1
Sphere 2: s3 = Vot3 - gt32, 120 = Vo (5.714) - (9.81)(5.714)2
2 2
Vo = 49.028 m/sec. ans.

Example 2:

The motion of the particle is given by the relation a=6t2 where a is in m/s2. If t=0,
V=4m/s and s=8m. Solve for the values of V and s if t=5sec.

Solution:
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑠
a. From = a: From = V: b. At t=5sec.:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑉 𝑠
∫4 𝑑𝑉 = ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑡 ∫8 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑡 V= 2(5)3+4 = 254m/s ans.

1
V-4 = ∫ 6𝑡 2 dt s-8 = ∫(2𝑡 3 +4) dt s= (54) + 4(5) + 8
2
1
V = 2𝑡 3 + 4 s = t4 + 4t +8 = 340.5m ans.
2
Example 3:
For the figure shown, solve for the acceleration of block B. Neglect the weights of
the pulleys and assumed them frictionless. Use WA =300N and WB =400N.

Solution:

𝑊𝑎 400𝑎
Block B: ΣFy = : TB – 400 = 2(9.81)
2𝑔

TB = 20.387a + 400
𝑊𝑎 300𝑎
Block A: ΣFy = : 300 - TA =
𝑔 9.81

TA = 300 – 30.581a
Upper Pulley: 2 TA = TB
2(300-30.581a) = 20.387a+400
81.549a=200, a= 2.453m/s2
𝑎
Then: aB = = 1.227m/s2 ans.
2

Exampl

Example 4:

A car weighs 3600lb and has a wheel base of 10ft. Its center of gravity is 3.25 ft
above the highway and 5.75 ft from the front wheels. Solve for the tractive force on the
rear wheels if the car accelerates at one-third of the gravitational acceleration. Assume
the coefficient of friction constant for all wheels.

Solution:
𝑊𝑎 𝑊𝑔 3600 1
ma = = = = 1200lb, a = g
𝑔 3𝑔 3 3

ΣMB=0: 10NA = 3600(5.75)+1200(3.25)

NA = 2460lb
ΣFx=0: FA+FB =1200,
1200
f(NA+NB) = 1200, f =
𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐵

1200 1
ΣFy=0: NA+NB = 3600, f = =
3600 3
1
Then: FA=fNA = (2460)= 820lb, ans.
3
Learning Activities:

Problem 1:

For the figure shown, solve for the maximum value of the counterweight W so that
the 2000N block will not overturn about its upper wheels.

Problem 2:

The deceleration of a particle is given by the equation a = - kV2. The particle which
moves in a horizontal straight line is fired with an initial velocity of 50m/s for a condition
1
where k = . Determine the time and distance after firing if the velocity is reduced to
1000𝑚
8m/s.

Problem 3:

The blocks shown are being pulled up the incline by a force P = 500N. Determine
the acceleration of block B. Neglect friction and weights of the pulleys. Use W A = 75kg,
WB= 100kg and fk = 0.25.
 Curvilinear Translation

Curvilinear or projectile motion is where the particles composing the body are
parallel curved lines. Since all particles have identical motions, the motion is considered
equal to the particle concentrated at the center of gravity of the body.

Projectile motion follows a parabolic trajectory where its vertical component is

under constant gravitational acceleration and the horizontal component is at constant
velocity. It is better to resolve the motion into x and y components and use the formulas
in rectilinear translation. Consider the figure below.

At B: x-component: ax =0 since V=constant, VBx = Vox, x = Voxt

1
y- component: ay=-g, VBy = Voy – gt, y = Voyt - gt2, VBy2 = Voy2 – 2gy
2
𝑔𝑥 2
also derived is: y = xtanθ - (general equation)
2𝑉𝑜 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃

𝑉𝑜𝑦 2 (𝑉𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)2 𝑉𝑜𝑦 𝑉𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

At A: VAy = 0, H = = , t= =
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

𝑉𝑜2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2𝑜𝑦 2𝑉𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

At C: x = R, y = 0, VC = VO, Vy = - Voy, R = , t= =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

Note: Vy is positive if upward and – if downward

At any point D below the origin, y is negative

Normal or centripetal force:

FN = maN , aN = r𝜔2
Tangential force:
Ft = mat, at = r𝛼
Kinetics of Curvilinear Translation: Dynamic Equilibrium

The kinetic equations are obtained from the equation of motion for the center of
gravity of a body and resolve it into normal and tangential components of its path.

𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 𝑉2 𝑊
R= a, ΣN = an = , ΣT = at
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔 𝑟 𝑔

Dynamic equilibrium is created by applying inertia forces acting through the center of
gravity opposite in direction to the normal and tangential accelerations. These inertia
forces are called centrifugal inertia force or reversed normal effective force, WV 2/gr and
tangential inertia force or reversed tangential effective force, Wa t/g.

Banking of Highway Curves

Ideal angle of banking is the curve banked at an angle θ with the horizontal surface
so that there is no tendency for a car not to slide up or down the road.
𝑉2
tan θ = , V= rated speed or allowed speed of the curve
𝑔𝑟

𝑉2
tan (θ + Ф ) = , V=maximum speed. Car is about to skid upplane.
𝑔𝑟

𝑉2
tan (θ - Ф ) = , V=minimum speed. Car is on the point of slipping downplane.
𝑔𝑟

tan Ф = f, f=coefficient of friction, r = radius of the curve

Example 1:
A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 100 fps. Determine the value of the
angle θ to cause the projectile to hit point A in exactly 5 sec. Find also distance CA.

Use the general formula:

𝑔𝑥 2
y= xtanθ - 2𝑉𝑜2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃 , x =V0cosθ.t=100 cosθ(5)

32.2𝑥 2
-110 = x tanθ - 2(100)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃

-110 = 500sinθ – 402.5, θ = 35.803o, ans.

CA = 100 cos35.803o (5) = 405.517 ft. ans.

Example 2:
The rated speed of a highway curve of 60-m radius is 45kph. If the coefficient of
friction between tires and road surface is 0.50, determine the maximum speed at which a
car can round the curve without skidding.
Solution:

45𝑘𝑚 1000𝑚/𝑘𝑚
V= x 3600𝑠𝑒𝑐/ℎ𝑟 = 12.5 m/s
ℎ𝑟

𝑉2 (12.5)2
tan θ = = , θ = 14.88o,
𝑔𝑟 9.81(60)

tan Ф = 0.50, Ф = 26.565o

a. No skidding:
𝑊𝑉 2
ΣFN=0: N = sinθ + Wcosθ, F=fN
𝑔𝑟

𝑊𝑉 2
ΣFT=0: F = cosθ - Wsinθ
𝑔𝑟

𝑚 3600
Solving for V: V=22.786 x 1𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 82.03kph ans.
𝑠

𝑉2
b. tan(θ+Ф) = , V2 = 9.81(60)tan 41.445o
𝑔𝑟

3600
V = 22.798( ) = 82.07kph, ans.
1000

Example 3:
A 50-N block rests on the smooth inclined surface of the frame. The block is forced
to rotate about the vertical axis due to a peg which is attached to the frame. Solve for the
speed in rpm and the force in the cord attached to the block.
Solution:

FBD of block:
𝑊𝑉 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠30
ΣFy=0: Wcos30o = sin30o, V2 = gr
𝑔𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛30

𝑊𝑉 2
ΣFx=0: T = Wsin30o + cos30o
𝑔𝑟

𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑔𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠30
= 50sin30o + ( )
𝑔𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛30

= 25+75 = 100 N, ans.

𝑐𝑜𝑠30
V2 = gr = 9.81(2.6)(1.732)= 44.178
𝑠𝑖𝑛30
𝑚 60
V = 6.647 ( ) = 24.412 rpm ans.
𝑠 2𝜋𝑟
Learning Activities:

Problem 4:
The projectile shown with Vo = 360 m/s is fired up a hill as shown. Determine the
range R along the incline.

Problem 5:
The hammer weighing 70kN is attached to the end of a bar of a negligible weight.
The bar is 2m long that is pivoted to the horizontal axis at point O. Determine the bearing
reaction on the pivot at O at the instant after being released from the given position. Find
the bearing reaction just before impact at A if the velocity of the hammer is 5m/s.

Problem 6:
A car of weight 13,200N has its center of gravity at 0.60m above the road surface
and the wheel tread is 1.5m. Using a coefficient of friction to be 0.5, determine the safe
maximum speed without tipping or skidding if the car is travelling around a flat curve of
80-m radius.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 8

Rotation

A rotation is a transformation that turns a figure about a fixed point called the
center of rotation. An object and its rotation are the same shape and size, but the figures
may be turned in different directions. Rotations may be clockwise or counterclockwise.
A rotation is a circular movement of an object around a center (or point) of rotation. A
three-dimensional object can always be rotated about an infinite number of imaginary lines
called rotation axes.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Identify the difference between curvilinear translation and rotation.
Analyze and solve problems in rotation.

Pretest:

How does a body react if rotated and what are the forces acting on it to resist the
motion?
Content:

Characteristics of Rotation:

Rotation is the motion of a body where the particles move in circular parts with
their centers on a fixed straight line called the centers of rotation. The planes of the circles
where the particles move are perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Angular displacement
is measured in radians by the angular distance swept through by the radius of the rotating
body.

The kinematic characteristics of rotation indicates that all particles have identical
values of angular displacement (θ in radians), angular velocity (ω in rad/s) and angular
acceleration (α in rad/s2) but its linear values vary directly with the distance of the particle
from the axis of rotation.

Angular displacement θ is the angle through which a rigid object rotates about a
fixed axis. Radian (in SI unit) is the circular arc length travelled by the point of a rotating
body divided by the distance of the point from the axis. Tangential velocity is the linear
velocity of a tangent point on the rotating body and represents how fast the point is moving
along the arc of the circle.

Rotation with Constant Angular Acceleration:

Given below are the kinematic differential equations with similar equations for
rectilinear motion. The initial direction of rotation is considered positive.

Rectilinear Motion (related by) Rotation

V = Vo + at s = rθ 𝜔 = 𝜔o + 𝛼t
1 1
s = Vot + at2 V = rω θ = 𝜔 ot + 𝛼t2
2 2

V2 = Vo2 + 2as at = r𝛼, an = rω2 ω2 = 𝜔o2 + 𝛼θ

Kinetics of Rotation:

The problems in rotation are referred to a set of reference axes rotating with the
body. The N axis passes through the center of gravity and the center of rotation; the T axis
also passes through the center of rotation but perpendicular to the N axis and the Z axis
coincides with the axis of rotation. The general kinetic equations of rotation are given
below.
𝑊 𝑊
ΣFN = aN = 𝑟ω2 ΣMZ = IX𝛼
𝑔 𝑔

𝑊 𝑊
ΣFT = aT = 𝑟𝛼 ΣM = I𝛼, for centroidal rotation, r = 0
𝑔 𝑔
Dynamic Equilibrium. Non-Centroidal Rotation:

A condition of dynamic equilibrium is created by applying the following: reversed

𝑊
normal effective force or centroidal inertia force rω2 acting radially outward through the
𝑔
center of gravity opposite to the direction of a N; reversed tangential effective force or
𝑊
tangential inertia force r𝛼 acting through the center of gravity opposite to the direction
𝑔
of aT; and inertia couple Iα anywhere on the body acting opposite to the sense of 𝛼.

Example 1:

The rotation of a pulley is given by the equation ω = 6√𝑡 2 ; ω is in radians per sec
and t is in sec. If the value of θ = 4 rad when t = 2 sec, compute the value of θ and α at
the instant when t = 5 sec.

Solution:
𝑑𝜃 𝜃 𝑡
ω= = 6√𝑡 2 , ∫4 𝑑𝜃 = 6 ∫2 √𝑡 2 dt, θ-4= 4t2 from 2→t,
𝑑𝑡

θ = 4+ 4(t2 -4) = 4t2-12

𝑑𝑤 1 3
α= = 6( )(t2)-1/2 = 3t-1 = At t=5sec: θ =4(52) -12 = 88 rad. ans.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑡

3 3
𝛼 = = rad/s2 ans.
𝑡 5

Example 2:

The assembly is consist of a brake lever, compound pulley P and a hanging block
B weighing 250lb. If the block is moves down freely, determine the tension T in the cord
before and after the brake force F = 150lb is applied. Use coefficient of friction to be 0.25
between the compound pulley and the brake block. Thickness of the brake block is 7
inches. Use I =12.ft.lb.s2.
Solution:
𝑊
a. Before the brake force F is applied: m =
𝑔

For block B: ΣFy=ma: a = r𝛼 = 2𝛼

250(2𝛼)
250-T = , T = 250 – 15.528𝛼, eqn. 1
32.2

For pulley: ΣMA =I𝛼: 2T = I𝛼, 2(250-15.528𝛼) = 12𝛼, 𝛼 = 11.613 rad/s2

From eqn. 1: T= 250-15.528(11.613) = 69.673 lb, ans.

b. After the brake force F was applied:

For pulley P: ΣMA =I𝛼: 2T – 3F = 12𝛼, eqn. 2

7
For brake lever: ΣMB = 0: 1N + F = 4.2F, F = fN = 0.25N
12

7
1N+ (0.25N) = 4.2(150), N=549.818 lb, F=0.25(549.818)=137.4545 lb
12

From eqn. 2: 2(250-15.528𝛼) - 3(137.4545) = 12𝛼, 𝛼 = 2.035 rad/s2

From eqn. 1: T = 250 – 15.528𝛼= 250 – 15.528(2.035) = 218.4 lb. ans.

Example 3:

Consider the assembly shown. Block A weighing 50N and block B weighing 55N
rest on the frame that rotates about its vertical axis at a constant speed. Use f=0.20 for
all surfaces of contact. Determine the speed in rpm that will start the blocks to slide and
the tension in the cord at this instant.
 Solution:
𝑊
a. Inertia force: ma = rω2
𝑔

𝑊 50 55
Block A: rω2 = (2.5)ω2 = 12.742ω2, Block B: (3.5)ω2 = 19.623ω2
𝑔 9.81 9.81

b. FBD of blocks:

A: ΣFx=0: T-WAsin20o-FA-12.742ω2=0, ΣFy=0: NA = WAcos20o =20.404

T= 50sin20o+4.0808+12.742 ω2 FA = 0.20(20.404)=4.0808
= 49.728+12.742 ω2

B: ΣFx=0: T+FB-WBsin20o-19.623ω2=0 ΣFy=0: NB = WBcos20o=22.4445

T=55sin20o+19.623ω2-4.489 FB = 0.20NB = 4.489
= 45.723+19.623ω2

Equate values of T: 49.728+12.742 ω2 = 45.723+19.623ω2, ω2 = 0.582,

𝑟𝑎𝑑 60
ω = 0.763 x = 7.286 rpm ans.
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝜋

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:

The rotation of a flywheel is defined by the relation ω = 2 √4𝑡 + 1 rad/sec. When

t=0, θ=4 rad. Determine the value of θ and 𝛼 when t =5 sec.

Problem 2:

A 1.8-m long rod that weighs 45N is placed on a circular horizontal board having
a radius of 1.2m. The ends of the rod bear against the smooth circular rim around the edge
of the table. The assembly is rotated at 100 rpm about the center of the table. Solve for
the reactions on the rim at the ends of the rod.
Problem 3:

A 0.30m diameter cylinder A that weighs 100kN is suspended by a cord and rests
against a smooth inclined plane surface. If the plane surface is rotated at 30rpm about the
vertical axis, determine the force in the cord and the pressure against the plane surface.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 9

Plane Motion

Plane motion is the motion of a body wherein its particles remain at a constant
distance from a fixed reference and move in parallel planes. With this, all particles that lie
in the same straight line perpendicular to the reference plane have the same values of
displacement, velocity and acceleration. Plane of motion is the plane where the center of
gravity moves.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Analyze and solve problems in plane motion.

Pretest:

How does a body react if rotated and what are the forces acting on it to resist the
motion?
Content:

Fundamental Concept of Plane Motion:

Plane motion is equivalent to a combination of rotation about a reference point and

translation of that reference point. Given below are the kinematic equations at a particular
instant where A is the reference point and B is any other point in the body.

SB = SA ↛ (SB/A = rθ), → SB/A is read as displacement of B

VB = VA ↛ (VB/A = rω) assumed rotating about A.

aB = aA ↛ (aB/A = rω2+rθ)

For free-rolling disk or sphere, the relation between translation of the geometric
center of the body are shown below where A is the geometric center of the body and r is
the distance from A to the surface where the body rolls.

SA = rθ, VA = rω, aA = r𝛼

Instantaneous Center and Axis of Rotation:

In plane motion, the instantaneous axis of rotation is the line joining points of zero
velocity while the instant center C is located at the intersection this line with the plane of
motion. At any point, the velocity can be solved assuming that the body were actually
rotating about the instant center. For a free-rolling body, the instant center is located at
the point of contact with the surface where the body rolls.

Kinematic Equations of Plane Motion:

The leftmost figure below depicts a body which is applied by non-concurrent

forces. Assume that the resultant force R does not pass through the center of gravity G
as shown in the center figure. This resultant R can be replaced by an equivalent force and
couple shown in the rightmost figure.

Therefore the rotational component of plane motion is given by the equation of

centroidal rotation ΣM=I𝛼 where I is the centroidal mass moment of inertia of the body and
its angular acceleration. The translational component is R=ma or by its components.
When the center of gravity is selected as the reference point, the kinematic equations of
plane motion are as follows:
𝑊
ΣFx= max, ΣFy= may, ΣM = I𝛼, where m =
𝑔

For free-rolling bodies with the references axes to pass through the center of
gravity, the X axis is chosen parallel to the surface on which the body rolls and is positive
in the initial direction of motion. Use the following equations:

ΣFx= max, ΣFy= 0, ΣM = I𝛼, ΣMc = IC𝛼 ,

Dynamic Equilibrium in Plane Motion:

Dynamic equilibrium in plane motion is created by applying inertia forces acting

through the center of gravity and an inertia couple I𝛼. The inertia couple is directed
opposite to the sense of 𝛼. The inertia forces consist of the components of ma acting
respectively opposite to the acceleration components which determine a in terms of the
acceleration aA of a reference point A and the rotational components of the acceleration
of the center of gravity about A.

Example 1:

The rod AB moves with its ends in contact with the vertical and the horizontal
surfaces. At the instant θ = 35o, the rod has a clockwise angular velocity ω= 6 rad/sec and
a clockwise angular acceleration 𝛼= 8 rad/s2. Solve for the linear velocity and acceleration
of A and B.
 a. Solving for velocities: b. Solving for accelerations:
Choose A as the reference point: aB = aA ↛ (aB/A = rω2+rθ)
VB = translation of reference pt. A + aA = 900cos35o- 200sin35o
rotation of B about ref. pt. A.
VB = VA ↛ VB/A = rω = 622.52cm/s2→

VA = 150cos55o =86.04cm/s aB = 900sin35o +200cos35o

VB = 150sin55o = 122.87cm/s = 352.39cm/s2 ↙

b. Solving for accelerations:

Example 2:
aB = aA ↛ (aB/A = rω2+rθ)
Assuming the fixed pulleys to be frictionless, determine the acceleration of the
gravity center of the disk that rolls without slipping. For the blocks: WA = 96.6 lb, and WB
= 48.3alb. o W=200o =622.52cm/s 2
A = For the disk:
900cos35 - 200sin35 lb and k = 2.45
→ ft.

aB = 900sin35o +200cos35o =352.39cm/s2↙

Solution:

a. Motion of the system:

If system is at rest: ΣMC=0: 2TA = 3.1TB, 2(96.6) > 3.1(48.3), 193.3>149.73

then, block A moves down, block B moves up and pulleys rotate in ccw direction.

a. Solving for IC: Transfer I of pulleys to pt. C.

200 200
IC = I + Md2 = Mk2 + Md2 = (2.45)2 + (1)2 = 43.5 ft.lb.sec2
32.2 32.2

where d = distance from center of pulleys to pt.C.

b. Consider the FBD of the blocks:

 96.6
Block A: ΣFy =maA: 96.6 – TA = (2𝛼), TA = 96.6 - 6𝛼
32.2

48.3
Block B: ΣFy =maB: 48.3 – TB = (3. 1𝛼), TB = 48.3 – 4.65𝛼
32.2

c. Consider the FBD of the pulleys:

ΣMC = I𝛼: 2TA + 3.1TB = 43.5𝛼

2( 96.6 - 6𝛼) + 3.1(48.3 – 4.65𝛼) = 43.5𝛼

𝛼 = 4.905 rad/s2, a = r𝛼 = 1(4.905) = 4.905 ft/s2 ans.

Example 3:

The drum carries a wooden bar AB weighing 500N which is pinned to the drum at
B and attached to smooth pins at A. It rolls without slipping due to the force F applied as
shown. At the given instant, ω = 5 rad/s while 𝛼 = 7 rad/s2, both clockwise. Solve for the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at A and the force in the smooth
pins at B.

Solution:
𝑊
a. Choose O as the reference point: m = , ao = r𝛼 (drum)
𝑔

𝑊 500 𝑊 500
ao = (0.8)(7) = 285.423 N r𝛼 = (0.3)(7) = 107.034 N
𝑔 9.81 𝑔 9.81

𝑊 500 1 1 500
rω2 = (0.3)(5) = 76.453 N I𝛼= mL2𝛼 = ( )(1.166)(7)=34.667N.m
𝑔 9.81 12 12 9.81

b. ΣMA=I𝛼: 1.166RB+0.5(285.423+76.453) - 0.3(500+107.034)= 34.667, RB=30.737 N

 ΣFx=0: Ax = 285.423 + 76.453 +30.737sinθ = 388.237 N ans.

ΣFy=0: Ay = 500 + 107.034 – 30.737cosθ = 591.217N ans.

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:

The system shown is consists of a cylinder 0.80m in diameter weighing 250N that
rests on the horizontal floor and attached to it and concentric with it is a hollow cylinder
0.40m in diameter around which a cord is wrapped. Solve for the force P to produce an
a=4m/s2. Find the frictional force F and the linear velocity of the center after moving 12m
1
from rest. Use I = mr2.
2

Problem 2:

The free rolling solid sphere of weight W is placed on an inclined surface at an

angle θ with the horizontal. Determine the value of the coefficient of friction and the linear
acceleration.
Problem 3:

As shown, a solid cylinder with a diameter of 0.30m and weighs 180 N has a cord
wound around it. Determine the linear acceleration and the tension in the cord if it is
released from rest and allowed to fall. Solve for the linear velocity of the center of the
cylinder after it has fallen 1.2m.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 9

Work and Energy

The work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a body
is due to an equal amount of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting
on it. A simple example is when an object is standing still and we force it to move. Work is
closely related to energy. This method eliminates acceleration and internal forces of the
system in its solution leading directly to the answer. However, the force-inertia method
used in the preceding units is necessary in determining instantaneous acceleration due to
the variable forces or moments.

Work-energy method or energy method is an alternate method of solving dynamic

problems and is helpful if it involves solving position and velocity where two different
positions are known along the path of motion.

Learning Outcome:

At the end of this unit, the learner will be able to:

Analyze and apply the work and energy principle to solving problems in
translation, rotation and plane motion.

Pretest:

Answer the questions below:

1. Give the relationship between work and energy.
2. If work is done on a body, what happens to energy?
 Content:

Work, Energy and Power:

Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but be transformed from one form to
another. The unit of energy is equal to the unit of work which is Joules. All forms of energy
are either kinetic or potential. Kinetic energy is the energy in motion whereas potential
energy is the energy stored in an object and is measured by the amount of work done.

Power is the rate of doing work on a body. It is the amount of energy consumed
per unit time. It can be solved using the formula P = Wt (Joules/sec or watt) where W =
work done, and t= time taken. If F is the net force doing the work, the work done at any
instant is ΣFx•ds = F•ds and the power exerted is P = FV where V is the instantaneous
velocity.

W0rk-Energy Equation for Translation

The fundamental work-energy equation for translation states that the resultant
work on a translating body is equal to the corresponding change in kinetic energy. It is
given in equation form below.

𝑠 𝑊
∫0 𝑋•s ds = 2𝑔
(V2 – Vo2), where ΣX•s = resultant work
𝑊 𝑊
Σ X•s = (V2 – Vo2), V2 = kinetic energy
2𝑔 2𝑔

The dot product is needed since only the force in the direction of the motion will produce
work. It is a scalar quantity.

Meaning of Work:

Work is done on a body when it moves with the application of an external force.
Work involves a movement and force in the direction of the force. Energy is the ability to
perform work. In work-energy equation, work is the product of the component of the force
in the direction of the displacement multiplied by the displacement, or the product of the
component of the displacement in the direction of the force multiplied by the force.

Work is considered accelerating work or positive work if the force is acting in the
direction of motion that is, increasing its velocity. However, it is called retarding work or
negative work if the force is acting opposite the motion that is, reducing its velocity. The
algebraic sum of the positive and negative work is the resultant work, RW.

Work-Energy Method for Different Sets of Forces:

 If an object is subjected to different sets of forces during different phases of its
motion, the resultant work summed up for all these phases is equal to the total change in

kinetic energy. Then the work-energy equation becomes

𝑊 𝑊
ΣX1•s1 = (V12 – Vo2), ΣX2•s2 = (V22 – V12),
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑊
ΣX1•s1 + ΣX2•s2 = (V22 – V02),
2𝑔

Example 1:

The blocks are connected by cords as shown. Determine the value of the force P
required in order for the system to have a velocity of 10m/s after moving 6m from rest.
Use coefficient of kinetic friction to be 0.25 and θ = 40o.

Solution:
a. Solve for normal and frictional resistance
N1= 450N N2 = 900cos40o N3 = 250N
F1 = 0.25(450) = 112.5 F2 = 0.25N2 = 172.36 F3 = 0.25(250) = 62.5N

b. Solve for the force P:

𝑊
RW = ΔKE: Σ X•s = (V2 – Vo2)
2𝑔
1
(P-112.5-172.36-62.5)(10) = (450+900+250) (102-0),
2(9.81)
P = 1162.854N ans.

Example 2:

An object is dropped from a height of 7 ft upon a spring having a modulus of 100

lb per inch. If the object weighs 112.7 lb, find the velocity of the block at the instant the
spring is deformed 5 inches.
 RW = ΔKE:
1
Work done by spring= ks2
2
1 𝑊
ΣX•s - ks2 = (V2 – Vo2)
2 2𝑔
5 1 5 112.7
112.7 (7+ ) - ( ) (5x100) = (V2 – 0)
12 2 12 2(32.2)

835.858 – 104.167 = 1.75V2

V = 20.448 fps

Example 3:

A train weighs 1800 tons and its resistance is constant at 15 lb/ton. Determine
the speed if 7000 hp are available to pull the train up a 3% grade.

Train resistance,
𝑙𝑏
R = 15 x 1800tons = 27,000 lb
𝑡𝑜𝑛
2000𝑙𝑏 3
ΣFx=0: F= 1800 tons( )( )+27,000
𝑡𝑜𝑛 100

= 135,000 lb
𝐹𝑉 135000𝑉
hp= , 7000= , V = 28.519 fps
550 550

Work-Energy Equation for Rotation

The work-energy equation for rotation and the methods used are similar to
translation and is given below.

θ 1
∫0 ΣM • dθ = 2 I(ω2- ωo2)

1
where ΣM•θ is the resultant work and Iω2 is the kinetic energy in rotation. Work is positive
2
in the direction of motion.

The work-energy equation given below is applied to system of bodies some of

which will translate and others rotate.
𝑊 1
Σ(ΣX•s) + Σ(ΣM•θ) = Σ ((V2 – Vo2 ) + Σ I(ω2- ωo2)
2𝑔 2
Example 1:

When a solid cylinder is released from the top of the 45o inclined surface, it freely
rolls down. Determine the linear speed at the foot of the incline which is 3m below the
initial position of the cylinder.

Use the equation:

Potential energy=Kinetic energy
1 1
mgh = mV2 + I ω2
2 2
1 1 2 𝑉
mgh = mV2 + ( mr2)( )2
2 2 5 𝑟
1 1
9.81(3) = V2 + V2
2 5

V = 6.484 m/s ans.

Example 2:

At the end of a 1.5m cord is attached a 100-N sphere which is swung in vertical
circle. At the lowest position of the vertical circle, the tension in the cord is 450N. Solve for
the height the cord will rise on the circular path. If the cord is replaced by a stiff bar, what
would this height be?

a. Using a cord: At A: T = 100N

100
ΣFy=0: 450=100+ 9.81(1.5) (VA)2
( VA)2 = 51.50, VA= 7.18 m/s
100
At B: T = 0, ΣFy=0: 100cosθ = 9.81(1.5) (VB)2
(VB)2 = 14.715cosθ

WE equation for curvilinear translation:

VB2 = VA2 – 2gh1

14.715cosθ = 51.5-2(9.81)(1.5+1.5cosθ), θ=60o

h1 = 1.5+1.5cos60o = 2.25m ans.

b. Using stiff bar: At B: VB = 0

VB2 = VA2 – 2gh2
0 = 51.50 – 2(9.81)h2, h2=2.62m ans.

Tension T is always normal to the circular path and does no work. The WE equation
𝑊
for curvilinear translation is: Wh = [(VB)2-(VA)2], VB2 = VA2 ± 2gh
2𝑔
Example 3:

The hanging block is attached to the outer pulley while the block on the incline on
the inner pulley. Solve for the distance travelled by block A in changing its velocity from
15 to 27 fps. Also solve for the tension of the cord attached to block B. Use WA = 400lb,
WB = 500lb, fk = 0.20, and for the drums: W = 322lb and k = 2ft.

Solution:

a. Motion of the system: assume it at rest

ΣM=0: 3TA = 2TB, 3(400) > 2(500), compound pulley rotate in ccw direction,
so block A moves down and block B upplane.

b. Kinematic relations: s = rθ
sB = 2θ, 3θ = sA VB = 2/3 (27) = 18. ω = VB/2 = 9
2
sB = 2θ = sA VBo = 2/3 (15) = 10 ωo = 10/2 = 5
3
2 322
VB = 2ω = VA Io = mk2 = (22) = 40 ft.lb.s2
3 32.2

4 3
Block B: N = 500( ) = 400, F = fN = 0.20(400) = 80 lb, Wsinθ =500( ) = 300
5 5

c. Work-energy equation;
W 1
Σ(ΣX•s) + Σ(ΣM•θ) = Σ 2g((V2 – Vo2 ) + Σ2 I(ω2- ωo2)
2 400 500 1
400sA – (80+300)( sA) + 0 = ((272–152) + (182–102)+ (40)(92- 52)
3 2(32.2) 2(32.2) 2
253.3333SA = 5989.5652, sA = 23.643 ft. ans.

d. Work-energy equation for translation: FBD of block B

𝑊
Σ X•s = (V2 – Vo2)
2𝑔
2 2 500
TB( )(23.643)-(80+300)( )(23.643)= (182–102), TB = 490.337 lb ans.
3 3 2(32.2)
 Work-Energy Equation for Plane Motion

For plane motion, the work-energy equation is equal to the sum of the expression
for translation of the center of gravity and for centroidal rotation.

𝑊 1
RW = ((V2 – Vo2 ) + I(ω2- ωo2)
2𝑔 2

If location of the instant center is desired, the change in kinetic energy can be
transformed into the equation below where IC and ICo are the moments of inertia about the
final and initial positions of the instant center C.

1 1
ΔKE = IC(ω2 ) - ICo( ωo2)
2 2

For homogeneous free-rolling wheels, the work-energy equation is also

transformed into the form below where ΣM C is the moment about the instant center C of
the constant forces acting during a displacement θ.
1
ΣMC • θ = IC(ω2 - ωo2)
2

Example:

Assuming block B weighing 64.4 lb to move 12 ft from rest, determine the velocity
corresponding to this displacement. Then solve for the tension in the cord joining disk and
pulley P applying the work-energy equation to the free-body diagram of the disk.

W=161lb
k=1.732’

Solution:

a. Motion of the system: assume at rest

ΣMP=0: 3TD = 2(64.4), TD = 42.93lb so, disk D moves cw and
ΣMC=0: 4TD = 161(1sin30o), TD = 20.125lb block B moves down
 b. Moments of inertia and kinematic relations: From s=rθ:
128.8
IP = mk2 = (22) = 16 ft.lb.s2 sA=2θP, 3θP=4θD, 1θD=sD
32.2
161 8 8
IC = mk +md2 =
2
(1.7322+12) = 20 sA = 2θP = θD = sD
32.2 3 3
161 8 8
ID = mk2 = (1.7322) = 15 VA = 2ωP = 𝜔 D = VD
32.2 3 3

c. Work-energy equation:
W 1
ΣX•s + (ΣM•θP) + (ΣM•θD) = (V2 – Vo2 ) + Σ I(ω2- ωo2), MP=0, Vo=0
2g 2
3 64.4 16 1 20 3
64.4(12) -161(1sin30o)( sA) = (VA2) + ( VA)2 + ( VA)2
8 2(32.2) 2 2 2 8
VA = 8.714 fps ans.
d. WE equation for rotation:
1
ΣM• θD = IC(ω2- ωo2)
2
3 20 3
{4TD–161(1sin30o)}( sA) = ( VA)2, {4TD–80.5}( 4.5) = 10(3.268)2
8 2 8
TD = 26.057 lb ans.
e. Friction force on disk D:
Since disk D moves in a clockwise direction, the friction force F must be
directed oposite or in counterclockwise direction.
1
ΣM• θD = ID(ωD2 - ωo2),
2
3 15 3 3 15 3
(3TD – 1F)( )SA = ( VA)2, {3(26.057)–F)}( )(12) = {( )(8.714)}2
8 2 8 8 2 8
F = 60.371lb ans.

Learning Activities:

Problem 1:

A cargo truck weighing 180kN is released from rest at the top of a 2% grade 600m
long and at the foot of the grade is a flat surface 300m long, then a 1% grade. Determine
the distance the cargo truck will travel before it comes to rest for the first time if its
resistance is 4N per kN.

Problem 2:

A sphere weighing 80N is swung in a vertical circle at the end of a cord 1.2m long.
If the velocirty of the sphere at the top is 4m/s, determine the tension in the cord at 150o
past the top position.Find also the minimum velocity at the bottom that will keep the sphere
along the circular path at the top.

Problem 3:

As shown block B drops 4m from rest before striking the ground. The pulley is
mounted on an axle 0.2m in diameter. The friction on the axle is constant at 200N.
Determine the number of turns the pulley makes after the block stops. Also solve for the
tension in the cord before the block hits the ground.

Problem 4:

For the system of blocks shown, determine the distance block a will attain a
velocity of 6m/s starting from rest. Use fk = 0.30, WA = 500N and WB = 400N.
Engineering Mechanics

UNIT 10

Impulse and Momentum

The impulse-momentum theorem is equal to Newton's second law of motion or the

force law. The principle of impulse and momentum describes how an object's linear and
angular momentum change with applied forces and moments. Impulse is the force that
causes reaction motion while momentum is a quantity that characterizes the motion of the
body. Impulse is the change in momentum of a moving body and the rate of change in
momentum is the force applied upon the body.

Learning Outcome:

Analyze and apply the impulse and momentum principle to

solving problems in translation, rotation and plane motion.

Pretest:

Answer the following questions:

1. Why is impulse equal to change in momentum?
2. How is impulse related to the change in momentum?
Pretest:

The impulse-momentum theorem states that the change in momentum of an object

is equal to the impulse to it. Any moving object can have momentum because momentum
is mass in motion. Momentum is mass of the object times its velocity, p=mv, where p is
momentum, m is mass in kilograms, and v is velocity in meters per second. Momentum is
proportional to both mass and velocity, which means that a change in one will cause the
same amount of change in the other. If mass is increased, then so with its momentum.
Like velocity, if the speed is increased or decreased, its momentum is also increased or
decreased by the same amount.

Impulse-Momentum Equation for Translation

Eliminating the equations R=ma and a= dv/dt, the fundamental impulse-momentum

equation is obtained and is given below
𝑡 𝑊 𝑊
∫𝑜 𝑅𝑑𝑡 = V→ Vo
𝑔 𝑔

The left side of the equation is the resultant impulse while the right side is the linear
momentum and both are vector quantities.

The component of resultant impulse along any axis is equal to the change in the
components of the linear momentum along the axis. The impulse-momentum equation for
translation is given below where all particles have the same values of s,V and a.
𝑡 𝑊 𝑊
∫𝑜 𝛴𝑋 • 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑔
Vx -
𝑔
VOx

For dynamic action of jets, the same principle is applied where the components of
resultant impulse are equal to the change in the corresponding components of momentum.

Conservation of Momentum:

The principle of conservation of momentum: The condition that the momentum be

constant applies only to the system as a whole, never to its component parts.

𝑊1 𝑊2 𝑊1 𝑊2
V1 ↛ V2 ↛ ••• = V1 ’ ↛ V2’ ↛ •••
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

For example, if a shell is discharged from a gun, the force acting on the shell is always
equal and opposite to the force acting on a gun. The resultant force on the shell and gun
is zero since there is action and reaction forces between them.
Elastic Impact:

Problems involving direct central impact are determined from the principle of
conservation of momentum together with the definition of the coefficient of restitution e.
For oblique impact, the formula for e will be used but the components of the velocities
along the common normal to the colliding bodies will be considered. For e, use the formula

where: e is the vectorial subtraction

of velocities after impact divided by
the velocities before impact.

Example 1:

For the system of blocks shown, it has a leftward velocity of 10 fps. Determine the
value of P that will give it a rightward velocity of 20 fps at a time interval of 20 sec. Use fk
= 0.20.

Solution:

a. Leftward direction:
𝑊
ΣX• t = (V-Vo), F1=0.2(200cos30o)=34.641 lb, F2=0.2(100)=20 lb
𝑔

1
(400-20-34.641-200sin30o-P) t1 = (200+300+400)(0-10)
32.2

−217.391
t1 =
245.359−𝑃

b. Rightward direction:
1
(P+200sin30o- 34.641- 20- 400) t2 = (200+300+400)(20-0)
32.2

434.783
t2 =
𝑃−354.641

−217.391 434.783
c. From: t = t1 + t2, 20 = + , solving: P = 378.307 lb ans.
245.359−𝑃 𝑃−354.641
Example 2:

Consider the vane shown. A stream of water flowing at 112.7 lb/sec moves
leftward at 120 fps and strikes the vane. If half of the water flows across each part of the
vane, solve for the force needed to hold it in place.

Solution:
𝑊 56.351
a. ΣX• t = (Vx -Vox), Px• t = t { [100cos60o-(-100)] + [100cos30o-(-100)] }
𝑔 32.2

Px = 1.75{150 + 108.66} = 452.655 lb

𝑊 56.351
b. ΣY• t = (Vy -Voy), Py• t = t { (100sin60o- 0)] + (-100sin30o-0) }
𝑔 32.2

Py = 1.75 {86.60 – 50} = 64.05 lb

c. Solving for P: P2 = Px2 + Py2, P = 457.164 lb ans.

Example 3:

Two spheres are attached to stiff rods as shown. Sphere 1 is released from rest
and allowed to hit sphere 2. Using e = 0.60, solve for the angle θ through which sphere 2
will rise. Determine the average impact force if the impact lasts for 0.02 sec.
Solution:

a. Let V1 = velocity of sphere 1 just before it hits sphere 2

h1 = 10-10cos60o = 5’, V12 = VO2 + 2gh1 = 0 + 2(32.2)(5), V1 = 17.944fps

Conservation of momentum:

m1V1 + m2V2 = m1V1’ + m2V2’ , 40(17.944) + 0 = 40V1’ + 30V2’

71.776 = 4V1’ + 3V2’ → eqn 1

b. Coefficient of restitution, e:
𝑉2′ −𝑉1′ 𝑉2′ −𝑉1′
e= , 0.60= , 10.7664 = V2’ – V1’ → eqn 2
𝑉1 −𝑉2 0−17.944

From eqns. 1 and 2: V1’ = 5.64 fps, V2’ = 16.41 fps

c. Sphere 2 will rise a height h2:

16.412 12−4.81
h2 = (V2’)2/2g = = 4.81ft. , cosθ = , θ = 53.2o ans.
64.4 12

d. Impact force at t = 0.02 sec.

𝑊2 30
ΣF• t = (V2’- V2), 0.02F = (16.41-0), F = 764.44 lb. ans.
𝑔 32.2

Impulse-Momentum Equation for Rotation

The impulse-momentum equation for rotation is derived by the elimination of the

angular acceleration in the equations ΣM = I𝛼 and 𝛼 = dω/dt resulting in the equation
t
∫0 ΣM dt = I(ω2- ωo2),

where: ΣMt ( if M is constant)=resultant angular impulse

Iω = angular momentum
 The principle of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to rotating
bodies acted by only mutual reactive forces and is expressed by the equation

I1ω1↛ I2ω2↛ ••• = I1ω1’ ↛ I2ω2’ ↛ •••

Since the axis of rotation of each body is unspecified and the angular momentum is a
vector quantity meaning directed along the axis of rotation, the addition of angular
momentum is vertical. If the bodies are rotating about the same or parallel axes, the
equation becomes algebraic summation.

Example 1:

The block is attached to the pulley as shown. Determine the value of the force P in
order to reach a velocity of 10mps after moving from rest for 8 sec.

Solution:
𝑊
ΣXtr = (V - VO) r + I (ω – ωo), V= rω, 10=1.2ω, ω = 8.333 rad/s
𝑔
𝑊
P(8)(1.2) – F(t r) = (V - 0) r + I (ω – 0), F = fN = 0.20N
𝑔
900
9.6P- 0.2(900)(8)(1.2) = (10)(1.2) + 15(8.333), P = 307.7 N ans.
9.81

Impulse-Momentum Equation for Plane Motion

For bodies undergoing plane motion, the impulse-momentum equation combines the
translational and rotational components of motion. The angular momentum H about any
reference axis through a point A is given by
𝑊 𝑊
HA = IAω + VAx • y - VAy • x
𝑔 𝑔

The equation can be reduced into H = Iω with respect to the center of gravity and into H C
= ICω with respect to the instant center C.
Example:
The system shown is released from rest. Disk D rolls without slipping on the
inclined surface. If the cord is attached to the disk at the underside of the drum, solve for
the velocity of block B after 6 sec. Assume that the cord is parallel to the 30o incline.

Solution:
a. Motion of the system: assume system at rest
ΣMP=0: 1TD = 2TB=2(28.175), TD= 56.35N, →so block B moves up
ΣMC=0: 96.6(3sin30o) = 2TD), 144.9 > 2(56.35) and disk D down plane
a. Kinematic relations: s = rθ
1 1
2ωC = 1ωP, 2ωP = VB, combining: 2ωC = 1ωP = VB, ωC= VB
2 4

b. Moments of inertia:
201.25 96.6
IP = mk2 = (1)2 = 6.25 IC = m(k2+d2) = (1.4142+32) = 33
32.2 32.2

c. Impulse-momentum equation:
𝑊 28.175
Block B: ΣXt = (V - VO), (TB-28.175)(6) = (VB-0),
𝑔 32.2

TB = 28.175+0.146VB
1
Pulley P: ΣMPt = IP(ωp-ωo), (1TD-2TB)(6) = 6.25( VB-0),
2

TD- 2(28.175+0.146VB) = 0.521VB, TD = 56.35+0.813VB

1
Disk D: ΣMCt = IC(ωC-ωo), {96.6(3sin30o)- 2TD}(6)= 33( VB-0)
4

2TD = 144.9 -1.375VB

2(56.35+0.813VB) = 144.9 -1.375VB, VB = 10.73 fps ans.
Learning Activities:

Problem 1:
An object weighing 300kg is placed on a horizontal surface whose coefficient of
kinetic friction is 0.10. If the object is applied by a horizontal force with a magnitude of
50kg, determine the time taken before the object reaches a velocity of 50 meters per
minute from rest. How much longer will the block continue to move if the 50-kg force is
removed?

Problem 2:
A hammer weighing 60N hits the block that rests on the spring shown. The striking
velocity of the hammer is 6m/s. The block and hammer are assumed to remain in contact
after striking. Determine the scale of the spring if the blow causes the spring to be
compressed.

Problem 3:
For the figure shown, determine the value of the force P that will cause the system
of blocks to reach a velocity of 10m/s after moving from rest for 8 sec. Use coefficient of
kinetic friction to be 0.20.
Problem 4:
If sphere A is released from rest on the horizontal floor, determine the velocity of
block B after impact. Solve for the impact force for a time of contact lasting 0.02 sec. Find
the maximum distance traveled by B after impact and the time to cover this distance. Use
e=0.60 and fk = 0.20.

Problem 5:
For the system of blocks shown below, determine the velocity of block A after it
has moved 3m from rest. Use coefficient of kinetic friction equal to 0.20, W A = 500N and
WB = 350N.
References:

Beer, Johnson, (2003). Vector Mechanics for Engineers: Dynamics (7th ed). McGraw-Hill
Singer, F.L., Engineering Mechanics (2nd ed). Harper and Row
Hibbeler, R.C., (2012). Structural Analysis (9th ed). Prentice Hal
Rajan, S.D., (2001). Introduction to Structural Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons.
Utku, Senol, Norris, C.H. and Wilbur, J.B., (1991). Elementary Structural Analysis (4th ed).
McGraw-Hill, Inc
Hibbeler, Russel C., (2002). Mechanics of Materials (5th ed). Prentice Hall, Inc.
McGill, David and Wilton M. King, (2000). Engineering Mechanics. An Introduction to
Dynamics, 3rd ed,, PWS Publishing Co.
https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/~minamdar/ce102/Files/Friction.pdf
https://www.kpu.ca/sites/default/files/Faculty%20of%20Science%20%26%20Horticulture
/Physics/Ch3-%203%20-%203D%20Forces.pdf
https://www.iitg.ac.in/rkbc/me101/Presentation/L01-03.pdf
https://www.mathalino.com/node/1580/h5p-results
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_of_inertia
https://images.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?p=moment+of+inertia
http://site.iugaza.edu.ps/nmezaini/files/Ch-10.3.pdf
http://www.ecourses.ou.edu/cgi-
bin/ebook.cgi?doc=&topic=dy&chap_sec=03.1&page=theory
Rubric:

PROBLEM-SOLVING RUBRIC

Criteria Exemplary Good Needs Improvement

Applying 4-5 2-3 0-1
previous
knowledge
Integration Effectively applies previous Applies limited Unable to make
of knowledge knowledge to current amount of prior connection to
problem. Integrates with knowledge to current previous knowledge.
new information to assist problem. Does not Unwilling to review
problem solving process. consistently use summaries of prior
information knowledge for useful
effectively. information.
Sharing Team members all work Some exchange of Each team member
previous together to gain knowledge information and must teach him/her
knowledge and apply and synthesize discussion occurs, but self. No sharing of
information. All listen team members do not knowledge among
respectfully to the opinions work consistently to team.
of others. address each one’s
needs or
understanding.
Glossary

Concentrated load- is a force applied at a single point on a beam or structure

Displacement- is the motion of an object relative to a reference frame, then the object's
position changes. This change in position is known as displacement.
Modulus of elasticity-measure of the elastic force of a substance expressed as the
ratio of the stress applied to the substance to the accompanying distortion or strain.
Moving load- In structural dynamics this is the load that changes in time the place to which
is applied.

Rigid- is a solid body in which deformation is zero or so small it can be neglected. The
distance between any two given points on a rigid body remains constant in time regardless
of external forces exerted on it.
Strain- is the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress.
Stress- is the force applied to a material, divided by the material's cross-sectional area.
σ = stress (N/m2, Pa) F = force (N) A0 = original cross-sectional area (m2)
Uniformly distributed load- is a load that is distributed or spread across the whole region
of an element such as a beam or slab whose magnitude remains uniform throughout the
whole element or span.
Answer Key:

Unit 1:
Pretest: 1. Pinned supports allow rotation of the member that frames into it,

but does not allow lateral movement in the horizontal direction.

Roller supports allow both rotation and lateral movement. Fixed

supports allow neither rotation nor lateral movement. All three do

not allow vertical settlement.

Activites: 1. S = 86.37N T, P = 133.25N C

2. Rx = 1437.5N→, Ry = 1510.177N ↓, R = 2084.956N, down
to the right at θ46.41o and passes through the axle.
3. C = 1180 in.lb clockwise; two 65.56-lb force
Unit 2:
Activities: 1. Θ = 19.106o
2. AB = 375 N, RC = 1273.86 N, θx = 76.97o
3. RA = 1.00 kN↓, RB = 18.00 kN↓

Unit 3:
Activities: 1. CG = 6.708 kN T, CF = 3 kN C
2. DE = 8.485kN, Bx = 3kN, RC = 7.21kN, RA = 10.44kN

Unit 4:
Activities: 1. P = 232.59N

2. P = 2694.64N
3. f = 0.314
4. AB = 500N, AC = 270N, AD = 192N
5. AB = 737.50kg, AC = 360.46kg, AD = 470.04kg
6. L = 976.128m
7. d = 9.714m
 8. a. Difference in elevation = 48m
b. Vertical distance, yBC=y2 – c = 480-474.962=5.038m
c. Horizontal distance, xAB = 222.421+69.116=291.537m

Unit 5:
Activities: 1. y = 3.46 ft.
2. x = 39.71”, y = 30.39”
3. H = 3.464 ft.
4. Ix = 908 in4
5. Pxy = 455.6 in4, Pxy = - 30.4 in4
6. Max. I = 120 in4, min. I = 20 in4, θ = 63.4o
Unit 7:
Activities: 1. W = 2993.635
2. t = 10.5 sec., s = 183.26 m
3. aB = 0.501m/s2
4. R = 9616.863m
5. a) R = 53.623 kN, b) R = 159.195 kN
6. Max. safe V = 71.313 kph
Unit 8:
Activities: 1. θ = 35.74 radians, 𝛼 = 0.873 rad/s2

2. R = 301.824N

3. T = 106.724kN, N= 15.149kN

Unit 9:

Activities: 1. P = 101.937 N, F = 0, V = 9.8 m/s

2 5
2. f = W sinθ, a = g sinθ,
7 7

3. a = 6.54 m/2, T= 60 N, V= 3.96 m/s

4. VB’ = 2.6574m/s, P = 3764.65N,

Unit 10:

Pretest: 1. Transferring energy by the force to move an object is called work or

work done. Then, the relation between work and energy is direct.
The difference in the kinetic energy of an object is the work done by
an object.
 2. Energy is added to the object when work is done on it. For example,
if you apply a force on an object, you are doing work on the object,
then the object gains kinetic energy which gives it speed.

Activities: 1. S = 1500 m

2. T = 476.612N, V = 7.672 m/s

3. θP = 5.16 revolutions, T = 195.306 N

4. sA = 19.973 m

Unit 11:
Pretest: 1. Impulse is the resultant force applied over a longer time that produces
a bigger change in linear momentum than the same force applied
briefly.
2. Impulse is directly related to momentum because impulse is a term
describing an object's change in momentum. If an object changes
speed then its momentum changes. This measurable quantity of
momentum changing is the impulse of the object.

Activities: 1. t = 1.274 sec, t = 0.849sec, s = 0.354m

2. k = 35,229.36N/m
3. P = 673.279 N
4. VB’ = 7.5293 m/s, P= 3764.65N,
5. VA = 1.219m/s
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About the Author:

Of course, life is not just a bed of roses. Challenges and hardships are an integral
element of life. Being born from poor parents did not hinder her to seek education away
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where she had acquired the degree in civil engineering.

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