SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

Sensation is the pre awareness of any stimulus without reference to its meaning. In general when
we speak of sensation we are thinking of stimuli and investigating the relationship of the
individual's experience of the various stimuli which reach his receptors (Woodworth and
Marquis 1965). Sensation is produced by external stimuli acting on the sensory organs; in its
intensity, it depends on the strength of the stimuli, ands\ in its quality on the nature of the sensory
organ (Eyesenck and et. al., 1972).

Reception of the stimulus is the mutual function of the external and internal reaction. External
stimulus forces the individual to react in a particular way. The recptor cells (sense organs)
receive the stimulus. All sense organs have special type of cells that are programmed to receive
special stimulus. Sensation is the primary knowledge of the external world. It lacks prior
knowledge and experience thus situation is often called as simple and meaningless. Knowledge
of the stimulus is the result of interpretation of it which is only possible when past experiences
are related with the stimulus. The process of perception makes the stimulus meaningful.
Sensation can also be defined as:

 Sensation is the process that makes possible, and facilitates our contact with reality
 'To sense' means aware of something.
 All living organism have sense organs. Sensation is the process by which our sense organ
respond to different stimuli.

What is the slightest amount of sensation that stimulates us?

Sense Absolute threshold equivalent

Vision Candle thirty miles away in a dark night
Hearing Tick of a watch twenty feet away in a quiet room
Taste Teaspoon of sugar dissolved in two gallons of water
Touch A bee's falling on the cheek from a height of one centimeter
Warmth and A one-to-two-degree (Celsius) change in skin temperature
cold
Table 3.1 Source: Galanter, 1962

External stimulus compels the individual to react in a particular way. The recptor cells (sense
organs) receive the stimulus. Each sense organ is programmed to receive a unique form of
stimulus. For example, eye will never respond to sounds. Every sebse organ is adapted to
respond only to specific types of stimuli. It is term the 'appropriate stimuli'.

We get sensation only when some sense organ is stimulated. A sensation is the response or a
reaction aroused in us by a stimulus. A stimulus is any change in outside energy that arouses a
sense organ and its receptor. It is stimulus only when it stimulates. Light is not a stimulus to a
blind man nor is a sound to a deaf man.

THE PROCESS OF SENSATION: HOW SENSATION OCCURS?

Human sense organs are always stimulated by objects, events, or person. Such forces are called
stimulus and they remain in environment. These stimuli in the environment exist in the form of
physical energy. The sensory receptors of the sense organs receive the physical energy (stimulus)
and translate into neural signals. This process of translating is called transduction. The receptor
cell when physical energy are coded into neural signal will be able to send them to brain center
for processing. The cells of the brain called neurons carry the neural impulses to spinal cord then
to specific brain centers. Simple mental process occurs at the brain center. this is called primary
process or sensation. This sensation is without meaning.

There are five external sense organs- eye (for visual sensation), nose (for olfactory sensation),
skin (for tactual sensation), ear (for auditory sensation), and tongue (for gustatory/ taste
sensation). There are also muscular sensation and sensation of visceral parts (e.g., hunger pangs).
External sense organs have special types of cells that are programmed to receive special
stimulus. Sensation is the primary knowledge of external world. It lacks prior knowledge and
experience thus sensation is often called simple and without meaning. Knowledge of the stimulus
is the result of interpretation of which it is only possible when past experiences are related with
the stimulus. Only the process of perception makes the stimulus meaningful.

SENSORY THRESHOLD (ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD)

An absolute threshold is the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present for to be
detected (Aazh & Moore, 2007). As more strength of a stimulus increases, the likelihood that it
will be detected increases gradually. Technically then, an absolute thresjold is the smallest
amount of energy needed for a person to consciously detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time is
present.

It often takes a very small stimulus to produce a response in our senses. For example, the sense
of touch is so sensitive that we can feel a bee's wing falling on our cheeks when it is dropped
from a distance of centimeter.

In fact, our senses are so fine-tuned that we might have problems if they were any more
sensitive. For instance, if our ears were slightly more acute, we would be able to hear the sound
of air molecules in our eras knocking into the eardrum- a phenomenon that would surely prove
distracting and might even prevent us from hearing sounds outside our bodies.

SENSORY ADAPTATION AND HABITUATION

Sensory adaptation is an adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging

stimuli. Adaptation occurs as people become accustomed (familiar) to a stimulus and change
their frame of reference. In a sense, our brain mentally turns down the volume of the stimulation
that it's experiencing (Calin-Jageman & Fischer, 2007). One example of adaptation is the
decrease in sensitivity that occurs after repeated exposure to a strong stimulus. If you were to
hear a loud tone over and over again, eventually it would begin to sound softer. Isimilarly,
although jumping into a cold lake may be temporarily unpleasant, eventually you will probably
will get used to that temperature.

This apparent decline in sensitivity to sensory stimuli is due to the inability of the sensory nerve
receptors to fire off messages to the brain immediately. Because these receptor cells are most
responsive to changes in stimulation. constant stimulation is not effective in producing a
sustained reaction. (Wark, Lundstorm, & Fairhall, 2007).

Habituation is similar to Sensory Adaptation, which is the gradual decrease in behavioral

responses with repeated encounters to a particular stimulus of little value. Habituation is a
tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.

Deferential Threshold. The smallest deference in stimulation that can be reliably detected by an
observer when two stimuli are compared. Also called just noticeable deference (JDN).

Sensory adaption

It is the diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus. It is an adjustment in

sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanged stimulus. Adaptation
occurs as people become familiar to a stimulus. In a sense, our brain mentally turn
down the volume of stimulation that is experiencing. For example . If we were to
hear a loud tone over a long period again, eventually, the sound become softer .
Similarly, dipping hand in cold icy water we feel cold and complain ‘ how cold it
is’. But it goes on alright.

Deprivation—The absence of normal level of sensory stimulation .

Benefits of Sensory adaptation.

Provide attention to changes in the environment. It make our sensory receptor able
to adapt in the environment. It allows to us to free our attention to focus on more
important things. It provides attention changes environment. It enable our sensory
organs to adapt changing environment. However it harmful in certain cases of
smoke or harmful chemicals.

Habituation.
It is similar to sensory adaptation.There is gradual decrease in behavioural
response with repeated encounters to a particular stimulus of little value.
Habituation is a tendency of brain to stop attending to constant, unchangeable
information.

Attributes of sensation.
Quality

Different sensation have different qualities.The sensation of vision differ from sensation of taste.
Each sensation also differ in quality. In Visual sensation there are different colours. Taste
sensation has sweet, sour, bitter , salt etc tastes. In olfactory sense, smoky, resinous, fruity,
flowery etc. In sense of touch, pain, pressure etc.

Intensity

Intensity is the degree of strength. Bright colour and light colour. It depends on the individual’s
mental state and strength of stimulus. Person like Same sound, colour, taste in a particular
ocassion but dislike in other. In dance party, we prefer loud sound but low sound while working
or studying.

Duration. Appearance moment of stimulus signifies its duration. It may be longer or shorter
duration. Sensation of longer duration gives strong sensation. Longer duration advertisement has
more effect than shorter one. COVID- 19, AIDS etc.

Extensity. It is the area that sensation covers. It depends on area or volume, distance. A small
volume gives less than large one. Shaking hand gives more sensation than just touch. Strong
smell can be felt if odor emitging object is closer. Sound of aeroplane

Types of sensation or sensory experiences: Sensations are broadly divided into three types:

1) Exteroceptors: The sensing organs are located at the outside parts of the body and
excited by the external environment. It is concerned with light, sound, smell, touch,
and taste sensation.
 2) Proprioceptors: The sensing function is located at and around muscle and joints. It
concerned woth movement of the muscle and balance.
3) Interoceptors: The sensing function is located inside the body and excited by the
internal stimulu. Hunger, thrust, sex sensation depends on internal secretion of
chemicals.

The sense organs and their receptors:

S.N. Specific sensations Receptors
1. Visual Eyes
2. Auditory Ears
3. Gustatory Tongue
4. Olfactory Nose
5. Coetaneous Temperature (e.g., cold,
warm, touch, pain)
6. Muscular or kinesthetic Muscle
7. Organic or visceral Internal organs
Table 3.2 sensory organs and their receptors

Olfactory sense

The smell receptors are called olfactory receptors. They are located in the top of
nasal cavity of the nose. The nasal cavity has olfactory epithelium which contains
sensory receptor cells. Each receptor cell has fine sensory hair or cilia which are
projected out through epithelium. Human beings have about 50 millions of
olfactory receptors and can detect about 10,000 scents.

The odour of emitted by particular object is in the form chemicals is mixed with
air. When the air is inhaled, these chemicals are first dissolve in mucus then
strikes on the sensory hair of olfactory receptor cell. This causes the stimulation
of receptor cells as result impulse are generated. These impulses are now carried
to the olfactory area of brain thus we perceive the smell. The receptor cells
receive more than one odour at a time but in such condition the object which is
near and having strong odour detect first and others later on.

Sense of taste
The sense of taste is called lingual sensation or gustation. Lingual receptors are
located in tongue and throat and are called taste buds. The taste buds are located
on upper surface of tongue. There are generally three types taste buds- Filiform ,
fungiform and vallate. The taste buds are located on the tip, sides and back of the
tongue. Human possess about 10,000 taste buds which help to detect different
types of taste in food. The taste receptor cells have hair like microvilli on their
free border. These hair come out through tiny pores in the epithelium.

Receptor cells are stimulated by chemical substances in solution that enter

thorough taste pores. The impulse are generated which are transmitted to the
taste area of brain and thus taste is perceived. There are four primary types of
taste- sweet , sour , salt and bitter. The other types of tastes are experienced by
the combination of these four principal taste. Only a few recognized
submodalities exist within the sense of taste, or gustation. Until recently, only
four tastes were recognized: sweet, salty, sour, and bitter. The fifth taste, umami,
was recognized during the mid-1980s. Umami is a Japanese word that means
“delicious taste,” and is often translated to mean savoury.

Cutaneous sense

The sense of skin is called cutaneous sensation. The sense of touch, pain, pressure
and temperature are the sense of skin. The receptor cells are located in the
different part of skin. The receptors receive the stimuli and transfer to spinal cord
which carry message to brain.

The skin receptors are categorised into four category.

1. Free nerve endings- These are widely distributed below the skin. They receive
all three types of stimuli.

2. Basket cells- They are situated below the base of hair where they wrap the
bases of hair. They detect the sense of touch and pressure.

3. tactile disc- They surround the tactile sense organ of skin. They detect touch
and temperature.
4. Specialized end bulbs- These are distributed all over the skin of body. They play
role in sexual pleasure.

Sense of pain

The pain receptors are called nocioreceptors. Among the skin sensations pain is
widely studied sensation.The pain is caused by hot or cold, toxic chemicals,
cuttings, fractures etc. When the nocioreceptor receive the stimuli, the impulses
are generated and are conveyed to spinal cord. In the spinal cord substance p is
released. The substance p causes the neurons in the spinal cord to send messages
about pain to brain.

Sense of temperature.

To detect warmth or cold is the sense of temperature. The temperature receptor

cells are called thermo receptors. Sensation of temperature is conveyed through
free nerve ending. It depends upon the temperature of skin surface and the
temperature of blood. There is a difference of 50c between blood and skin
surface. If we touch less or higher than this range, we feel the sensation of
warmth or cold. Cold and warmth spots are scattered throughout the skin. Warm
spot detect the warmth and cold spot detect the cold. However, in extreme hot
sensation both hot and cold receptors are active and send the message to the
brain giving the sensation hot hotness.

Sense of touch

The Sense of touch or pressure is common experience.The receptors help to

develop the feeling of external stimuli on the body. The touch and pressure
receptor cells are called mechano receptors.The sense of touch is perceived by
free nerve endings as well as basket nerve endings. The most sensitive regions of
touch sensation are finger tips, the lips, genital organs of male and female, breast
of female etc. The receptor cells are distributed in the inner lining of alimentary
canal, muscles etc. The changing of pressure according to the altitudes is also
determined by these receptor cells.

Photo receptor organ

The eyes are specialized organs that detect light and transmit the signals to visual
processing areas of the brain. The eyeball of an adult is spherical ball like having
diameter of 2.5 cm and weighs 6-8 gm. The eyeballs are protected by accessory
organs like eyelids, eyelashes and eye muscles. The eye ball is formed of three
coats: outer , middle and inner. Outer coat is superficial layer of the eye ball and
consists of the anterior cornea and posterior sclera. The cornea is a transparent
front part. It refract the ray of light into lens. The sclera gives shape to the eyeball,
and protects its inner parts.

The middle layer of eyeball and is composed of three parts; choroid, ciliary body
and iris

choroid highly vascularized part. It prevent the internal reflection.

Cilliary body gives out suspensory ligaments that attach to the crystalline lens.

The iris is colored portion of eyeball and is suspended between the cornea and
the lens. At the centre of iris thee is pupil. The principal function of iris is to
regulate the amount of light entering the eyeball through pupil.

The retina, contains rods and cones. The rods and cones detect the intensity and
the frequency of incoming. An adult eye is typically equipped with up to 10-20
million rods. They function in dim light. They contain a pigment called rhdopsin
formed of vitamin A. There are 7 million cones in retina. Formed of idopsin. It
functions in bright light.

Lens

It is Convex, transparent and flexible. It is hold by suspensory ligament. It focus

the ray of light into retina. Eye has cavity insisde. Cavity between lens and cornea
Is called aqueous chamber and between lens and retina is vitreuos chamber.
They are filled with fluid called humur

Light rays coming from objects are refracted by cornea into lens.Lens focus the
ray of light into retina. In the retina image of the object is formed which is highly
diminished and inverted.Impulse of image is carried by optic nerve to the brain.
Brain read it as erect and same sized.

Defect of vision

Myopia (short sightedness ) . The person can focus near object but can not see
far object. (Concave lens (-))

Hypermetropia (long sightedness ). The person can focus far object but can not
see near object. Convex lens (+)

Cataract. It is the opacity in the lens of the eyes. increased loss of transparency

Nyctalopia (night blindness ). It is the first sign of vitamin A deficiency (

rhodopsin)

Ear

The ears are paired sensory organs. It Involved in the detection of sound and the
vestibular system involved with maintaining body balance. The ear divides
anatomically and functionally into three regions. The outer ear, the middle ear
and the inner ear.

External ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and external auditory canal. The
pinna serves to collect and direct the sound waves to external auditory canal . The
canal contains the glands that secrete cerumen or earwax. The middle ear is
separated from the external ear by the ear drum. (tympanic membrane)

Middle ear

The middle ear is an air filled cavity (tympanic cavity). It contains three ossicles
called malleus, incus and stape. The middle ear connects to the throat via the
eustachian tube. Eustachian tube functions to equalize air pressure on both sides
of the ear drum. The middle transmit sound waves to internal ear.

Inner ear

The entire structure of the inner ear is referred to as the labyrinth. internal ear
cosists of three areas; the vestibule, semicircular canals and cochlea. The
vestibule is central portion of bony laybrinth and encloses two connected sacs
called utricle and saccule. Both parts have sensory spot ( macula). Both are
sensitive to gravity and linear movement of head and maintain static equilibrium.

The vestibule on upper surface contains three bony semicircular canals that are
nearly right angle to each other. Each duct on one side swells to form an ampulla
which has a sensory spot called as crista. The lower surface of vestibule gives
snail shaped cochlea which is about 20-30 mm long. Cochlear duct has three
longitudinal channels named as scala vestibuli, scala media and scala tympani.
The upper chamber is called scala vestibuli and is filled with perilymph. The lower
chamber is called scala tympani and is also filled with perilymph. Middle ear open
ito internal ear through oval window and round window. Between scala vestibuli
and scala tympani is scala media which is filled with endolymph. The roof and
floor of scala media are respectively called Reissner's membrane and Basilar
membrane. Basilar membrane bears a hearing apparatus called Organ of Corti,

Mechanism of hearing

Sound waves coming from any sources are collected by ear pinna and then
directed toward the auditory and finally strike on ear drum. Ear drum become
vibrated. The vibration are now transmitted by ear ossicles to the scala vestibule
through oval window. The waves are formed in perilymph of sacal vestibuli which
are passes toward the perilymph of scala tympani. The waves finally enters the
endolymph of scala media. The waves strikes on sensory hair of organ of corti and
impulse are formed.These impulses are transmitted to the by nerve and thus we
hear the sound.